Magnetic Properties-Dr - Ramesh Singampalli

Module III: Magnetic Properties
Dr. Ramesh Singampalli

GITAM University
Bangalore
Fundamental definitions in Magnetism
Magnetic field
❖ It is the portion of the space in which a magnetic body or a current-carrying body
can experience the magnetic force.
❖The strength or the intensity of magnetic field is denoted by H
❖Unit: Ampere/metre (A/m)
❖Magnetic field is produced by permanent magnets such as horse shoe magnet and
temporarily by electromagnets or superconducting magnets.
Magnetic moment
The magnetic moment of a magnet is a quantity that determines the torque it will
experience in an external magnetic field.
τ=μ×B
where τ is the torque and B is the external magnetic field, and μ is the magnetic
Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 2
moment
✓Introduction
✓Fundamental definitions
✓Classification of magnetic materials
✓Weiss theory of ferromagnetism
Syllabus of
✓Domain theory of ferromagnetism
module III
✓Hysteresis
✓Soft and hard magnetic materials
✓Eddy current losses
✓Ferrites (structure and magnetic properties)
Applications: Transformer cores
Magnetostrictive sensors
Data Storage Dr. S.Ramesh , GITAM University 3
Magnetization
❖Magnetization is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume developed inside
the solid.
It is denoted by M
μm Magnetic moment
M= =
V Volume
❖Unit: Ampere/metre (A/m)

❖Since the magnetization is induced by magnetic field . Thus
M  H
M = H
❖ Where χ is the proportionality constant and is known as magnetic susceptibility.

Magnetic Susceptibility, χ
❖It is defined as magnetization produced in the material per applied magnetic field.
M
❖Thus  =
H
❖It is denoted by χ
❖In general, the vector M and H can have different directions and χ is a tensor.
However in isotropic mediums M and H point in the same direction and χ is a scalar
quantity.
❖It is a measure of the ease with which the material can be magnetized. Materials
having high susceptibility are easily magnetized.

Magnetic induction, B
❖The total flux of magnetic field lines through a unit cross sectional area of the material.
❖Magnetic induction = B = Magnetic flux/Area = φ/A
❖Unit: Weber per square metre (Wb/m2) or Tesla
CGS unit is Gauss
1Tesla = 104 Gauss
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University 6

Relation between magnetic induction, B and Magnetic field, H
When a material is placed in a magnetic field, two types of induction arises

1. Due to the magnetic field, H
2. Due to the Material itself (from the consequence of the magnetization, M)
The magnetic induction, B produced inside the material is given by
B = μ0(H+M) (1)
Where μ0 is known as permeability of the free space and μ0 = 4π×10-7Henry/metre

We know that
M = χH (2)
Where χ is the magnetic susceptibility

B = μ0 (H+ χH) = μ0 (1+ χ) H = μ H
Where μ is called the absolute permeability of the medium
Like χ, μ is in general a tensor, In isotropic medium it is a scalar quantity.
In case of free space, M = 0. Equation 1 reduces to B = μ0H
Absolute Permeability, μ
It is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction B in the medium to the magnetizing
B
field H. Thus  = H
Unit: henry/metre (H/m)
Relative Permeability, μr
It is defined as the ratio of the absolute permeability of the material to the permeability
of free space. r = 
0
μr is only a number and has no units
For air or vacuum, μr = 1
Relation between χ and μr

