What is Federalism?

Federalism is compound mode of two governments. That is, in one

system there will be a mixture of two governments – state
government with central government. In India, we can describe
federalism as a distribution of authority around local, national, and
state governments. This is similar to Canadian model of political
organization.

Federalism is at its core a system where the dual machinery of

government functions. Generally, under federalism, there are two
levels of government. One is a central authority which looks after
the major affairs of the country. The other is more of a local
government which looks after the day to day functioning and
activities of their particular region.

For example, our Indian Constitution says that India too is a federal
country. As you know we have two levels of parliament, the at
center the Union government and at State level, we have the
individual State governments.
Features of Federalism
The best way to comprehensively understand the federal system is
to learn about its features. These characteristics combined to
reflect the true essence of federalism. Let us study them.

The essential feature, which is the definition of federalism is that

there are two levels of governance in the country at least. There
can even be more. But the entire power is not concentrated with
one government.
All levels of governance will govern the same citizens, but their
jurisdiction will be different. This means that each level of
government will have a specific power to form laws, legislate and
execute these laws. Both of the governments will have clearly
marked jurisdiction. It will not be that one of the government is just
a figurehead government.
Another important feature is that the constitution must guarantee
this federal system of government. Which means the powers and
duties of both or all governments must be listed down in the
constitution of that country hence guaranteeing a federal system of
governance.
As stated above the federalism of a country must be prescribed by
the constitution. But it is also important that just one level of
government cannot make unilateral changes or amendments to the
important and essential provisions of the constitution. Such
changes must be approved by all the levels of the government to be
carried through.
Now there are two levels of government with separate jurisdictions
and separate duties. Yet there is still a possibility that a conflict
may arise between the two. Well in a federal state, it will fall upon
the courts or rather the judiciary to resolve this conflict. The courts
must have the power to interfere in such a situation and reach a
resolution.
While there is power sharing between the two levels of
government, there should also be a system in place for revenue
sharing. Both levels of government should have their own
autonomous revenue streams. Because if one such government
depends on the other for funds to carry out its functions, it really is
not autonomous in its true nature.
India – A Federal State
India is a federal country. But not once in the constitution is the
word “federation” ever mentioned. Instead what is said is that
India is a “Union of States’.Actually many historians believe that
India is a quasi-federal country. It means it is a federal state with
some features of a unitary government. Let us see the reasons.

The constitution of India has essentially prescribed a federal state

of government. As you already know we have several levels of
government, The Government at the center, which id the Lok Sabha
and the Rajya Sabha. Then the various state governments, the
Vidhan Sabhas, and the Vidhan Parishad. And finally, we have the
Municipal Corporations and the Panchayats, which are forms of
local governance.

Our constitution makes a clear demarcation about legislative

powers and jurisdictions. It is done through the three lists.

Union List: This includes subjects that carry national importance,

like defense, finance, railways, banking etc. So such subjects only
the Central Government is allowed to make laws.
State List: Includes all matters important to the functioning of a
particular trade like transport, Trade, Commerce, agriculture etc.
The state government is the deciding authority for framing laws on
these subjects
Concurrent List: This list includes topics on which both the Union
and the state government can make laws. These are related to
education, forests, trade unions etc. One point to be noted is if the
two governments are in conflict with these laws, the decision of the
Union Government will prevail, It is the final authority,
 Central Government

central government is the government that is a controlling power over a unitary state. Another
type of distinct but sovereign political entity is a federal government, which may have distinct
powers at various levels of government, authorised or delegated to it by the federation and
mutually agreed upon by each of the federated states. Though inappropriate, the adjective
"central" is also sometimes used to describe the government of a federation.[1]

The structure of central governments vary. Many countries have created autonomous regions by
delegating powers from the central government to governments on sub-national level, such as
regional, state, provincial, local and other instances. Based on a broad definition of a basic political
system, there are two or more levels of government that exist within an established territory and
government through common institutions with overlapping or shared powers as prescribed by a
constitution or other law.

Common responsibilities of this level of government which are not granted to lower levels are
maintaining national security and exercising international diplomacy, including the right to sign
binding treaties. Essentially, the central government has the power to make laws for the whole
country, in contrast with local governments.

The difference between a central government and a federal government is that the autonomous
status of self-governing regions exists by the sufferance of the central government and are often
created through a process of devolution. As such they may be unilaterally revoked with a simple
change in the law. An example of this was done in 1973 when the Northern Ireland Constitution
Act 1973 abolished the government of Northern Ireland which had been created under the
Government of Ireland Act 1920. It is common for a federal government to be brought into being
by agreement between a number of formally independent states and therefore its powers to
affect the status of the balance of powers is significantly smaller (i.e. the United States). Thus
federal governments are often established voluntarily from 'below' whereas devolution grants
self-government from above.

There are many important functions among one of them is to oversee finance, defense,
commerce, foreign affairs. - Central government also performs the role of leadership, maintains
order, provides public services, national security, economic security, etc.

[ Central government works under three different sections and they have various powers.

- First section is the Executive which includes the president, the vice president, and the cabinet
ministers.

- Second section is a legislature that includes parliament, Lok Sabha, and Rajya Sabha.

- Third section is the judiciary which includes the supreme court of India, high courts of India,
district courts, and sessions courts at the district level.
- There are many important functions among one of them is to oversee finance, defense,
commerce, foreign affairs.

- Central government also performs the role of leadership, maintains order, provides public
services, national security, economic security, etc.

- Central government provides grants in aid to states, universities, and some educational
institutions.

- It also gives special grants to some backward states to equalize them with other states.

Note:

I) As of the records of 2019 India is currently the largest democracy in the world with around 900
million voters.

II) The Union government has the power to levy an income tax, sales tax, service tax, customs, and
excise duties.

III) The finance minister of India usually presents the union budget in the parliament.

IV) Indian government exercises its executive authority through various ministries. A ministry is
formed with employed officials who are also known as civil servants.

__________________________________________________________________________________
 State Government

The organisation of the state government includes the governor, the state legislature and the
council of ministers. In the state legislature, there are two houses, the legislative council (Vidhan
Parishad) and the legislative assembly (Vidhan Sabha).

State Government Powers:

Establish local governments.

Issue licenses for marriage, driving, hunting, etc...

Regulate commerce within the state.

Conduct elections.

Ratify amendments.

Support the public health of the citizens.

Set laws for legal drinking and smoking ages.

Create state Constitution. All State governments are modeled after the Federal Government and
consist of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The U.S. Constitution mandates that
all States uphold a “republican form” of government, although the three-branch structure is not
required.

The legislative ties between the centre and state are governed by Articles 245 to 255 of Part XI of
the Constitution. It sets out a double division between the Union and the states with legislative
powers i.e, in territorial recognition and relation to the
 Relationship Between Centre – State

Central State Relation - Legislative, Administrative

and Financial

(i) The residuary powers under the Indian

Constitution are assigned to the Union and not to the
States. However, it may be noted that the Canadian
Constitution does the same mode of distrib-uting the
powers cannot be considered as eroding the federal
nature of the Constitution.

(ii) Though there is a division of powers between the

Union and the States, the Indian Constitution
provides the Union with power to exercise control
over the legislation as well as the administration of
the States. Legislation by a State can be disallowed by
the President, when reserved by the Governor for his
consideration.
The Governor is appointed by the President of the
Union and holds office “during his pleasure”. Again
these ideas are found in the Canadian Constitution
though not in the Constitution of the U.S.A.

(iii) The Constitution of India lays down the

Constitution of the Union as well as the States, and no
State, except Jammu and Kashmir, has a right to
determine its own (State) Constitution.

(iv) When considering the amendment of the

Constitution we find that except in a few specific
matters affecting the federal structure, the States
need not even be consulted in the matter of
amendment of the Constitution. The bulk of the
Constitution can be amended by a Bill in the Union
Parliament being passed by a special majority.

(v) In the case of the Indian Constitution, while the

Union is indestructible, the States are not. It is
possible for the Union Parliament to reorganise the
States or to alter their boundaries by a simple
majority in the ordinary process of legislation.

The ‘consent’ of the State Legislature concerned is not

required; the President has only to ‘ascertain’ the
views of the Legislatures of the affected States. The
ease with which the federal organisation may be
reshaped by an ordinary legislation by the Union
Parliament has been demonstrated by the enactment
of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956. A large
number of new States have, since, been formed.

(iv) Under the Indian Constitution, there is no equality

of representation of the States in the Council of States.
Hence, the federal safeguard against the interests of
the lesser States being overridden by the interests of
the larger or more populated States is absent under
our Constitution. Its federal nature is further affected
by having a nominated element of twelve members
against 238 repre-sentatives of the States and Union
Territories.

Centre State Relations

The Constitution of India provides a dual polity with a
clear division of powers between the Union and the
States, each being supreme within the sphere allotted
to it. The Indian federation is not the result of an
agreement between independent units, and the units
of Indian federation cannot leave the federation.

Thus the constitution contains elaborate provisions to

regulate the various dimensions of the relations
between the centre and the states.

The relations between centre and state are divides as:

1. Legislative relations
2. Administrative relations
3. Financial relations

1. Centre State Legislative Relations

Articles 245 to 255 in Part XI of the Constitution deal
with the legislative relations between the Centre and
the State.
Extent of laws made by Parliament and by the
Legislatures of States

The Parliament can make laws for the whole or any

part of the territory of India. Territory of India
includes the states, UTs and any other area for the
time being included in the territory of India. Whereas,
the state legislature can make laws for whole or any
part of state.

The Parliament can alone make ‘extra territorial

legislation’ thus the laws of the Parliament are
applicable to the Indian citizens and their property in
any part of the world.

