RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Boni Avenue, Mandaluyong City

College of Arts and Sciences
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 3:
SENSING THE ENVIRONMENT

• Terrestrial Animal – Komodo dragon (Varanus

komodoensis)
• Aquatic Animal – Hydra (Coelenterata spp.)
• Avian Animal – Peafowls (Pavo cristatus)

Dela Cruz, Jao Austin

CAS – 02 – 601P
February 14, 2022
Terrestrial Animal
Basic Description: The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) is a member of the
monitor lizard family (Varanidae). Varanidae is the largest and heaviest lizards in the
world, weighing up to 165 kg and reaching lengths of more than three meters. They are
ectotherms or cold-blooded animal, which means that their body temperature regulation
depends on external sources, such as sunlight or a heated rock surface. Juveniles are
bright and speckled green with yellow and black bands. Adults have finely spotted skin
with orange and yellow, and it has a dull, uniform color that ranges from brown to grayish
red. They have long, flat heads with rounded snouts, long forked tongues, scaly and hard
skin, bowed legs, sharp serrated teeth, and huge, muscular tails. These lizards have a
venomous bite, and their group behavior in hunting is exceptional in the reptile world.

Habitat/Ecology: Komodo dragons occur on Komodo Island and a few neighboring

islands of the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia. They are primarily found in the island’s
tropical savannah forests (average of 35°C). The islands are volcanic with steep slopes
and little water (except for the once-a-year short-lasting monsoon). They favor open
lowlands areas with tall grasses and bushes, but they can also be found on beaches,
hilltops, dry riverbeds, arid and mountainous regions.
Sensing the Environment:
Smell: The key food detector for the Komodo dragon is its sense of smell. The Komodo
dragons’ nostrils are not very good for smelling and it only has a few taste buds at the
back of its throat. Thus, it uses its long, yellow, forked tongue to sample the air. It then
moves the forked tip of its tongue to the roof of its mouth, where it makes contact with the
Jacobson's organs. These chemical analyzers "smell" prey, such as a deer, by
recognizing airborne molecules. If the concentration of molecules present on the left tip
of the tongue is greater than that sample from the right, the Komodo dragon knows that
the deer is approaching from the left. This system, along with an undulatory walk, in which
the head swings from side to side, helps the dragon sense the existence and direction of
food. At times, these reptiles can smell carrion, or rotting flesh, up to 2.5 miles (4
kilometers) away.
Touch (Thermoreception): The scales of Komodo dragons, some of which are bone-
reinforced, feature sensory plaques that connect to nerves, making it easier for them to
feel things. There may be three or more sensory plaques in the scales around the ears,
lips, chin, and foot soles. The skins of Komodo dragons are adapted to tropical
environment. Cold blooded animal such as Komodo dragons maintain safe body
temperatures by moving into locations of favorable temperature. This behavior is largely
influenced by thermoreceptors in their skin. They are able to maintained their temperature
as Komodo dragons have a photosensor on their head, the pineal gland or the pineal eye,
that senses ultraviolet light, and they use it for thermoregulation to go in and out of light.
It lets them know if they are warm enough. The body temperature of Komodo dragon
changes in direct relation to fluctuations in the temperature of the environment. Removing
the pineal eye affects their capacity to regulate their body temperature, a process called
thermoregulation. In reptiles, the pineal eye acts as a calendar. It can see days getting
longer and nights getting shorter, and the reverse, and so tells the brain how seasons are
changing. If they are cold they bask in the sun, whereas if they are warm they go into the
shade to cool their bodies down.
Sight: In the daytime, Komodo dragons can see mostly color, not defined shapes. They
can see up to 985 feet (300 meters), but they have a difficult time identifying objects that
are not moving, so vision does play a role in hunting, especially as their eyes are better
at picking up movement than at discerning stationary objects; thus, they are active during
the day. The Komodo Dragon is able to see in color and, because its retinas contain only
cones (eye-cells that see only color), it probably has poor night vision, like humans.
Taste: Komodo dragons use their sharp, serrated teeth to shred their prey to death, which
resemble those of a shark. According to National Geographic, if the prey escapes, it will
die of blood poisoning within 24 hours since the Komodo's saliva includes 50 bacterium
strains such E. coli, Staphylococcus sp., Providencia sp., Proteus morgani and P.
mirabilis and Pasteurella multocida. The virulence of these bacteria is lethal and often
result to sepsis in their prey animas. The Komodo will find the dead animal and finish its
meal, thanks to its incredible sense of smell. Their saliva is frequently tinged with blood,
because their teeth are almost completely covered by gingival tissue that is naturally
lacerated during feeding.
Hearing: The Komodo dragon does not have a very good sense of hearing. They have
ears that are visible to the human eye, but they can only hear sounds that are somewhere
between 400 and 2000 hertz. Because of this, their sense of hearing is not important to
their hunting behavior.
AQUATIC ANIMAL
Basic Description: The Hydra (Coelenterata spp.) are a genus of small, polyp-like,
freshwater organisms that are classified under the phylum Cnidaria. They are ectotherms
or cold-blooded organism; they also depend on the external environment to maintain body
temperature. Hydra has a cylindrical, radially symmetric body that ranges in length from
2 to 20 mm. When fully extended, it is visible to the naked eye. While some other species
have been identified, two of the most distinctive species include hydra oligactis, which is
brown in color, and hydra viridissima, which is green in color. The tentacles that form a
ring around the mouth/anus are covered with stinging cells called nematocysts. These
stinging cells can inject toxins upon contact, and are often used for prey capture, defense,
and sometimes locomotion. In addition, hydra has remarkable regenerative ability, and
they do not appear to die of old age, or to age at all.