We know  = 0 (1 +  ) and r =
0
Thus, r = 1 + 
Origin of magnetization
The magnetic properties of solids arise due to electrons undergoing different motions
in the atoms which give rise to magnetic dipole moments.
In general, it arises from three sources
1. Orbital motion of electrons
2. Electron spin
3. Nuclear spin
The magnetic moment due to nucleus is about 1/2000 of the magnetic moment of
electrons. So it is neglected. Major contribution comes from the spin of the
unpaired valence electrons.
Only unpaired electrons contribute to the total magnetic moment in an atom
Bohr Magneton
1. It is the natural unit for the measurement of atomic magnetic moments
eh
2. It is denoted by μB  B =Dr. S.Ramesh,=GITAM
9.28  10 −24
A.m 2
4 m
University 9
Classification of magnetic materials
Solid are classified into three categories based on the magnitude and sign of the relative
permeability, μr
1. Diamagnetic; μr < 1
2. Paramagnetic; μr > 1
3. Ferromagnetic; μr >> 1
Based on the magnetic moment, solid are of two types
First group do not posses permanent magnetic dipole moments. Ex: Diamagnetic
materials where as second group posses magnetic dipole moments and further divided
into four groups depending on the interaction between them
➢Paramagnetic
➢Ferromagnetic
➢Antiferromagnetic
➢Ferrimagnetic Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 10
✓ Paramagnetic materials: Atoms have randomly oriented magnetic moments
✓Ferromagnetic materials: Atoms have parallel aligned magnetic moments
✓Antiferromagnetic materials: When the magnitude of the magnetic moments of
the two sub-lattices are equal but oriented in opposite direction.
✓Ferrimagnetic materials: When the magnitude of the magnetic moments of the
two sub-lattices are not exactly equal but oriented in opposite direction.
Paramagnetic Ferrimagnetic
Ferromagnetic Antiferromagnetic 11
Diamagnetic materials
In a diamagnetic material the atoms have no net magnetic moment when there is no
applied field. However, when placed in a magnetic field, it acquires feeble magnetism
in a direction opposite to that of the field.
Ex: Inert gases, water, gold, silver etc
Salient features
✓They exhibit negative magnetic susceptibility, χ since the magnetization M is
directed opposite to the direction of the applied field H. The absolute value of
susceptibility is small and is of the order of 10-6.
✓As the diamagnetic susceptibility is negative, the relative permeability is slightly
less than unity. r = 1 + 
✓The magnetic susceptibility χ is independent of temperature.
✓The magnetization M is a linear function of the field H.
✓They do not have significant engineering applications. However super conducting
materials which are perfect diamagnetic materials
Dr. L. N. Patro, (χ = -1) finds several applications.
GITAM University 12
Paramagnetic materials
Atoms have randomly oriented magnetic moments. So the net magnetization is zero.
However, when placed in a magnetic field, it acquires feeble magnetism in the direction
of the field.
Ex: Copper, Chromium, Platinum etc
Salient features
✓They exhibit positive magnetic susceptibility, χ since the magnetization M is in the
direction of the applied field H. The absolute value of susceptibility is of the order of
10-6.
✓The relative permeability is slightly more than unity.
✓The magnetic susceptibility, χ is strongly dependent on temperature.
χ = C/T (Curie law), C is a constant known as Curie constant
✓The magnetization M is a linear function of the field H, when the field is not too
strong.
Ferromagnetic material
•They exhibit spontaneous magnetization that is atoms have parallel aligned magnetic
moments aligned even in the absence of the external magnetic field.
•This implies that there is a strong internal field with in the material that makes the
atomic magnetic moments align with each other.
•The origin of the internal field is due to the strong interaction between the spins.
•Ex: Iron, Nickel, Cobalt etc.
Salient features
✓They exhibit very high value of magnetic susceptibility and is as large as 106.
✓Magnetization M does not vary linearly with the field H.
✓Because of the nonlinear relationship between B and H, the permeability of a
ferromagnetic material does not have a constant value. B = μH is not valid. In practice
the magnetic permeability is measured by either the initial value or the maximum
permeability value.
✓The ferromagnetic properties of the materials are direction dependent. The
magnetization is more easily obtained along certain crystallographic axes (easy axes)
then other axes (hard axes).
✓They are characterized by a characteristic temperature Tc known as Curie
temperature. They obey Curie-Weiss law
C
χ=
T-Tc
T < Tc ; ferromagnetic
T > Tc ; paramagnetic
✓They exhibit the phenomena of hysteresis and posses retentivity.

Theory and the corresponding susceptibility plot with temperature:
Diamagnetic (Langvein’s classical theory of Diamagnetism)
Langvein explained diamagnetism considering orbital motion of electrons in the atoms
The magnetic susceptibility χdia is given by
0 Ne2 r 2
χ dia = -
6m
N = Number of atoms per unit volume of the material.
μ0 = Permeability of the free space.
m = mass
Physical significance
➢ χdia is negative
➢ χdia is independent of temperature.
➢ χdia depends on mean square radius (r2) of the atom. χdia is larger if the atom is
bigger.