Subject-matter of laws made by Parliament and by

the Legislation of States

The Constitution divides legislative authority between

the Union and the States in three lists- the Union List,
the State List and the Concurrent List. The Union list
consists of 99 items. The Union Parliament has
exclusive authority to frame laws on subjects
enumerated in the list. These include foreign affairs,
defence, armed forces, communications, posts and
telegraph, foreign trade etc.

The State list consists of 61 subjects on which

ordinarily the States alone can make laws. These
include public order, police, administration of justice,
prison, local governments, agriculture etc.

The Concurrent list comprises of 52 items including

criminal and civil procedure, marriage and divorce,
economic and special planning trade unions,
electricity, newspapers, books, education, population
control and family planning etc. Both the Parliament
and the State legislatures can make laws on subjects
given in the Concurrent list, but the Centre has a prior
and supreme claim to legislate on current subjects. In
case of conflict between the law of the State and
Union law on a subject in the Concurrent list, the law
of the Parliament prevails.

Residuary powers of legislation

The constitution also vests the residuary powers
(subjects not enumerated in any of the three Lists)
with the Union Parliament. The residuary powers
have been granted to the Union contrary to the
convention in other federations of the world, where
the residuary powers are given to the States.
However, in case of any conflict, whether a particular
matter falls under the residuary power or not is to be
decided by the court.

Parliament’s Power to Legislate on State List

Though under ordinary circumstances the Central
Government does not possess power to legislate on
subjects enumerated in the State List, but under
certain special conditions the Union Parliament can
make laws even on these subjects.

a) In the National Interest (Art.249)

If the Rajya Sabha declares by a resolution supported
by not less than 2/3 of its members present and
voting, that it is necessary or expedient in the
national interest that the Parliament should make
laws with respect to any matter enumerated in the
State List (Art.249). After such a resolution is passed,
Parliament can make laws for the whole or any part
of the territory of India. Such a resolution remains in
force for a period of 1 year and can be further
extended by one year by means of a subsequent
resolution.

b) Under Proclamation of National Emergency

(Art.250)

Parliament can legislate on the subjects mentioned in

the State List when the Proclamation of National
Emergency is in operation. However, the laws made
by the Parliament under this provision shall cease to
have effect on the expiration of a period of six
months after the Proclamation has ceased to operate,
except as respects things done or omitted to be done
before the expiry of the said period.

c) By Agreement between States (Art. 252)

The Parliament can also legislate on a State subject if
the legislatures of two or more states resolve that it is
lawful of Parliament to make laws with respect to any
matter enumerated in the State List relating to those
State. Thereafter, any act passed by the Parliament
shall apply to such states and to any other state which
passes such a resolution. The Parliament also reserves
the right to amend or repeal any such act.
d) To Implement Treaties (Art. 253)
The Parliament can make law for the whole or any
part of the territory of India for implementing any
treaty, international agreement or convention with
any other country or countries or any decision made
at any international conference, association or other
body. Any law passed by the Parliament for this
purpose cannot be invalidated on the ground that it
relates to the subject mentioned in the State list.

e) Under Proclamation of President’s Rule (Art.356)

The President can also authorize the Parliament to
exercise the powers of the State legislature during the
Proclamation of President’s Rule due to breakdown of
constitutional machinery in a state. But all such laws
passed by the Parliament cease to operate six months
after the Proclamation of President’s Rule comes to
an end.

Center's control over State Legislation

The Constitution empowers the centre to exercise
control over the state’s legislature in following ways:
1. The governor can reserve certain types of bills
passed by the state legislature for the consideration
of the President. The President enjoys absolute veto
over them.
2. Bills on certain matters enumerated in the State
List can be introduced in the state legislature only
with the previous sanction of the President as
imposing restrictions on freedom of trade and
commerce.
3. The President can direct the states to reserve
money bills and other financial bills passed by the
state legislature for his consideration during a
financial emergency.

2. Centre State Administrative Relations

The administrative jurisdiction of the Union and the
State Governments extends to the subjects in the
Union list and State list respectively. The Constitution
thus defines the clauses that deal with the
administrative relations between Centre and States.

Centre State Relations During Normal Ties

1. Executive Powers of State be exercised in
compliance with Union Laws: Article 256 lays down
that the executive power of every State shall be so
exercised as to ensure compliance with the laws
made by Parliament and any existing laws which
apply in that State, and the executive power of the
Union shall extend to the giving of such directions to a
state as may appear to the Government of India to be
necessary for that purpose.

2. Executive Powers of State not to interfere with

Executive Power of Union: Article 257 of the
Constitution provides that the executive power of
every state shall be so exercised as not to impede or
prejudice the exercise of the executive power of the
Union, and the executive power of the Union shall
extend to giving of such directions to a state as may
appear to the Government of India to be necessary
for that purpose. In short, the Union Government can
issue directions to the state Government even with
regard to the subjects enumerated in the state list.

3. Maintain means of communication of National or

Military importance: The Union Government can give
directions to the state with regard to construction and
maintenance of the means of communication
declared to be of national or military importance.
4. Protection of the Railways: Union can issue State
Governments necessary directions regarding the
measures to be taken for the protection of the
railways within the jurisdiction of the State. It may be
noted that the expenses incurred by the State
Governments for the discharge of these functions
have to be reimbursed by the Union Government.

5. To ensure welfare of Scheduled Tribes in the States:

Union can direct the State Governments to ensure
execution of schemes essential for the welfare of the
Scheduled Tribes in the States.

6. To secure instruction in the mother-tongue at the

primary stage of education: Union can direct the State
Governments to secure the provision of adequate
facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the
primary stage of education to children belonging to
linguistic minority groups.

7. To ensure development of the Hindi language:

Union can direct the State Governments to ensure the
development of the Hindi language.
8. To ensure government of a State is carried on in
accordance with the provision of the Constitution:
Union can direct the State Governments to ensure
that the government of a State is carried on in
accordance with the provision of the Constitution. If
any State failed to comply with any directions given
by the Union in exercise of its executive power, then
President may hold that, a situation has arisen in
which the Government of the State cannot be carried
on in accordance with the provisions of the
Constitution. Thus he may proclaim President’s Rule
in that State.

9. Delegation of Union’s function to State: The

President of India can entrust to the officers of the
State certain functions of the Union Government.
However, before doing so the President has to take
the consent of the state Government. But the
Parliament can enact law authorizing the Central
Government to delegate its function to the State
Governments or its officers irrespective of the
consent of such State Government. On the other hand,
a State may confer administrative functions upon the
Union, with the consent of the Union only.
10. Appointment of High Dignitaries: Union has major
say in appointment and removal of Governor and
appointment of Judges of High Court and Members of
State Public Service Commission.

11. All India Services: The presence of the All India

Services - the Indian Administrative Services, Indian
police Services - further accords a predominant
position to the Union Government. The members of
these services are recruited and appointment by the
Union Public Service Commission. The members of
these services are posted on key posts in the states,
but remain loyal to the Union Government.

12. Union to adjudicate Inter-State River Water

Dispute: The Parliament has been vested with power
to adjudicate any dispute or complaint with respect to
the use, distribution or control of the waters of, or in
any inter-state river or river-valley. In this regard, the
Parliament also reserves the right to exclude such
disputes from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court or
other Courts.
Centre State Relations During Emergencies
1. Under President’s Rule: The State Governments
cannot ignore the directions of the Union
Government, otherwise the President can take the
action against the Government of the State stating
that the administration cannot be carried on the
accordance with the provisions of the Constitution
and thus can impose President's rule on the State. In
such an eventuality the President shall assume to
himself all or any of the functions of the state
Government.

2. Under Proclamation of National Emergency: During

a Proclamation of National Emergency, the power of
the Union to give directions extends to the giving of
directions as to the manner in with the executive
power of the State is to be exercised relating to any
matter.

3. Under Proclamation of Financial Emergency: During

a Proclamation of Financial Emergency, Union can
direct the State Governments to observe certain
canons of financial propriety and to reduce the
salaries and allowances of all or any class of person
serving in connection with the affairs of the Union
including the Judges of the Supreme Court and High
Courts. Union also requires all Money Bills or
Financial Bills to be reserved for the consideration of
the President after they are passed by the Legislature
of the State.

It is thus, evident that in the administrative sphere

the States cannot act in complete isolation and have
to work under the directions and in cooperation with
the Center.

3. Centre State Financial Relations:

Indian Constitution has made elaborate provisions,
relating to the distribution of the taxes as well as non-
tax revenues and the power of borrowing,
supplemented by provisions for grants-in-aid by the
Union to the States.

Article 268 to 293 deals with the provisions of

financial relations between Centre and States.

The Constitution divides the taxing powers between

the Centre and the states as follows:
The Parliament has exclusive power to levy taxes on
subjects enumerated in the Union List, the state
legislature has exclusive power to levy taxes on
subjects enumerated in the State List, both can levy
taxes on the subjects enumerated in Concurrent List
whereas residuary power of taxation lies with
Parliament only.

Distribution of the tax-revenue

1. Duties Levied by the Union but Collected and
Appropriated by the States: Stamp duties on bills of
Exchange, etc., and Excise duties on medical and toilet
preparations containing alcohol. These taxes don’t
form the part of the Consolidated Fund of India, but
are assigned to that state only.

2. Service Tax are Levied by the Centre but Collected

and Appropriated by the Centre and the States.

3. Taxes Levied as Well as Collected by the Union, but

Assigned to the States: These include taxes on the
sale and purchase of goods in the course of inter-state
trade or commerce or the taxes on the consignment
of goods in the course of inter-state trade or
commerce.

4. Taxes Levied and Collected by the Union and

Distributed between Union and the States: Certain
taxes shall be levied as well as collected by the Union,
but their proceeds shall be divided between the
Union and the States in a certain proportion, in order
to effect on equitable division of the financial
resources. This category includes all taxes referred in
Union List except the duties and taxes referred to in
Article 268, 268-A and 269; surcharge on taxes and
duties mentioned in Article 271 or any Cess levied for
specific purposes.