Habitat/Ecology: Hydras can be found in a variety of freshwater environments, such as

ponds, spring brooks, littoral zone of lakes, ditches, and shallow, slow moving rivers and
unpolluted streams. They are native in temperate and tropical environments. Hydra, like
a water plant, ties itself to a substrate (such as stones, twigs, or vegetation) with its foot.
Sensing the Environment: Hydra does not have sensory organs or sensory nerves.
Their nervous system is only composed of a nerve net spreading throughout their body,
instead of a brain. It contains a few hundred to a few thousand neurons, depending on
the size of the hydra.

Taste: There is a study by Appleton, J. (2015), the study hypothesized that through
specialized sensory receptors, the hydra has the same feeding response as vertebrate
animals. Cnidarians use stinging cells called cnidocytes to sting other animals, execute a
wide range of tasks, such as moving around, capturing prey, and inducing of feeding
responses, and defense. Their discharge is highly regulated by mechanical and chemical
signals that are mediated by a complex system including the opsin and taste pathways.
The cnidocyte, which functions as a specialized secretory cell as well as a sensory cell
with extensive communication with the neurological system, is in charge of the cnidae
discharge. After an attack, the prey's body fluids include compounds that match the
predator's receptors to attract or repel them, as well as provoke feeling reflexes. The
cnidae can be released for a variety of causes, including chemosensitization and
vibrational frequencies, as well as responding to mechanical stimulation. The cnidocyte
supporting cell complex, which includes both the cnidocyte and the surrounding cells, is
required for the discharge, which is a multi-cellular event. This episode is primarily driven
by the capsule's high-pressure system, which demonstrates the mechanisms that operate
as a sensory neuron. The tertiary structure of the inactive protein on the cell surface
changes when the tentacles are stimulated, activating the protein and eliciting a
depolarizing action when the excess calcium ions stored in the capsule are released
through the opening of the ion channels. The influx of water caused by the concentration
gradient drives the cnidae onto the prey. The opsin pathway, which is thought to be
analogous to the systems organized in vertebrates, regulates cnidocyte discharge
through a complicated sensory control system. The amino acid cues, notably Glycine and
Proline, were found to be capable of triggering a cnidocyte response in this study's
behavioral trials. The feeding response elicited by this discharge is similar to that of
invertebrates' taste one receptor responses to umami, indicating that the feeding
responses in vertebrate systems are similar to those of invertebrates. Overall, the data
reveals that amino acids in hydra elicit the same feeding response in vertebrate systems
and, in addition to other data, the existing understanding of the evolution of Taste 1
Receptors pathways predates the current understanding by around 400 million years.
Taste 1 Receptors could have been the most ancient sensory receptor, present in the last
common ancestor of animals and may have been present in the diversification of most
species if not lost, according to this dating method.