Paramagnetic (Langvein’s theory of paramagnetism)
Langvein’s theory holds good when the contribution to the magnetic moment is mainly
from the orbital motion of electrons in the atoms. The theory fails if the spin
paramagnetism prominent.
Nμ oμ m2 C
χ para = =
3k B T T
Nμ oμ m2
C = Curie constant =
3k B
N is the number of dipoles each carring dipole moment, μ m
Physical significance
➢ χpara is positive
➢ χpara depends of temperature

Weiss theory of ferromagnetism
✓Ferromagnetic materials exhibit spontaneous magnetization that is the atoms have
parallel alligned magnetic moments even in the absence of external magnetic field.
✓To explain spontaneous magnetization, Weiss assumed that there is an internal
molecular field acting on a given dipole and is given by
Heff = H + Hm = H + γM (1)
Where H is the applied field.
Hm = γM is the internal molecular field, γ is the molecular field constant and it
determines the intensity of the interaction between the dipoles.
In a ferromagnetic material, the Curie law also holds good for the internal field as well.
Therefore
M C
 = = Where C is Curie constant
Hi T

Hence,
M M C
 = = =
Hi H + M T
M .T = C ( H +  M )
M .T = C.H + C. .M
C.H = M .T - C. .M = M (T - C. )
M C C C
or , = = =
H T - C. T - T - Tc
M C
 = = This is known as Curie-Weiss law and Tc = γC is called Curie
H T - Tc
temperature. C=Nµ2/3KB
The variation of susceptibility with temperature is shown here
C
χ=
T-Tc
T < Tc ; ferromagnetic
T > Tc ; paramagnetic
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
Solids, liquid or gas Solids, liquid or gas Solids and posses

crystalline structure
Feeble repulsion from Feeble attraction Strongly attracted
the magnetic field towards the magnetic towards the magnetic
field field
Susceptibility, χ is small Susceptibility, χ < 1 and Susceptibility, χ is large

and negative positive and positive
Relative permeability is Relative permeability is Relative permeability is

less than unity slightly more than unity greater than unity
Susceptibility, χ is Susceptibility, χ obey Susceptibility, χ obey
independent of Curie law, χ = C/T Curie-Weiss law C
χ=
temperature. T-Tc
No permanent dipoles Permanent dipoles Permanent dipoles

oriented randomly. aligned in a domain.
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
No Curie point No Curie point Curie point above which

they become
paramagnetic
B and M vary with H B and M vary with H B and M vary with H
linearly but no saturation linearly at low nonlinear and ultimately
is reached. temperature and tend attain saturation.
saturation at high field
No retentivity No retentivity Posses retentivity
Do not exhibit the Do not exhibit the Exhibit the phenomena

phenomena of hysteresis phenomena of hysteresis of hysteresis
Ex: Inert gases, water, Ex: Chromium, Platinum Ex: Iron, Nickel etc.
gold, silver etc etc
Antiferromagnetic materials
Antiferromagnetism arises in materials in which the magnetic moments are equal but
pointed in opposite direction. So the net magnetization is zero. When placed in a
magnetic field and the temperature is 0 K, the magnetization is still zero. However as
temperature increases, in the presence of field, the antiparallel alignment is disturbed
and magnetization increases .
Ex: Cr, MnO, Cr2O3
Salient features
✓They are crystalline materials which exhibit a small positive magnetic susceptibility.
χ is of the order of 10-3 and 10-5
✓The magnetic susceptibility increases with increase in temperature and reached a
maximum value at certain temperature called Neel temperature. Above this
temperature the material becomes paramagnetic.
Ferrimagnetic materials
Ferrimagnetism arises in materials in which the magnetic moments are not equal but
pointed in opposite direction. So the net magnetic moment is thus finite.
Ex: Fe3O4 (FeOFe2O3) , Barium ferrite (BaO.6Fe2O3)
Salient features
✓The magnetic susceptibility is large & positive.
✓The saturation magnetization is not as high as ferromagnetic materials.
✓They exhibit the phenomena of hysteresis.
✓Resistivity is very high compared to ferromagnetic materials
✓They find applications in high frequency devices.

Magnetic domains Theory of ferromagentism
➢Ferromagnetic materials though spontaneously magnetized, they do not show
observable magnetization. This is explained by Weiss’s domain hypothesis.
➢Weiss’s domain hypothesis: The entire ferromagnetic volume splits into a large
number of small regions known as magnetic domains, each domain has some magnetic
moment. However, the direction of magnetization are different in different domains. So
the net magnetic moment is zero.
Alignment of magnetic momentsDr.inS.Ramesh,

each GITAM
domain in the absence of field.
University 24
➢However, after applying magnetic field, some magnetic domains whose direction is almost
parallel to the applied field direction will grow in size. These domains are called favorable
domains. The unfavorable domains shrink in size.
➢At very high fields, the growth stops, the magnetization direction starts rotating and finally we
will have each domain with magnetization parallel to the field. This is known as Weiss’s domain
hypothesis
Alignment of magnetic moments in each domain in the presence of field.