5. Surcharge on certain duties and taxes for purposes

of the Union: Parliament may at any time increase
any of the duties or taxes referred in those articles by
a surcharge for purposes of the Union and the whole
proceeds of any such surcharge shall form part the
Consolidated Fund of India.

Grants-in-Aid
Besides sharing of taxes between the Center and the
States, the Constitution provides for Grants-in-aid to
the States from the Central resources.

There are two types of grants:-

1. Statutory Grants: These grants are given by the
Parliament out of the Consolidated Fund of India to
such States which are in need of assistance. Different
States may be granted different sums. Specific grants
are also given to promote the welfare of scheduled
tribes in a state or to raise the level of administration
of the Scheduled areas therein (Art.275).

2. Discretionary Grants: Center provides certain

grants to the states on the recommendations of the
Planning Commission which are at the discretion of
the Union Government. These are given to help the
state financially to fulfill plan targets (Art.282).

Effects of Emergency on Center-State Financial

Relations:-
1. During National Emergency: The President by order
can direct that all provisions regarding division of
taxes between Union and States and grants-in-aids
remain suspended. However, such suspension shall
not go beyond the expiration of the financial year in
which the Proclamation ceases to operate.

2. During Financial Emergency: Union can give

directions to the States:-

1. To observe such canons of financial propriety as

specified in the direction.

2. To reduce the salaries and allowances of all people

serving in connection with the affairs of the State,
including High Courts judges.

3. To reserve for the consideration of the President all

money and financial Bills, after they are passed by the
Legislature of the State.

Finance Commission
Although the Constitution has made an effort to
allocate every possible source of revenue either to
the Union or the States, but this allocation is quite
broad based. For the purpose of allocation of certain
sources of revenue, between the Union and the State
Governments, the Constitution provides for the
establishment of a Finance Commission under Article
280. According to the Constitution, the President of
India is authorized to set up a Finance Commission
every five years to make recommendation regarding
distribution of financial resources between the Union
and the States.

Constitution
Finance Commission is to be constituted by the
President every 5 years. The Chairman must be a
person having ‘experience in public affairs’. Other
four members must be appointed from amongst the
following:-
1. A High Court Judge or one qualified to be appointed
as High Court Judge;

2. A person having knowledge of the finances and

accounts of the Government;

3. A person having work experience in financial

matters and administration;
4. A person having special knowledge of economics.

Functions
The Finance Commission recommends to the
President as to:-
1. The distribution between the Union and the States
of the net proceeds of taxes to be divided between
them and the allocation between the States of
respective shares of such proceeds;

2. The principles which should govern the grants-in-

aid of the revenue of the States out of the
Consolidated Fund of India;

3. The measures needed to augment the Consolidated

Fund of a State to supplement the resources of the
Panchayats and Municipalities in the State;

4. Any other matter referred to the Commission by

the President in the interest of sound finance
Conclusion:
In India, the Centre-States relations constitute the
core elements of the federalism. The Central
Government and State Government cooperate for the
well-being and safety of the citizens of India. The
work together in the field of environmental
protection, terror control, family control and socio-
economic planning.

The Indian constitution aim at reconciling the national

unity while giving the power to maintain state to the
State governments. It is true that the union has been
assigned larger powers than the state governments,
but this is a question of degree and not quality, since
all the essential features of a federation are present
in the Indian constitution. It is often defined to be
quasi-federal in nature. Thus, it can be safely said that
Indian Constitution is primarily federal in nature even
though it has unique features that enable it to assume
unitary features upon the time of need. Federal but
its spirit is unitary.
 Interstate Relationship

Constitutional provisions related to Inter-State relations

Adjudication of inter-state water disputes – Art. 262
Coordination through inter-state council – Art.263
Mutual recognition of public acts, records and judicial
proceedings –
Art. 261Freedom of inter-state trade,
commerce and intercourse – Art. 301
STATUTORY provision – Zonal Councils.
Art. 262 – 2 provisions
1.Parliament provide law for adjudication of inter state
river valley
2 laws
River Boards Act, 1956 – River Boards established by
Centre on states request, regulation & development
of inter state river valley.
Inter State water Disputes Act, 1956 – Central Gov. to
set up ad hoc tribunal for inter state river valley disputes,
decision final & binding on parties, NO
jurisdiction for S. Court/any other Court, 8 tribunals
2. Parliament provide NO jurisdiction for Supreme
Court/any other Court on such dispute/complaint
Art.263
President can establish, at any time, define the nature
of duties but, Article 263 itself specifies duties
Enquiring & advising inter-states disputes
[Complementary to Art.131]
Investigating & discussing issues of common interest
to Centre & states
Making recommendations & coordination
President established councils in the specific subjects
Central Council of Health
Central Council of Local Gov. & Urban Development
Regional Councils for sales tax
Note: Central Council of Indian Medicine & Homeopathy
set up under acts of Parliament

INTER-STATE COUNCIL :--

Sarkaria Commission recommended strongly
1990 V.P. Singh Gov. established
Consists of 
P.M. – CHAIR, Members: CMs – states + UTs, Administrators
– UTs,
Governors of states under President's rule, 6 cabinet
ministers including HM
nominated by PM
permanent invitees: 5 cabinet ministers/MoS (Independent
Charge)
Recommendatory body – issues of inter-state, Central-state
& Centre – UTs
relations
Duties
Investigating & discussing issues of common interest to
Centre & states
Making recommendations & coordination
Deliberating matters of general interest referred by PM
Council may meet at least thrice in a year, decision by
Consensus.
INTER-STATE COUNCIL Secretariat [ISCS]…
For continuity Secretariat ISCS, set up in 1996,
also Secretariat to Zonal Councils from 2011
Jurisdiction of each state in its own
territory, so - Art 261
Full faith & credit to public acts
[legislative & executive] , records and
judicial proceedings of the Centre & states.

Short Notes:--
"The Constitution of India in Article 263, provided that an
Inter-State Council (ISC) may be established "if at any time it
appears to the President that the public interests would be
served by the establishment of a Council". Therefore, the
constitution itself did not establish the ISC, because it was
not considered necessary at the time constitution was being
framed, but kept the option for its establishment open. This
option was exercised in 1990. Therefore, the ISC was
established as a permanent body on 28 May 1990 by a
presidential order on recommendation of Sarkaria
Commission.[1][2] Moreover, the Commission on Centre-
State Relations under the Chairmanship of Justice R. S.
Sarkaria had recommended that a permanent Inter-State
Council called the Inter-Governmental Council (IGC) should
be set up under Article 263. The ISC has been established
pursuant to this recommendation of the commission.[3] It
cannot be dissolved and re-established. Therefore, the
current status of ISC is that of a permanent statutory body.[3]
The objective of the ISC is to discuss or investigate policies,
subjects of common interest, and disputes among states
"Composition
The Inter-State Council composes of the following
members:[4]
Prime Minister, Chairman.
Chief Ministers of all states.
Chief Ministers of the union territories having legislative
assemblies.
Administrators of the union territories not having legislative
assemblies.
6 Union Cabinet Ministers, including Home Minister, to be
nominated by the Prime Minister.
Governors of the states being administered under President's
rule.
Standing Committee

Home Minister, Chairman

5 Union Cabinet Ministers
9 Chief Ministers
Aims
Decentralization of powers to the states as much as possible.
More transfer of financial resources to the states.
Arrangements for devolution in such a way that the states
can fulfil their obligations.
Advancement of loans to states should be related to as ‘the
productive principle’.
Deployment of Central Armed Police Forces in the states
either on their request or otherwise."

__________________
 Citizenship
A citizen is a participatory member of a political community. Citizenship is
gained by meeting the legal requirements of a national, state, or local
government. A nation grants certain rights and privileges to its citizens. In
return, citizens are expected to obey their country's laws and defend it against
its enemies.
Citizenship is a relationship between an individual and a state to which the
individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection.
Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as
its citizens, and the conditions under which that status will be withdrawn.
Recognition by a state as a citizen generally carries with it recognition of civil,
political, and social rights which are not afforded to non-citizens.
In general, the basic rights normally regarded as arising from citizenship are
the right to a passport, the right to leave and return to the country/ies of
citizenship, the right to live in that country and to work there.
The Indian constitution provides only single citizenship. Part 2 of the Indian
constitution deals with the subject of citizenship and it covers Articles 5 to 11.
First Citizen of India is the The President of India.
According to the Ministry of Home Affairs, there are four ways in
which Indian citizenship can be acquired: birth, descent, registration and
naturalisation. The provisions are listed under sections 3, 4, 5(1) and 5(4) of
the Citizenship Act, 1955. 1. Every person born in India on or after.26.01. The
Citizenship Act has been amended many times, most recently in 2019 when
new rules were introduced for migrants from persecuted communities. born in
India on or after 26th January 1950 but before 1st July, 1987 is citizen of India
by birth irrespective of the nationality of his parents. considered citizen of
India by birth if either of his parents is a citizen of India at the time of his birth.

Constitutional Provisions for Citizenship

The Constituent Assembly incorporated a generalized provision through Article

11 for the Parliament to regulate the citizenship by law. However, when it
adopted the Constitution it brought into force Part 2 of Constitution for
Citizenship with Articles 5-11 dealing with it which states as follows:
Article 5 states that “every person” who has a domicile in the territory of India
and:

• Who was born in the territory of India or

• Either of whose parents were born in the territory of India or

Who has been ordinarily resident in the territory of India for not less than 5
years immediately preceding such commencement shall be a citizen of India
Article 6: Rights of Citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India
from the territory now included in Pakistan shall be deemed to be a citizen of
India at the commencement of this Constitution

Article 7: Rights of Citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan is a special

provision for persons who have migrated to Pakistan after March 1, 1947, but
returned to India subsequently.