Sight: In the absence of eyes, the fresh water polyp, Hydra, nevertheless reacts to light.
They are diurnal, hunting during the day, and are known to move, looping end over end,
or contract, in response to light.
Todd Oakley, professor in UCSB's Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology,
co-authored the paper about the genetic behavior of hydra. The research revealed that a
freshwater polyp revealed that light, or the lack thereof, has a direct effect on hydras'
propensity to fire their stinging cells. They found that hydra can sense light and may help
let the animal know when to eat – despite being blind, hydra need light to hunt and they
do more of this in the morning. A dark-habituated Hydra that is exposed to light will
respond by elongating its body towards it, bending its hypostome-tentacle junction to
produce a motion reminiscent of nodding, and eventually moving towards the light source
by somersaulting.

Hydra stinging cells were already known to be touch sensitive and taste sensitive, but no
one had ever thought before to look for light sensitivity –– probably because they don't
have eyes," Oakley said. "We're the first to have found that. And we found not only that
light-sensitivity genes are expressed near hydra stinging cells, but that under different
light conditions, these cells have different propensities to be fired."

Studying the hydra in both bright and dim conditions, the researchers discovered that
bright light actually inhibits the firing of the stinging cells –– possibly because their prey
are more active at dusk and after sunset, said Oakley. He suggested that light could be
acting as "a daily, rhythmic cue" that tells hydra when, and when not, to sting.

The research found that the light-sensitive protein opsin in sensory cells regulates the
firing of the hydra's harpoon-like cnidocytes. These same cells are found in the
mechanism which hydra use to grasp prey, and to summersault through the water.

The linking of opsin to the stinging cells helps explain how hydra can respond to light
despite the absence of eyes, the scientists said, because the sensory neurons also
contain the ion channels and additional proteins required for phototransduction –– the
process by which light is converted to electric signals. Phototransduction in humans
occurs in the retina.