➢ The study of domains are called as micromagnetics. Each domain has 1017 to 1021
atoms and each domain is in the state of magnetic saturation i.e., it behaves as a
strong magnet.
➢ However their resultant magnetic moment in any direction is zero
➢ The magnetism of ferromagnetic substance can be increased in two different ways
➢ 1) By the displacement of boundaries of the domains
➢ 2) By the rotation or orientation of domains
➢ 1. Consider a unmagentised ferromagnetic substance each domain in the specimen

is in the magnetised state. Now the substance placed external field the domains
which are oriented favourable w.r.t field increase in size others decrease in size
indicated in fig(a) & (b)
➢ 2. When the field is further increased all the domains orient in the direction of
applied filed indicated in fig(c)
Dr.S.Ramesh, GITAM University 26
Magnetic hysteresis
✓For a ferromagnetic material, magnetic induction, B varies with the field H
along a closed loop called the hysteresis loop.

❖ The curve begins at O. With increasing the values of magnetizing field H, the
magnetic flux density begins to increase slowly. At sufficient high fields, it reaches
a saturation value, Bs and becoming independent of H. It is shown as OA in the
figure.
❖ If H is decreased, B also decreases but following a path AC instead of AO. Thus B
legs behind H. When H becomes zero, B does not become zero but has a value
equal to OC and known as residual magnetism, Br . It indicates that the material
remain magnetized even in the absence of the field H. The power of retaining the
magnetism in the absence of the field is called retentivity or remanence of the
material.
❖ Further if we increase the magnetic field in the reverse directions, the value of B
decreases along the path CD. It becomes zero when H attains a value equal to OD
(-Hc). The magnetic field Hc is referred as cohesive field. The coercivity of the
specimen is a measure of the magnetic field required to destroy the residual
magnetism in the material.
❖ If we increase magnetic field H further in reverse direction, the value of B reaches
a saturation value at a points E .
❖ On reversing the variation of the magnetic field, a curve similar to ACDE is traced
through point EFGA yielding a negative remanence and coercivity. The closed
curve ACDEFGA represents a cycle of magnetization of the specimen and is
known as hysteresis loop of the specimen.
❖ The area of loop indicates the amount of magnetic energy loss per unit volume of
the material per magnetization demagnetization cycle.
❖Hysteresis loop shows the history dependent nature of the magnetization of a

ferromagnetic material. Once the material have been driven to saturation and the
magnetizing field dropping to zero, the material retain most of the magnetization. That
means it remembers history.

Saturation flux density
Residual magnetism, Br Bs due to alignment of domains
When H becomes zero, B B A

does not become zero but has
a value known as residual C
magnetism, Br . It indicates
that the material remain
magnetized even in the
absence of the field H.
Coercive field, -Hc D O G H

Magnetic field Coercive field Hc
required to destroy
the residual
magnetism in the
material.
F
E Saturation flux density - Br
Bs in the opposite direction
Soft and Hard magnetic materials
Based on the area of the hysteresis loop. Magnetic materials are

classified into two groups; Soft magnetic materials and Hard magnetic
materials.

❖ Soft magnetic materials
✓Soft Magnetic materials have narrow and small hysteresis loop area.
✓Due to small hysteresis loop area, the power losses in those materials are low.
✓The coercivity and retentivity are small. So the material reaches saturation
magnetization relatively at lower applied fields.
✓They can be easily magnetized and demagnetized.
✓They find applications at higher frequencies due to their low power losses. These are
used to make electromagnets.
✓Ex: NiFe alloys, Soft ferrites etc.

❖ Hard magnetic materials
✓ Hard magnetic materials have large hysteresis loop area.
✓ Due to large hysteresis loop area, the power losses in those materials are high.
✓ The coercivity and retentivity are high. So strong applied fields are required to
reach the saturation magnetization..
✓ These materials retain their magnetism and are difficult to demagnetize.
✓ These are used to make permanent magnets, magnetic tapes, disks used in the
entertainment and computer industry.
✓ Ex: AlNiCo (Al + Ni+ Co+ Fe), CuNiFe (Cu + Ni + Fe) alloys, CoOFe2O3 etc.

Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials
Soft magnetic materials are easy to Hard materials retain their magnetism and are
magnetize and demagnetize. difficult to demagnetize
They have narrow and small hysteresis loop They have large hysteresis loop area.
area
Due to small hysteresis loop area, the power Due to large hysteresis loop area, the power losses
losses in those materials are low. in those materials are high.
The coercivity and retentivity are small. The coercivity and retentivity are small. So strong
So these materials reach saturation fields are required to reach the saturation
magnetization relatively at lower applied magnetization.
fields.
They find applications at higher frequencies These are used to make permanent magnets,
due to their low power losses. These are magnetic tapes, disks used in the entertainment
used to make electromagnets. and computer industry
Ex: NiFe alloys, Soft ferrites etc Ex: AlNiCo (Al + Ni+ Co+ Fe), CuNiFe (Cu + Ni
+ Fe) alloys, CoOFe2O3 etc.
Ferrites (structure and magnetic properties)
❖Ferrimagnetisms: The magnitude of the magnetic moments of the two
sub-lattices are not exactly equal in magnitude and oriented in opposite
direction. This uncompensated antiferromanetism is called
ferrimagnetism.
Ferrimagnetic
✓The corresponding materials exhibiting such behavior are known as
ferrimagnetic materials or ferrites.
❖Composition:
✓Ferrites are the compounds of two metallic oxides of which one is ferric oxide Fe2O3
and the other is one or more oxides of divalent metals.
✓The general formula is MFe2O4 or MOFe2O3 in which M stands for metals such as Ni,
Mn, Zn, Fe etc. Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 35

✓The good example is magnetite, Fe3O4 which is a compound of ferrous oxide FeO and ferric
oxide Fe2O3, other common examples include manganese ferrite (MnFe2O4), Nickel ferrite
(NiFe2O4) etc.
✓Composite ferrites: Solid solutions of one simple ferrite in another Ex: Ni-Zn ferrite.
Ferrites: Structures
Ferrites have three different types of structures.
1. Spinel (MFe2O4; M:Zn, Ni, Mg, Mn etc.]
2. Garnet [M3Fe2O12; M: Sm, Tb, Ho, Y etc]
3. Magnetoplumbite [MFe12O19; M: Ba]
Among them, the most important structure is spinel. Spinel occurs in two forms
Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University

1. Normal spinel structure and 2. Inverse spinel structure.
✓The normal spinel structure (AB2O4) can be considered to contain two sublattices A
and B.
✓Divalent metal ions on A sublattice (A site ) are surrounded by four oxygen ions in a
tetrahedral coordination while trivalent metal ions on B site are surrounded by six
oxygen ions octahedrally.
✓In normal spinel, the divalent and trivalent ions appear only on A sites and B sites
respectively.
✓Ex: Zinc ferrite (Zn2+ )AO(Fe3+)BO3
✓In the case of inverse spinel structure, the divalent metal ions occupy octahedral sites
(B site) while Fe3+ metal ions are equally over tetrahedral sites and octahedral sites.
✓Arrangement is (Fe3+ )A(Fe3+M2+ )BN.OPatro,

Dr. L. 4 ; Ex:
GITAMManganese
University ferrite, Nickel ferrite etc.
37 .
Properties
✓The magnetic susceptibility is large and positive.
✓They exhibit spontaneous magnetization.
✓They posses small domains in which electron spins are antiparallel.
✓The saturation magnetization is not as high as ferromagnetic materials.
✓The saturation magnetization decreases with increasing temperature until it vanishes
at Curie temperature. Above Curie temperature, they exhibit paramagnetic state. The
Curie-Weiss law is not valid
✓They exhibit the phenomena of hysteresis. There is a characteristic retentivity and
coercivity for each ferrites.