Article 8: These are the Rights of Citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin
residing outside India for the purpose of employment, education, and marriage

Article 5 states that “every person” who has a domicile in the territory of India
and:

• Who was born in the territory of India or

• Either of whose parents were born in the territory of India or

• Who has been ordinarily resident in the territory of India for not less
than 5 years immediately preceding such commencement shall be a citizen of
India

Article 6: Rights of Citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India

from the territory now included in Pakistan shall be deemed to be a citizen of
India at the commencement of this Constitution

Article 7: Rights of Citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan is a special

provision for persons who have migrated to Pakistan after March 1, 1947, but
returned to India subsequently.

Article 8: These are the Rights of Citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin
residing outside India for the purpose of employment, education, and marriage

Article 9: Persons who voluntarily acquire citizenship of a foreign state will not
be citizens of India.

Article 10: Every person who is a citizen of India under any provisions of this
part will be subject to any law enacted by the Parliament.
Citizenship Act of 1955 and its Amendments

1. Citizenship Act of 1955 deals with the acquisition and termination of

citizenship after the commencement of the Constitution. The provisions under
it include:

• A person born in India after 26th January 1950 would-be citizen of India
except those of children of diplomats and enemy aliens cannot be citizens of
India by birth

• Any person born after 26th January 1950 would-be citizen of India
subject to certain requirements, for example, either parent (mother or father)
to be a citizen of India

• Certain categories of citizens can acquire citizenship by registration in

the prescribed manner

• Foreigners could acquire Indian citizenship by naturalization on certain

conditions

• If any territory becomes part of India, the Government of India could

specify the conditions for them becoming citizens

• Citizenship could be lost by termination, renunciation, deprivation on

certain grounds

• Citizen of a Commonwealth country would have the status of a

Commonwealth citizen in India
2. The Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 1986: This act specifically deals
with the citizenship of the state of Assam. It mentions those illegal migrants to
get citizenship to need to be registered with the Indian consulate in the
prescribed format.

3. The Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 1992: According to this Act any

person born outside India is considered a citizen of India by virtue of
Citizenship by Descent if either of the parents was a citizen at the time of his
birth.

4. The Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 2003: This Act introduces several

provisions for overseas citizens regarding their registration, rights in India etc.

5. The Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 2005: This Act is based on the

recommendations of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs.
It provides for dual citizenship to PIO of 16 countries.

Modes of acquisition of Citizenship

By birth: The grant of citizenship under this clause is subject to changes

according to amendments in place at that time.
By registration: Citizenship can be acquired by registering.
By Descent: Similar to citizenship by descent this provision also was subjected
to changes from time to time
By naturalization.
By incorporation of territory.
Loss of Citizenship in India-----

The Citizenship Act of 1955 deals with the loss of citizenship also in addition to
acquisition. Accordingly, it is carried by the following means:----
 1. By renunciation: Any person who has made a declaration stating his
willingness to renounce the citizenship shall cease to be the citizen of
India.
2. By termination: If a person voluntarily or knowingly becomes a citizen of
any foreign country.
3. By deprivation.
4. Overseas Citizen of India (OCI)

5. According to the Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 2003, an overseas

citizen of India includes a person:Of Indian origin being a citizen of a
specified country

Was citizen of India immediately becoming a citizen of other

country and registered as OCI by the central government

Non-Resident Indian----

An NRI is a citizen of India who holds an Indian passport and has

temporarily immigrated to other countries either for employment or
education or any other purpose.

Citizenship ( Amendment ) Act , 2019

The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 was passed by the Parliament of India on 11
December 2019. It amended the Citizenship Act, 1955 by providing a pathway to Indian citizenship
for persecuted religious minorities from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan who are Hindus, Sikhs,
Buddhists, Jains, Parsis or Christians, and arrived in India before the end of December 2014.[3][4]
The law does not grant such eligibility to Muslims from these Muslim-majority countries.[5][6][7]
The act was the first time that religion had been overtly used as a criterion for citizenship under
Indian law and attracted global criticism.[7][a][b][c]

Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

Parliament of India

Long title

An Act further to amend the Citizenship Act, 1955.

Citation

Act No. 47 of 2019

Enacted by

Lok Sabha

Passed

10 December 2019

Enacted by

Rajya Sabha

Passed

11 December 2019

Assented to

12 December 2019

Signed

12 December 2019

Signed by

Ram Nath Kovind,

President of India

Effective

10 January 2020[1][2]

Legislative history

Bill introduced in the Lok Sabha

Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2019

Bill citation

Bill No. 370 of 2019

Bill published on

9 December 2019; 2 years ago

Introduced by

Amit Shah,

Minister of Home Affairs

First reading

9 December 2019
Second reading

10 December 2019

Third reading

11 December 2019

Amends

Citizenship Act, 1955

Status: In force

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), which leads the Indian government,[8][9] had promised in previous
election manifestos to offer Indian citizenship to members of persecuted religious minorities who
had migrated from neighbouring countries.[10][11] Under the 2019 amendment, migrants who had
entered India by 31 December 2014, and had suffered "religious persecution or fear of religious
persecution" in their country of origin, were made eligible for citizenship.[4] The amendment also
relaxed the residence requirement for naturalisation of these migrants from twelve years to six.[12]
According to Intelligence Bureau records, there will be just over 30,000 immediate beneficiaries of
the bill.[13][d]

The amendment has been criticized as discriminating on the basis of religion, particularly for
excluding Muslims.[5][6] The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
(OHCHR) called it "fundamentally discriminatory", adding that while India's "goal of protecting
persecuted groups is welcome", this should be accomplished through a non-discriminatory "robust
national asylum system".[17] Critics express concerns that the bill would be used, along with the
National Register of Citizens (NRC), to render many Muslim citizens stateless, as they may be unable
to meet stringent birth or identity proof requirements.[18][19] Commentators also question the
exclusion of persecuted religious minorities from other regions such as Tibet, Sri Lanka and
Myanmar.[18][20] The Indian government said that since Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh have
Islam as their state religion, it is therefore "unlikely" that Muslims would "face religious persecution"
there.[11][21] However, certain Muslim groups, such as Hazaras and Ahmadis, have historically
faced persecution in these countries.[22][23][24]

The passage of the legislation caused large-scale protests in India.[25] Assam and other northeastern
states witnessed violent demonstrations against the bill over fears that granting Indian citizenship to
refugees and immigrants will cause a loss of their "political rights, culture and land rights" and
motivate further migration from Bangladesh.[26][27][28] In other parts of India, protesters said that
the bill discriminated against Muslims, and demanded that Indian citizenship be granted to Muslim
refugees and immigrants as well.[29] Major protests against the Act were held at some universities
in India. Students at Aligarh Muslim University and Jamia Millia Islamia alleged brutal suppression by
the police.[30] The protests have led to the deaths of several protesters, injuries to both protesters
and police officers, damage to public and private property, the detention of hundreds of people, and
suspensions of local internet mobile phone connectivity in certain areas.[31][32] Some states
announced that they would not implement the Act. In response, the Union Home Ministry said that
states lack the legal power to stop the implementation of the CAA.
 Human Rights Commission

Human rights are a set of principles concerned with equality

and fairness. They recognise our freedom to make choices
about our lives and to develop our potential as human
beings. They are about living a life free from fear,
harassment or discrimination.
Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong
to every person in the world, from birth until death. ... These
basic rights are based on shared values like dignity, fairness,
equality, respect and independence. These values are
defined and protected by law.
Human rights are rights we have simply because we exist as
human beings - they are not granted by any state. These
universal rights are inherent to us all, regardless of
nationality, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion,
language, or any other status.
Human rights are needed to protect and preserve every
individual's humanity, to ensure that every individual can
live a life of dignity and a life that is worthy of a human
being. Question: Why "should" anyone respect them?
Fundamentally, because everyone is a human being and
therefore a moral being.
The UDHR and other documents lay out five kinds of human
rights: economic, social, cultural, civil, and political.
Economic, social, and cultural rights include the right to
work, the right to food and water, the right to housing, and
the right to education.
To safeguard the Human Rights of every individual in the
country, the National Human Rights Commission
(NHRC) was established on 12 October 1993. NHRC is an
independent statutory body constituted under the
Protection of Human Rights Act (PHRA), 1993 as amended m
by the Protection of Human Rights (Amendment) Act, 2006.
It is the watchdog of human rights in the country, i.e. the
rights related to life, liberty, equality, and dignity of the
individual guaranteed by the Indian Constitution or
embodied in the international covenants and enforceable by
courts in India. NHRC has its headquarters in New Delhi.

The Commission consists of a Chairperson, five full-time

Members and seven deemed Members. The statute lays
down qualifications for the appointment of the Chairperson
and Members of the Commission.

The functions of the Commission as stated in Section 12 of

the Act and apart from enquiry into complaints of violation
of human rights or negligence in the prevention of such
violation by a public servant, the Commission also studies
treaties and international instruments on human rights and
make recommendations for ...
The NHRC is responsible for the protection and promotion of
human rights, defined by the act as "Rights Relating To Life,
liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by
the constitution or embodied in the international covenants
and enforceable by courts in India".
 Indian Social System
Social structure is an abstract phenomenon. It denotes
external aspects of society. Each society has a pattern of
organization, which has structures that result from
association of individuals with one another. It may be a
group, institution, an association, community, or an
organization all of which are parts of social structure
through which it functions.

Features of Social Structure of Indian Society

The following are the Important features of social structure
of Indian society:

1. Complex Society
Indian society is characterized as a pluralistic society
because it possesses complex social order. It suffers from
multitude of ethnic, linguistic, religious and caste divisions.

2. Rural Society
About 70% of the Indian people live in villages. Indian
villages continue to be underdeveloped. Even rural areas
suffer from lack of infrastructural facilities. The gains of
industrialization and technological breakthrough which
once enjoyed by urban areas not yet reached the rural areas.
Only now our Government has started giving due
importance to the objective of rural development.