Touch: Hydras are sensitive when a contact to its prey occurred, electrical signals from
their nerve net immediately transmit signals for their tentacles to sting their prey so that it
will be paralyzed. In addition, when the hydra’s body senses a predator, it contracts its
body into a ball to hide from predators. Longitudinal contraction of the ectoderm occurs,
which reduces the animal down to a tight ball, is associated with a type of extracellular
electrical signals named longitudinal contraction bursts (CB).
Avian Animal
Basic Description: The Peafowls (Pavo Cristatus) is a large-sized, colorful bird
belonging to the pheasant family. Male peafowl are referred to as peacocks, and female
peafowl are referred to as peahens, even though peafowl of either sex are often referred
to colloquially as "peacocks". One of the largest flying birds is the male peacock. Their
entire length can be around 8 feet, with the body being approximately 3 feet long and the
tail being around 5 feet long (train). Peacocks weigh between 9 and 13 pounds. Females
aren't as colorful as males, and their tails are much shorter. Peafowl are divided into three
types: Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus or blue peacock), Asian Green Peofowl (Pavo
muticus or green peacock), and Congo Peafowl (Afropavo congensis), native to parts of
Africa. Their tail feathers, known as coverts, form a long distinctive train that spans more
than and have vibrant "eye" markings in blue, gold, red, and other colors. The enormous
train is employed in wooing displays and mating rituals. It can be stretched into a beautiful
fan that spans the bird's back and touches the ground on both sides. Females are said to
select their partners based on the size, color, and quality of these extravagant feather
trains.
Habitat/Ecology: Indian blue peafowl are mostly found in temperate deciduous, open
rainforest habitats. Green peafowl preferred also preferred dry deciduous forest over
mixed and evergreen forest. Areas that had sufficient water sources and were relatively
distant from any human presence were also preferred if given the choice. Their basic
requirements include a suitable roost tree, a small territory, and sufficient food. In their
native range, peafowl are only found from 900 to 1200 m above sea level in areas with
appropriate forest habitat to support them. Peafowl are able to adapt to much colder
climates than their native range. In captivity, they can survive winters in southern Britain
with only a simple shelter. However, in areas that are both damp and cold, peafowl do not
fare as well. They are often kept in urban gardens and zoos.
Sensing the Environment: Sensory organs play a key role in the day-to-day functioning
of an animal. The sensory organs detect and respond to different stimuli in the peafowl’s
environment. Sensors that respond to stimuli and transmit that information to the brain
are carried by nerve endings, also known as receptors. Nerve cells deliver messages
concerning specific jobs such as smell, sound, sight, or touch via very small electrical
currents.
Sight: The eye and the optic lobes of fowls are very large when compared with those of
other species in relation to total brain size. This indicates that sight plays a major role in
the normal behavior of fowls. The large optic lobes of a fowl process the complex signals
sent from the eye. Fowls can certainly resolve colors much better than humans or other
animals, even seeing into the ultraviolet part of the spectrum that we humans cannot see
at all. Humans have three cones (photoreceptors) in their eyes that allow them to see red,
blue and green light, fowls have two additional cones. One allows them to see UV light
and the other gives them a heightened sense of movement. Therefore, fowls have a
higher threshold of light intensity at which they see than do some other birds and
mammals, which makes them active during the day (diurnal) rather than at night
(nocturnal). In addition, the peafowl's eyes are on the side of their head, allowing them to
see around 300 degrees to have panoramic vision (panoramic vision). They have two
distinct visual abilities: binocular vision, which allows them to perceive an object with
enhanced depth perception using both eyes, or monocular vision, which allows them to
see separate objects on either side of their head (e.g. watching out for predators).
Hearing: For their sense of hearing, most birds, including fowls, hear well. Peafowls have
ears on both sides of their heads, and unlike humans, these birds do not have external
flaps on their ears. Instead, the opening of the ear is covered by a special tuft of feathers
to protect the ears from being damaged. Also, the three middle ear bones in mammals
have been replaced by a single structure of bone and cartilage. Therefore, fowls can hear
by sound waves that enter the outer ear canal and apply pressure on the tympanic
membrane. Nerve endings receive and transmit them via the auditory nerve to the brain
where it is recognized as sound. They have a good sense of hearing and are able to
perceive sounds more quickly than we are, which is a necessity for prey animals. They
are adept at pinpointing the source of a sound by assessing the lag time between the
sound’s arrival at either side of the head.
Touch: For sense of touch, sensory nerves are located throughout the beak and help
fowls negotiate fine movements when feeding, preening, building nests, incubation of
eggs, and in social interaction. Their beak is critical for functions of touch and contain
sensory nerves. Removing their beak is like losing one of human’s fingertips.
Thermoreception: In the brood patch of fowls, there is direct physiological and behavioral
evidence for thermoreceptors. These thermoreceptors are crucial for regulating blood flow
in the brood patch and modulating incubation behavior. Fowls, for example, stay on the
eggs for an appropriate length of time in response to the temperature of the eggs, and
they can maintain the temperature of their brood patch by regulating blood flow, keeping
this region warm and optimizing the development of the embryos in the incubating eggs
by regulating blood flow. When the nerves to the brood patch are cut, fowls have impaired
or absent incubation behavior; this shows that thermoreceptors play an important role in
incubation.
Taste: The fowl's taste buds are positioned on the floor of the mouth and at the base of
the tongue. They contain the glossopharyngeal nerve's nerve ends. The taste buds detect
small amounts of taste chemicals, and this information is relayed to the brain's appropriate
receptors. The taste of materials in the dry state is weaker than when they are in the liquid
form, and they are more likely to reject something based on taste when it is in water than
when it is in their food. An important feature is the sensitivity of the fowl to the temperature
of its drinking water. They are likely to reject water with a temperature above
approximately 33-degree Celsius and in any case, the provision of cool water in hot
weather is an important strategy to help reduce the effects of heat stress. They will drink
water that has a very low temperature even just above freezing point.
Smell: Fowls don't have a nose, but they do have olfactory receptors in their upper jaw
that allow them to respond to certain scents, which can help them make dietary choices.
In terms of food choice and location, it's thought that smell isn't as important as the other
senses. The loss of a fowl’s ability to smell well does not appear to have an impact on its
food choices or other behaviors.
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