Properties: continued
✓Resistivity is very high compared to ferromagnetic materials, which is of the order of 102 to
1010 ohm m
✓They are widely used in high frequency applications because they exhibit low power loss at
high frequencies.
✓Ferrites with narrow hysteresis loop form soft magnets. They are used in audio and television
transformers

H = Magnetic field = Magnetisation force Collections of formulas
in magnetism
B = Magnetic induction= Magnetic flux density
M = Magnetization ; χ = Susceptibilty
1. M = χ H ; χ = Susceptibilty
2. Relation between magnetic induction, B and Magnetic field, H
B = μ 0 (H+M)
3. B = μH
μ 0 = permeability of the vacuum = 4π×10-7 =12.57×10-7 h/m
μ = Absolute permeability
μ
4. μ r = ; μ r = Relative permeability
μ0
5. μ r = 1+χ
C
6. χ= (CurieLaw,paramagnetic materials)
T Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University 40
Problem 1: A magnetic material has a magnetization of 2300A/m and produces a
flux density of 0.00314Wb/m2. Calculate the magnetizing force and relative
permeability of the material.
B = 0.00314 Wb/cm 2 ; M = 2300A/m

B = 0 ( H + M )
B 
= ; r =
H 0
B 0.00314Wb/cm 2
Magnetizing force, H = -M= - 2300A/m = 198A/m
μ0 12.57×10-7 h/m
B 0.00314
Relative permeability = μ r = = = 12.56
μ 0 H (12.57×10-7 H/m)×198A/m
Problem 2: Find the relative permeability of the ferromagnetic material if a

magnetic field of strength 220A/m produces magnetization of 3300A/m in it.
M 3300 A / m
r = 1 +  = 1 + = 1+ = 16
H 220 A / m
Problem 3: The magnetic field in the interior of a certain solenoid has the value of
6.5×10-4 T. When the solenoid is empty. When it is filled with iron, the field
becomes 1.4 T. Find the relative permeability of the iron
M 1.4
r = 1 +  = 1 + = 1+ −4
= 1+2000 = 2001
H 6.5 10
Problem 4: Diamagnetic Al2O3 is subjected an external magnetic field of 105A/m.

Evaluate the magnetization and magnetic flux density in Al2O3. Susceptibility of
Al2O3 is -5×10-5
M = χH = (-5×10-5 )(105 A/m) = -5 A/m

Magnetic flux density, B = μ 0 (H+M) = (12.57×10-7 h/m)(105 A/m-5A/m) = 0.126wb/m2

Problem 5: Paramagnetic material has a magnetic field intensity of 104A/m.
Evaluate the magnetization and magnetic flux density in the material.
Susceptibility is 3.7×10-3
M = χH = (3.7×10-3 )(104 A/m) = 37 A/m

Magnetic flux density, B = μ 0 (H+M) = (12.57×10-7 h/m)(104 A/m+37A/m) =126179.43 10−7 = 0.0126wb/m2
Problem 6: The susceptibility of paramagnetic FeCl3 is 3.7×10-3 at 27˙C. What

will be the value of susceptibility at 200 K and 500 K?
C
Curie law,  =
T
Curie cons tan t = C = (3.7 10-3 )  300 K = 1.11K
C 1.11K
 200 K = = = 5.55 10-3
T 200 K
C 1.11K
500 K = = = 2.22 10-3
T 500 K

Problem 7: A paramagnetic substance has 1028 atoms/metre3. The magnetic
moment of each atom is 1.8×10-23 ampere metre2. Calculate the paramagnetic
susceptibility at 300 K. What would be the dipole moment of a bar of this material
0.1 metre long and 1 sq.cm cross section placed in a field of 8×104
ampere/metre.(Given kB = 1.38×10-23 joule/K)
Nμ oμ 2m
χ para =
3k BT
N = 1028atoms/metre3
μ o = 4π×10-7 henry/metre
μ m = 1.8×10-23ampere metre2
k B = 1.38×10-23 joule/K
T = 300K
Nμ oμ 2m
χ para = =3.28×10-4
3k BT
M = χ para H
χ para = 3.28×10-4
H = 8×104 ampere/metre
V = 10-5 metre3
M = χ para H = 26.24ampere/metre
-4
Magnetic moment of the bar = M×V = 2.62×10 ampere
Dr. L. N. Patro, metre2
GITAM University 44
Eddy current losses
✓Focault discovered eddy current in 1895.
✓When a conductor is kept in a change in magnetic field, currents are induced in the
body of the conductor. These currents occur in very small loops and are called eddy
current.
✓ The eddy current creates a magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field that
created in it. Eddy currents constitute second major contribution of energy loss . In
some cases they may produce undesirable effects such as increase in temperature due to
increase in internal energy. So it is necessary to minimize eddy current losses.
✓The magnitude of the current in a given loop is proportional to the strength of the
magnetic field, the area of the loop, and the rate of change of flux, and inversely
proportional to the resistivity of the material. Eddy current losses increase with the
square of the frequency.
✓Increasing electrical resistivity of the material can reduce the eddy current. Ex: iron
containing a few percentage of Si has higher
Dr. S.Ramesh, resistivity
GITAM University instead of pure iron. 45
Applications of magnetic materials:
Major applications of magnetic materials include:
✓Transformer cores
✓ Data Storage
✓ Magnetostrictive sensors
Transformer cores
✓It is an electrical device which transforms electrical
energy from one circuit to another without any direct
electrical connection and with the help of mutual
induction between two windings.
✓It works on the principle of Faraday’s law of