3. Economically Backward Country

India has made considerable progress in the fields of
agriculture and industrialization. But still it continues to be
an economically backward country. Even now it remains
64th poorest nation in the world. Major part of our
population continues to live below the poverty line.

4. Illiteracy
Illiteracy and ignorance among the people of India is
another important feature of the social system in India.
About 60% of the population continues to be illiterate in
India. Illiteracy creates many social problems. Concerted
Governmental action and strong social support are needed
in removing the rate of illiteracy.

Diversified Languages
Diversity in languages is another feature of the social
environment in India. The Constitution of India recognizes
22 languages as the major languages, which are spoken by
87% of the population. Of them Hindi is spoken by 31% of
the population. Linguistic diversity and love and affection of
people towards their regional languages have made the
Government to reorganize Indian states on the basis of
languages. Hence, language has emerged as a key factor of
social and political climate in India.

6. Racial Diversity
As already stated, people belong to different races such as
Aryan, Dravidian, and Mongolian. inhabit India. People in
the Eastern States, have affinity with Mongolian race.
Hence the racial Inter-mixing has taken place to a limited
extent in India.

Even though the principle of unity in diversity is accepted

diversities are many times allowed to dominate the
objective of unity. The Constitution provides for secularism.
But racial factor plays major role in real operation of socio-
political processes in India.

7. Caste
Caste has been the predominant feature of Indian social
system. The Constitution, has taken a great step towards
the dilution of caste and casteism. Caste and Casteism have
been playing important factor in Social, Economic, Cultural
and Political life in India. As caste system has deep historical
roots, it cannot be abolished.

8. Existence of Communalism
The existence of communalism in the society is another
feature of Indian social system. It constitutes a big danger
to the unity and integrity of the nation.

. Regionalism
People belonging to a particular region consider those who
belong to other regions as outsiders. Diversities in Caste,
religion, language and culture have contributed to forces of
regionalism. Channelizing “Regionalism” and make it to
contribute to nationalism is one of the difficult tasks before
the Indian socio-political system.

10. Tradition
In India, both tradition and modernity exist side by side.
Tradition is clearly affected by modern trends and pressures.

11. Lack of Free Movement

There is increased gap between the elites and the masses.
There is no free movement among different linguistic
groups, castes etc. This problem is clearly reflected between
high and low castes, literates and illiterates, urbanites and
ruralites etc.

Thus the social structure of Indian society is characterized by

religious, regional, linguistic, communal and caste
diversities. All these factors determine the environment of
Indian social structure, social system and political system.
All institutions are in a position to continuously adjusting
themselves to a changing society, though there still exists
many conflicts between them. The Socio-political system is
maintained stable despite these constraints.
__________________________________________________
 Social Group
In the social sciences, a social group is two or more humans
who interact with one another, share similar characteristics,
and have a collective sense of unity. ... Characteristics
shared by members of a group may include interests, values,
representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship
ties.
social group, any set of human beings who either are,
recently have been, or anticipate being in some kind of
interrelation. The term group, or social group, has been
used to designate many kinds of aggregations of humans.
On the basis of contact among the member, social groups
are divided into two types: 1) Primary and, 2) Secondary
Group.
Primary Group.
Secondary Group.
In-group.
Out-group.
Formal Group.
Informal Group.
Involuntary Group.
Voluntary Group.
in India
Societal hierarchy is evident in caste groups, amongst
individuals, and in family and kinship groups. Castes are
primarily associated with Hinduism, but caste-like groups
also exist among Muslims, Indian, Christians, and other
religious communities.
in India?
Societal hierarchy is evident in caste groups, amongst
individuals, and in family and kinship groups. Castes are
primarily associated with Hinduism, but caste-like groups
also exist among Muslims, Indian, Christians, and other
religious communities.
he group norms maintain unity and integrity in the group.
Members of a social group show similar behavior. As the
interests, ideals and values of a group are common hence its
members behave in a similar manner. This similar behavior
helps in the achievement of common goals.
From friendships to families to entire societies, humans
naturally form social groups; in fact, this tendency is
essential to what it means to be human. A social group is
any grouping of two or more interacting people who
recognize their relationship with each other as a distinct
social unit. Social groups play an important role in daily life
and help humans make meaning of the world around them.
"Characteristics of Social Groups:
Following are the important characteristics of social group:
1. Mutual Awareness:

The members of a social group must be mutually related to

one another. A more aggregate of individuals cannot
constitute a social group unless reciprocal awareness exist
among them. Mutual attachment, is therefore, regarded as
its important and distinctive feature. It forms an essential
feature of a group.

2. One or more Common Interests:

Groups are mostly formed for the fulfillment of certain
interests. The individuals who form a group should possess
one or more than one common interests and ideals. It is for
the realization of common interests that they meet together.
Groups always originates, starts and proceed with a
common interests.

3. Sense of Unity:

Each social group requires sense of unity and a feeling of

sympathy for the development of a feeling or sense of
belongingness. The members of a social group develop
common loyalty or feeling of sympathy among themselves
in all matters because of this sense of unity.
4. We-feeling:
A sense of we-feeling refers to the tendency on the part of
the members to identify themselves with the group. They
treat the members of their own group as friends and the
members belonging to other groups as outsiders. They
cooperate with those who belong to their groups and all of
them protect their interests unitedly. We-feeling generates
sympathy, loyalty and fosters cooperation among members.

5. Similarity of Behaviour:

For the fulfillment of common interest, the members of a

group behave in a similar way. Social group represents
collective behaviour. The-modes of behaviour of the
members on a group are more or less similar.

6. Group Norms:
Each and every group has its own ideals and norms and the
members are supposed to follow these. He who deviates
from the existing group-norms is severely punished. These
norms may be in the form of customs, folk ways, mores,
traditions, laws etc. They may be written or unwritten. The
group exercises some control over its members through the
prevailing rules .
Social groups provide requirements to the
needy people. In this way, the satisfaction of needs is the
 binding force among the individuals and unites them into
social group. Society has divided people into different
groups according to their needs and interests. 'These groups
have reciprocal role in society.
_________________________________________________
 Social Control
Social control is a concept within the disciplines of the
social sciences.[1] Social control is described as a certain set
of rules and standards in society that keep individuals
bound to conventional standards as well as to the use of
formalized mechanisms.[2] The disciplinary model was the
forerunner to the control model.[3]
Social control is the study of the mechanisms, in the form of
patterns of pressure, through which society maintains social
order and cohesion. ... Social control is typically employed
by group members in response to anyone it considers
deviant, problematic, threatening, or undesirable, with the
goal of ensuring conformity.
Sociologists define social control as the way that the norms,
rules, laws, and structures of society regulate human
behavior. It is a necessary part of social order, for societies
could not exist without controlling their populations.
Social control is achieved through social, economic, and
institutional structures. Societies cannot function without
an agreed-upon and enforced social order that makes daily
life and a complex division of labor possible. Without it,
chaos and confusion would reign.

The lifelong process of socialization that each person

experiences is the primary way social order develops.
Through this process, people are taught from birth the
behavioral and interactional expectations common to their
family, peer groups, community, and greater society.
Socialization teaches us how to think and behave in
accepted ways, and in doing so, effectively controls our
participation in society.

The physical organization of society is also a part of social

control. For example, paved streets and traffic signals
regulate, at least in theory, the behavior of people when
they drive vehicles. Motorists know that they should not
drive through stop signs or red lights, though some do
anyway. And, for the most part, sidewalks and crosswalks
manage foot traffic. Pedestrians know that they should not
run out into the middle of the street, though jaywalking is
fairly common. Lastly, the structure of places, such as aisles
in grocery stores, determines how we move through such
businesses.

When we don't conform to social expectations, we face

correction of some sort. This correction can take many
forms, including confused and disapproving looks or difficult
conversations with family, peers, and authority figures.
Refusal to meet social expectations may also result in
severe outcomes such as social ostracization.
Types of Social Control;---
Social control tends to take two forms: informal or formal.
Informal social control involves conformity to the norms
and values of society as well as adoption of a belief system
learned through the process of socialization. This form of
social control is enforced by family members and primary
caregivers, teachers, coaches peers, and colleagues.
Rewards and punishment enforce informal social control.
Reward often takes the form of praise or compliments,
good grades, job promotions, and social popularity.
Punishment tends to involve relationships ending, teasing
or ridicule, poor grades, being fired from work, or
withdrawal of communication.

City, state, and federal agencies such as the police or the

military enforce formal social control. In many cases, a
simple police presence is enough to achieve this form of
control. In others, police might intervene in a situation that
involves unlawful or dangerous behavior to stop the
misconduct and maintain social control.
Other government agencies, including those that regulate
building codes or the goods businesses sell, enforce formal
social control also. Ultimately, it is up to formal bodies like
the judiciary and penal systems to issue penalties when
someone violates the laws that define formal social control.
Types of Social Control
Direct and Indirect Control. ...
Positive and Negative Means. ...
Social Control through Force and Symbol. ...
Conscious and Unconscious Control. ...
Formal and Informal Control. ...
Control by Constructive and Exploitative Means. ...
Real and Artificial Control.
Social control is necessary for maintaining order in the
society. ... Without social control social unity would be a
mere dream. Social control regulates behavior in
accordance with established norms which brings uniformity
of behavior and leads to unity among the individuals.
Social control is necessary for an orderly social life. The
society has to regulate and pattern individual behavior to
maintain normative social order. Without social control the
organization of the society is about to get disturbed.
_____________________________________________
Contemporary problems of Indian society

contemporary problems of Indian society----------

POVERTY- Poverty is one of the leading social problems in
India. ...
CORRUPTION- ...
OVERPOPULATION. ...
UNEMPLOYMENT- ...
CASTE SYSTEM- ...
CHILD LABOUR- ...
DRUG ADDICTION ---- Some of the vital social issues are
poverty, child labour, corruption, unemployment, drug
addiction, overpopulation, pollution, offences against the
women such as rape, acid attack, juvenile delinquency,
caste-based discrimination, crimes, and many more.

1. POVERTY-


Poverty is one of the leading social problems in India.

Poverty basically means the unavailability of adequate
means of money to fulfil the basic requisites of human life
such as food, shelter and clothes. Poverty is not only socio-
economic but even emotional, cultural and political in
nature.
As India is one of the most overpopulated nations ranking
second after China, it is one of the major factors leading to
poverty. Rural areas are mostly affected by it. Poverty
basically indicates three things- economic dependence,
economic insufficiency, and economic inequality.

Causes of poverty in India:-

There are various causes of poverty in India:-

a. Unemployment-

The unemployment rate in India is quite very high, which

results in the people coming under the poverty line.

b. Rise in the price-

It is said that the rich are getting richer, and the poorer are
getting poorer. This is just because of the increasing price of
goods that the poor cannot afford.

c. Less productivity in farming-

Farming is one of the foremost means of livelihood for the
people of India, and due to the seasonal changes, the
production in agriculture is quite uncertain. This is also a
contributing factor to poverty.

d. Government initiatives for dealing with poverty-

The government of India has started various poverty
alleviation programmes such as the National old-age
pension scheme (NOAPS), Annapurna Yojana, Pradhan
Mantri Gramin Awaas Yojana (PMGAY), Jawahar Gram
Samridhi Yojana and many more.
2. CORRUPTION----
Changes in the Indian society such as the westernisation,
industrialisation, urbanisation, secularisation has brought
various modification in the values and the attitudes that are
to be associated with the lifestyle, marriage, education,
economy etc.
Undergoing such changes, India is facing several issues. A
case study on social issues in India demonstrates corruption
as a vital social issue that prevails throughout the nation. In
common parlance, corruption means unlawful dishonesty
involving bribery.
India has been considered one of the ten most corrupt
countries in the world. The main reason for the corruption
is greed. People want to become rich by using the shortcut,
which results in corruption.
The businessman class people practise different methods of
corruption to increase their profits. The officers or
bureaucrats commit corrupt methods to earn money to lead
a happy and luxurious life, maintain a high standard and
social status, and equalise them to the higher strata people.
To get elected, politicians bribe the poor people.

Causes of corruption in India:-

a. Money- making nature of people:

Nowadays, people have greed, so they want more than

their needs. Hence they use to practise corruption as a step
for money-making.

b. Economic need:

Insufficient amount of salary or pay scales and the rising

cost of the prices of every good is one of the most
important causes of the rising corruption. Unemployment
and poverty force a person to use such illegal way to earn
bread and butter.
c. Presence of black money:

Black money is evil for society, and this corruption

generates black money by its very nature. Black money
refers to the amount of money held illegally and
illegitimately by an individual or by any organisation, such
as the smuggling of drugs, illegal weapons, bribery, or
terrorism.

d. Lack or inadequate punishment for corruption:

In India, though there are many anti-corruption laws, they

are considered very weak or inadequate. Thus, the common
people face many problems, and manly the weaker sections
of people are the victim of corruption.

3. OVERPOPULATION-------
Overpopulation is a major social issue in India. It is
increasing very rapidly that it stands in the second position
after China.
Causes of overpopulation:-

Illiteracy– As the literacy rate in India is meagre, the people

are unaware of the population explosion. People do not
have any idea about family planning which gives rise in
population.

Need of a male child– as in our India, a son is given much

priority compared to a girl. It is believed that son will
perform all the religious rites. So for getting a male child,
the people give birth to daughters, ultimately increasing the
population.
4. UNEMPLOYMENT----------
Unemployment is a global phenomenon where a person
who is willing to work fails to get a job to earn to fulfil his
basic needs. It is a growing social issue in India. In a nutshell,
society fails to provide a means of earning for the non-
disabled man.
With a high rate of the population, India is facing
unemployment issues, which is responsible for the rise in
the poverty level, social tension, diseases, corruption,
crimes, and low productivity.

Causes of unemployment:-

The literacy rate in India is quite meagre. Due to the

inappropriate or insufficient education system does not
make the people fit for working in various fields.
As agriculture is the backbone of our country, 90% of
Indians depends on agriculture for their livelihood. And
agriculture is a gamble in the hand of the monsoon; hence,
due to this seasonal nature of agriculture, the agricultural
labourers work less.
A case study on social issues in India demonstrates that the
higher growth of the population is also a factor for the
increasing unemployment and poverty.

Initiatives by the government to tackle the issue of

unemployment-

The government has organised various training programmes

to build up the career of the young mass. From time to time,
the government come up with various schemes such as
Swarna Jayati Rozgar Yojana, Jawahar Rozgar Yojana to
tackle unemployment and provide rural employment.

5. CASTE SYSTEM------------
The caste system prevails in India since time immemorial.
Its origin cannot be traced to an exact time period or of
specific sources. The caste system is believed to be a social
evil for the nation.
The caste system generally means the categorization or
division of people into different groups based on their caste.
Many a time, this caste-based discrimination also led to
violence.

In the ancient days, there were basically four groups of

people in Indian society. They are Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaisya and Shudra or the Dalit people.

Among these, the Brahmins were considered to be superior

in society. The Kshatriyas are placed under the Brahmins,
which consist of the warrior’s group. The Vaishya include
the businessmen groups. And the Shudra was placed at the
lower position on this caste system comprising of the
sweepers, washerman. They were named “untouchables”.

Caste system in modern India-

Though today such classification has been declared illegal, it

still prevails in India, mainly in rural areas. However, these
days, people are also aware of the negative effects of the
caste system on society.

Indian constitution believes in inequality, which says that

no persons should be discriminated against and all are
equal before the law. No one, irrespective of their sex, caste,
creed, tradition, culture, religion, lifestyle, rich, poor or
languages, is considered superior to the law of the land. The
Indian constitution also abolishes the practice of
untouchability.

The Indian government is also trying its best to ban the

caste system through various Acts such as the Schedule
caste and Schedule Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act,
1989.

6. CHILD LABOUR------------
Childhood is believed to be the best phase of human life.
They are the symbol of innocence, happiness and joy.
Children are believed to be the stars of the future
generation. They are the future doctors, leaders, lawyers,
teachers who will take the nation towards the path of
success and development.
However, in some country, there is a different scenario as
that of the current social issues in India. Because of poverty
or unemployment, the children are burdened with looking
after the earnings of their family and which results in them
being child labour.
Child labour is basically said to the work done by children
below the age of fourteen, which deprive them of their
childhood and studies. Children are now forced to work in
the mill, factories, small scale industries, shops or
household works. Child labour has a very negative effect on
the growth and development of a child in various aspects,
including the physical, mental, psychological and social.
Causes of child labour:-

a. Poverty-
The biggest cause of child labour is poverty. People below
the poverty line do not have sufficient money to afford
education for their children. As a result, the children are
forced to help their parents in earning money.

b. Unemployment by the elders-

Another factor towards child labour is the unemployment

by the elders, which compel a child to leave his dreams and
childhood and earn money for the two squares meal for
his/her family.

c. Migration of the families-

The migration of families from rural to urban areas is also a

major factor for child labour. They migrate to get better
earning opportunities in the cities; however, their children
become child labour when such thing is not met.

d. Overpopulation------
Overpopulation causes the limitation on the resources and
more mouth to feed. So the children are bound to be child
labour.

Measures against child labour:-

Free education to the poor students and the provisions of

scholarship by the government is helping the poor children
to complete their education, which resulted in the
reduction in the number of child labour.

Various schemes are launch by the government. The Non

Governmental organisation (NGOs) also looks after the
prevention of child labour or child trafficking.
Different Acts such as the Protection of Children against
Sexual offences Act (2012) and Immoral Traffic (Prevention)
Act has successfully curbed various children trafficking.
Causes of child labour:-

a. Poverty-

The biggest cause of child labour is poverty. People below

the poverty line do not have sufficient money to afford
education for their children. As a result, the children are
forced to help their parents in earning money.
b. Unemployment by the elders-

Another factor towards child labour is the unemployment

by the elders, which compel a child to leave his dreams and
childhood and earn money for the two squares meal for
his/her family.

c. Migration of the families-

The migration of families from rural to urban areas is also a

major factor for child labour. They migrate to get better
earning opportunities in the cities; however, their children
become child labour when such thing is not met.

d. Overpopulation-

Overpopulation causes the limitation on the resources and

more mouth to feed. So the children are bound to be child
labour.

Measures against child labour:-

Free education to the poor students and the provisions of
scholarship by the government is helping the poor children
to complete their education, which resulted in the
reduction in the number of child labour.

Various schemes are launch by the government. The Non

Governmental organisation (NGOs) also looks after the
prevention of child labour or child trafficking.
Different Acts such as the Protection of Children against
Sexual offences Act (2012) and Immoral Traffic (Prevention)
Act has successfully curbed various children trafficking.
7. DRUG ADDICTION-
Drug addiction refers to the repeated use of drugs for a
purpose other than medication. It has spread its branches
to India, starting from the young to the old generation.
Drug addiction means the consumption of alcohol,
sedatives, stimulants, narcotics, hallucinogens, and nicotine.

Consequences of drugs addiction:-

This affects the physical, mental and social life of the

addicted person.

a. Creates health disorders-

Drug addiction leads to the deterioration of health. It causes
severe health issues such as liver problem, kidney damage,
lungs diseases, heart diseases, and vomiting, respiratory
problems.

b. Enhance the crime rate-

A person addicted to drugs generally has a very lower moral

sense or judgement. Hence there are more chances for
several crimes like murder, theft, adultery and other crimes.

c. Harms the social life-

Drug addicts generally get detached from the bond and

responsibilities of their family, which in turn harm their
married life and family.

Conclusion:-
These social issues prevent the path of India towards
development. However, with the changing time, there is an
increase in the awareness among the common people,
which will solely curb these ailments of social issues from
the country.
Both the government and the commoner should walk hand
in hand to tackle the current social issues in India
__________________________________________________
 E-Governance
E-government means different things to different people. Some observers
define e-government in terms of specific actions: using a government kiosk to
receive job information, applying for Social Security benefits through a web site,
or creating shared databases for multiple agencies, as examples.
How many types of e-governance are there in India?.
4 types
There are 4 types of e-governance namely: G2C (Government to Citizens) G2B
(Government to Business) G2E (Government to employees)
What is e-governance How does it help the citizens of India?
Driven through technology, e-Governance is transforming citizen services by
providing access to information, integrating various systems and services
between government and citizens, thereby empowering and enhancing citizen's
social, environmental and economic values.
What are the two main objectives of e-governance?
The two main objectives of e-governance are : To satisfactorily fulfil the public's
needs and expectations by simplifying their interaction with various online
services. To facilitate a speedy, transparent, accountable, efficient and effective
process for performing government administration activities
In 2006, the National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) was formulated by the
Department of Electronics and Information Technology and Department of
Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances that aims at making all
government services accessible to the common man, ensure efficiency,
transparency and reliability of such ...
What are the four pillars of e governance?
In a developing country like India, success of E Governance largely depends
upon political stability, public support and central coordination amongst various
departments. As shown in the figure below, the pillars of E Governance are
connectivity, content, capacity and capital.
When was the e governance scheme introduced in India?
The Government approved the National e-Governance Plan (NeGP), comprising
of 27 Mission Mode Projects and 8 components, on May 18, 2006. In the year
2011, 4 projects - Health, Education, PDS and Posts were introduced to make
the list of 27 MMPs to 31Mission Mode Projects (MMPs).
What is the importance of e-governance?
It gives varied departments' information to the public and helps in decision
making. It ensures citizen participation at all levels of governance. It leads to
automated services so that all works of public welfare is available to all citizens.
It revolutionizes the functions of the government and ensures transparency.
What is the role, importance and challenges for e-governance transformation?

Digital transformation in the public sector and government is a big challenge in

itself. It is an herculean task to make the whole government and public sector
go digital.

Role:
The role is to deliver effective administration, transparency and public service.

Importance:
Information delivery is greatly simplified for citizens and businesses.
It gives varied departments’ information to the public and helps in decision
making.
It ensures citizen participation at all levels of governance.
It leads to automated services so that all works of public welfare is available to
all citizens.
It revolutionizes the functions of the government and ensures transparency.
Each department and its actions is closely monitored.
Public can get their work smartly done and save their time.
It provides better services to citizens and brings government close to public.
Public can be in touch with the government agency.
It cuts middlemen and bribery if any from the picture.

Challenges:----
Challenges do exist and are preventing the progress of Digital Transformation.

Technical:
There are technical problems in implementing e-governance transformation.
Information and Communication Technology infrastructure is the main
challenge for Electronic governance transformation. Architecture should be in
place to provide a uniform set of guiding principles
models and standards. Governments must build an effective
telecommunication infrastructure.

Privacy:
Privacy and security of confidential reports is the main problem. There are
concerns about hacking defense information and other data, tracking the
website, mismanagement of private information are big challenges.

Security:
Security of information and systems against disclosure or destruction of data is
one of the main concerns. It includes the security of documents and network
security. Maintenance and E-infrastructure should be protected in the form of
firewalls and data accessibility should be limited. The security technology like
encryption and digital signatures should be used to protect user IDs, credit card
numbers, passwords, and other data.

Lack of Training and Qualified Personnel:

Lack of digital skills is one of the main challenges in developing countries.
Appointing and training the personnel to acquire appropriate technical and
functional skills is very much essential for governance to be successful.

Digital Availability:
Accessing the internet might be a challenge. Since there is a lack of internet
skills and internet availability, all citizens cannot access the internet. Lack of
computer literacy is one of the main challenges.

Conclusion:
Digital Transformation of e-governance has the potential to administrate
systematically. It is an instrument to run a government for its citizens. The
services can be provided to citizens on time and on demand. The criminal cases
registered in police stations cannot be manipulated if the files are digital. Digital
transformation in the public sector will be a boon to the country if it is
successful.
 Urban—Rural development
Sustainable urban and rural development is about
improving the quality of life in a locality, including
ecological, cultural, political, institutional, social and
economic components without leaving any burden—e.g.,
the result of a reduced natural capital and an excessive local
debt—on future generations.
importance of rural and urban development-------

Rural areas are absolutely necessary for urban areas to

function. Almost all ecosystem services of urban areas are
imported from rural areas. Urban areas rely on rural areas
to meet their demands for food, water, wood, raw
materials, etc., which are basically products of rural
ecosystem services.
By getting urban development right, cities can create jobs
and offer better livelihoods; increase economic growth;
improve social inclusion; promote the decoupling of living
standards and economic growth from environmental
resource use; protect local and regional ecosystems; reduce
both urban and rural poverty; and ...
rural development India----------
Rural development is the process of improving the quality
of life and economic well-being of people living in rural
areas. ... The backwardness of the rural sector would be a
major impediment to the overall progress of the economy.
India is predominately an agricultural country and farming
is their main occupation.
types of rural development-------
So, there are various types of approaches to rural
development like Sectoral Approach, Area Development
Approach, Integrated Development Approach, Growth
Center Approach and Community-driven development (CDD)
or Approach.
How do we grow rural to urban development?
Rural and urban development are complementary. ... Towns
and cities provide markets for rural products and jobs to
absorb surplus rural labour. If marketing systems are
improved for both agricultural products and inputs,
production, employment and the scope for private
enterprise in rural areas and cities can be increased.
objectives of rural development in India------
1. To improve the living standards by providing food, shelter,
clothing, employment and education. 2. To Increase
productivity in rural areas and reduce poverty.
urban development--
Urban development is the social, cultural, economic and
physical development of cities, and the underlying causes of
these processes. Urban growth is an increase in the
absolute size of an urban population. ... This often
accompanies an increase in urban population size (i.e.
urban growth).
urban development process----------
The principal phases of an urban planning process are:
Preparatory / exploration phase. Feasibility / planning
phase. Formal planning / zoning phase. Design and
implementation phase.
How do we grow rural to urban development?
Rural and urban development are complementary. ... Towns
and cities provide markets for rural products and jobs to
absorb surplus rural labour. If marketing systems are
improved for both agricultural products and inputs,
production, employment and the scope for private
enterprise in rural areas and cities can be increased.
__________________________________________________
 Major Welfare Schemes

Welfare refers to assistance programs sponsored by governments for needy

individuals and families, including schemes, such as food stamps, health care
assistance, and unemployment compensation. These welfare schemes are
typically financed through taxation
Welfare refers to a range of government programs that provide financial or
other aid to individuals or groups who cannot support themselves. Welfare
programs are typically funded by taxpayers and allow people to cope with
financial stress during rough periods of their lives.
Social assistance refers to government programs that provide a minimum level
of income support to individuals and households living in poverty. ... Social
assistance has been shown to strengthen the purchasing power of the poor
and raise their material standards of living.
Government Schemes in India---------------------
Government Schemes in India are launched by the government to address the
social and economic welfare of the citizens of this nation.
These schemes play a crucial role in solving many socio-economic problems
that beset Indian society, and thus their awareness is a must for any concerned
citizen.
On February 1, 2021, the Finance Minister of India released the Union Budget
2021-22 and made new announcements regarding the government schemes in
India. In 2020, a relief package worth Rs 1.70 lakh crore was announced
to tackle the financial difficulties which were faced due to the COVID-19
outbreak under the PM Garib Kalyan Yojana. This year, the government has
announced the Aatmanirbhar package amounting to Rs. 27.1 lakh crores to
deal with the impact of coronavirus.
Latest Government Schemes in India------------
Given below is a list of government schemes that have been launched recently
under various sectors or have been in the news regarding their revised
implications and expansion:-------------------
Government Scheme in India----------
Date of Launch/Implementation----------
Startup India Seed Fund Scheme (SISFS) April 1, 2021
Ayushman Sahakar Scheme October 19, 2020
Pradhan Mantri Annadata Aay SanraksHan Abhiyan (PM AASHA)
September 2018
SATAT Scheme (Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation)
October 2018
Mission Sagar May 2020
NIRVIK Scheme (Niryat Rin Vikas Yojana) February 1, 2020
SVAMITVA Scheme (Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised
Technology in Village Areas) April 24, 2020
National Technical Textiles Mission (NTTM) February 26, 2020
Mission COVID Suraksha November 29, 2020
DHRUV – PM Innovative Learning Programme October 10, 2019
SERB-POWER Scheme (Promoting Opportunities for Women in Exploratory
Research) October 29, 2020
One Nation One Ration Card Scheme (ONORCS) —
Prime Minister Street Vendor’s AtmaNirbhar Nidhi (PM SVANidhi) June 1,
2020
Mission KarmayogiSeptember 2, 2020
Sahakar Mitra Scheme June 12, 2020
Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana YojanaMay 4, 2017

List of Social Security Schemes in India 2022--------------------

The Modi Government has launched many new schemes for the development
of the country and the residents. This compilation of government schemes are
important for UPSC:
They are:-----------------------

Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan

Mission Karmayogi
Pradhan Mantri SVANidhi Scheme
Samarth Scheme
Savya Shiksha Abhiyaan
Rashtriya Gokul Mission
Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme
PM FME – Formalization of Micro Food Processing Enterprises Scheme
Kapila Kalam Program
Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana
National Digital Health Mission
Solar Charkha Mission
SVAMITVA Scheme
Samarth Scheme
Sahakar Pragya Initiative
Integrated Processing Development Scheme
Housing for All Scheme
Sovereign Gold Bond Scheme
Fame India Scheme
KUSUM Scheme
Nai Roshni Scheme
Swadesh Darshan Scheme
National Water Mission
National Nutrition Mission
Operation Greens Scheme
Deep Ocean Mission
PM-KISAN (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi) Scheme
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Maan Dhan Yojana
PM Garib Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY)
Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan-Dhan
New Jal Shakti Ministry
Jan Dhan Yojana
Skill India Mission
Make in India
Swachh Bharat Mission
Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana
Sukanya Samriddhi Scheme – Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
HRIDAY Scheme
PM Mudra Yojna
Ujala Yojna
Atal Pension Yojana
Prime Minister Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana
Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana
AMRUT Plan
Digital India Mission
Gold Monetization Scheme
UDAY
Start-up India
Setu Bhartam Yojana
Stand Up India
Prime Minister Ujjwala Plan
National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)
Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY)
Prime Minister’s Citizen Assistance and Relief in Emergency Situation (PM
CARES)
Aarogya Setu
Ayushman Bharat
UMANG – Unified Mobile Application for New-age Governance
PRASAD Scheme – Pilgrimage Rejuvenation And Spirituality Augmentation
Drive
Saansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY)
Shramev Jayate Yojana
Smart Cities Mission
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)
National Beekeeping & Honey Mission (NBHM)
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY)
Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products (RoDTEP) Scheme
Unique Land Parcel Identification Number (ULPIN) Scheme
UDID Project
eSanjeevani Programme (Online OPD)
Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana
YUVA Scheme for Young Authors
Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme
Scheme for Adolescent Girls (SAG)
The Government has also released multiple national and state-level
scholarship schemes for students across the country. Get the List of
Government Scholarship Schemes in India at the linked article.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Education and Health---system and new Policies

Health and education are defining sectors for equitable human development
and sustainable and inclusive economic growth for India. Given the strong
economic growth of the country in the past decade, increasing demand for
public investment across all sectors has created investment gaps in these key
sectors.
Educational attainments showed a strong associations with every important
variable considered, including age at marriage, fertility behaviour, the use of
and demand for family planning, number of children desired, use of antenatal
care, delivery in a health facility, vaccination and nutritional status of children.
State of India governments shoulder the responsibility for primary education.
1968-86 National Policy on 1976: Education shifted to the 'Concurrent list'
thereby Education, 1968 giving the GOI and state governments equal
responsibility for promoting and managing education.
How is health related to education?
A good quality education is the foundation of health and well-being. For people
to lead healthy and productive lives, they need knowledge to prevent sickness
and disease. For children and adolescents to learn, they need to be well
nourished and healthy.
How can we improve healthcare system in India?
There're many other solutions for improving healthcare, for example:
Encouraging innovation and manufacturing (of medical devices) within the
country.Spending more on medical research.Improving medical, nursing and
technical education as well as upskilling of existing manpower.

So how does the government spend more money?

1) For starters, it should allocate more funds to healthcare, in the budget.

2) Central and state governments should be in sync about the funds each is
going to allocate and how they’re going to implement programs to improve and
strengthen healthcare. Many well-intentioned govt. health initiatives have run
against a wall because of irregular or lower funding from the central govt. which
put additional burden on the concerned state govt.
3) Improve the funding mechanism. Fund flow should be regular and adequate.
Projects should be clearly defined and target oriented so that funds can be
matched to the results delivered. Funding mechanism should be transparent and
the unnecessary layers of bureaucracy and paper pushing reduced so that
corruption is eliminated or at least, reduced.
4) Public private partnerships can help achieve #3, where the government
provides the funds, and the project is implemented and run by the private sector.
After all, when it comes to project management, processes, best practices and
quality control, the private sector far supersedes the public sector.
5) To encourage private spending and participation in improving healthcare, the
government shouldn’t rely on the concept of CSR because it’s neither profitable
for the private player, nor sustainable. Instead, the govt. should provide tax
benefits and other incentives to encourage private participation in key areas of
healthcare while ensuring sustainability.
6) Health insurance and innovations in funding mechanisms: to ensure that all
citizens can avail best quality healthcare, the govt. should increase the health
insurance coverage, introduce co-payments and health savings account.

There’re many other solutions for improving healthcare, for example:

1. Encouraging innovation and manufacturing (of medical devices) within the
country
2. Spending more on medical research
3. Improving medical, nursing and technical education as well as upskilling of
existing manpower
4. International collaborations

But before we achieve this, it’s imperative that the govt. increases the
healthcare funding, and fixes the basic infrastructure first.
What is the name of New Education Policy 2020?
Manish Kumar Jindal,CEO, National Accreditation Board for Education and
Training, Quality Council of India to Elets News Network (ENN). The National
Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020), launched on 29 July 2020, outlines the vision
of India's new education system
: What is the purpose of new education policy?
The new policy replaces the previous National Policy on Education, 1986. The
policy is a comprehensive framework for elementary education to higher
education as well as vocational training in both rural and urban India. The policy
aims to transform India's education system by 2040.
Highlights of the New Education Policy-----------

All higher education institutes excluding the medical and law colleges will be
governed by a single regulation.
Board exams will now be more application and knowledge-based.
Both the public and private higher education institutes will be governed under
the same norms.
To promote and give more emphasis on the regional language/mother-tongue,
instruction medium up to class 5 will be in local/home languages.
All entrance exams for higher education institutes and universities will be held
commonly.
School curriculum to focus more on core concepts.
Vocational education will also be imparted from 6th grade onwards.
10+2 study culture discontinue and new structure of 5+3+3+4 will be followed,
subjecting to the respective age group of 3-8, 8-11, 11-14 and 14-18 years.
What is the new education policy 2022?
The year 2022 will put more emphasis on the NEP, which gives additional
impetus to vocational education by introducing vocational subjects and training
at school levels. ... In order to make them future-ready, we need to focus on
making education more employable.
Government Health Insurance Schemes in India--------------
Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana under Ayushman Bharat. ...
Awaz Health Insurance Scheme. ...
Bhamashah Swasthya Bima Yojana. ...
Chief Minister's Comprehensive Insurance Scheme. ...
Aam Aadmi Bima Yojana. ...
Central Government Health Scheme. ...
Karunya Health Scheme. ...
Employees' State Insurance Scheme.
Ayushman Bharat Yojana: ...
Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana: ...
Aam Aadmi Bima Yojana (AABY): ...
Central Government Health Scheme (CGHS): ...
Employment State Insurance Scheme: ...
Janshree Bima Yojana: ...
Chief Minister's Comprehensive Insurance Scheme
Read ahead to know more about the several health insurance schemes by the
Government of India:

1. Ayushman Bharat Yojana:

Ayushman Bharat is a universal health insurance scheme of the Ministry of
Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. PMJAY was launched to
provide free healthcare services to more than 40% population of the country.
The scheme offers a health cover of Rs 5 Lakh.

In this scheme, it covers medicines, diagnostic expenses, medical treatment, and

pre-hospitalization costs. The poorest families of India can benefit from this
healthcare scheme.
2. Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana:
Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana aims to provide accident insurance cover
to the people of India. People in the age group of 18 years to 70 years who have
an account in a bank can avail benefit from this scheme.

This policy provides an annual cover of Rs 2 lakh for total disability and death
cover and Rs 1 lakh for partial disability. The policy premium gets automatically
debited from the policyholder’s bank account.

3. Aam Aadmi Bima Yojana (AABY):

This is one of the latest National Health Insurance schemes having been
established in the year 2007, October. It basically covers individuals from the
age of 18 years-59 years. AABY insurance scheme is tailored for all those
citizens living in the upcountry and in the rural areas.

It also covers the landless citizens who are tenants living both in urban and rural
areas. It also includes giving scholarships to underprivileged children.

Basically, the head of the family or the earning member is the one protected by
this scheme. The premium of 200 rupees per annum is shared equally by the
state and the central government. Upon a natural death, the family is
compensated at 30000 rupees. However, upon death caused by a permanent
disability, the family is compensated at 75,000 rupees.

4. Central Government Health Scheme (CGHS):

This scheme was started in the year 1954 and provides comprehensive health
care facilities for central government officials and pensioners residing in cities.
Operations of this scheme take place in cities such as Kolkata, Mumbai, Lucknow,
Delphi, Nagpur, and Pune.
The people covered by this scheme are required to be residing in India. This is a
National Health Company Online Renewal program that includes the privilege of
health education to the beneficiaries.

This scheme has the following main components: All dispensary related services
including domiciliary care. In addition, the beneficiaries of this scheme have the
privilege of being hospitalized each and every time they fall ill.

On the other hand, whenever you have an X-ray or laboratory examination

requirements, they would be provided free under this particular scheme. The
most important advantage of this National Health Insurance scheme is that it
provides free specialists consultations both at hospital level and dispensaries.

5. Employment State Insurance Scheme:

This is a multidimensional National Health insurance scheme due to the fact that
it provides social security as well as socio-economic protection to all workers in
India. In addition, it provides the same privileges those who depend on workers
protected under this scheme.

This insurance scheme commences upon the first day of insurable employment
to each and every worker. They are provided with full medical care insurance for
themselves and their families as well.

On the other hand, those covered under this scheme (which is basically workers)
are also entitled to a wide range of cash benefits. They include cash in times of
physical distress such as sickness or even when one might become disabled may
it be temporal or permanent.

In addition, for any woman who would lose the capacity to earn or dependents
of persons injured during occupational accidents, they are entitled to a monthly
pension commonly referred to as dependents benefits.
This scheme is not applicable to each and every person or company. It is only
applicable to all permanent factories employing more than ten em…..
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