electromagnetic induction (any change in the magnetic
field of a coil of wire will cause an emf to be induced
in the coil).
✓A transformer has three main parts; two windings and the core on which the windings
are bound.
✓The core makes up the bulk of a transformer. A magnetic core is a piece of magnetic
material with a high permeability used to confine and guide magnetic fields in electrical
devices.
✓The presence of a core can increase the magnetic field of the coil by a factor of
several thousands over what with it would be with out the core.
✓The composition of a transformer core depends on various factors such as voltage,
current and frequency.
✓It is usually made of ferromagnetic materials such as iron or ferrimagnetic materials
such as ferrites.
✓A range of cores exist depending on the type of the applications such as steel
laminated solid, toroidal, pot and planar cores

Data Storage (Magnetic storage)
➢Data storage is a critical component of entertainment industry and computer systems.
➢In the field of computing the term magnetic storage is preferred however the term
magnetic recording is used in the audio and video industry.
➢Magnetic storage refers to the type of data storage using a magnetizing medium in
which magnetic domains are the storage elements.
➢Magnetic memories are permanent and nonvolatile. That means the data will not be
lost when the storage device is not powered.
➢Magnetic storage devices include hard disks, floppy disks, tapes etc.
➢The storage media is called disk or cartridge. The process of storing data in a memory
unit is called “writing” and the process of retrieving is called “reading”.
➢Computer systems need to store the data digitally. Digital data consists of binary
information which is the data in the form of zeros and ones, there are two types of
magnetic polarities each one used to represent ones and zeros
➢The medium used magnetic storage devices is coated with iron oxide which is a
ferromagnetic material.
➢In most magnetic storage devices uses a drive which is a mechanical device that
connects to the computer. The drive uses a motor to rotate the media at a high speed
and it accesses the stored information using small devices called heads.
➢Each head has a tiny electromagnet which consists of a iron core wrapped with
wire. A read-write head moves close to the magnetic surface. The head is able to
detect and modify the magnetization of the material. The magnetic surface is divided
into very small regions, each which has almost uniform magnetization. As the head
moves relative to the surface, the change in magnetization from region to region are
detected and recorded as zeros and ones.
➢The basic principle is same for all magnetic storage devices however different
technologies vary how the head moves relative to the surface of the media and how
the regions on the media are organized
➢It is widely used because it is relatively cheap and is read-write which makes it
possible to reuse the storage capacity over and over by deleting the older data.
➢The major limitation is that accessibility of the data is quiet slow.
Magnetostrictive sensors
➢Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects a physical stimulus and converts into a
measurable signal.
➢Magnetostriction: when a ferromagnetic material is magnetized, its dimension
changes slightly that means it expands or contracts. The material reverts to the original
position on the removal of the field. This magnetically induced reversible elastic strain
is called magnetostriction.
➢Ferromagnetic materials show both positive and negative magnetostriction. Materials
showing negative magnetostriction contract when the magnetic field increases and the
converse is true for the materials exhibiting positive values of magnetostriction.
➢Iron shows positive magnetostriction in weak magnetic fields and negative
magnetostriction at strong magnetic fields. However Ni and Co shows negative
magnetostriction
➢The origin of magnetostriction is mainly due to rotation of magnetic domains under
the action of the applied magnetic field.
➢It is an inherent properly that will not degrade with time.
➢This process is reversible, so a change in magnetization can also be produced when
the dimension of the material are changes with an external force.
➢This bidirectional coupling between the magnetic and mechanical states of a
magnetostrictive material provides a transduction capability that is used for sensing
devices.

Assignments
1. Obtain the relationship between magnetic flux density, magnetization and
magnetizing field.
2. Distinguish between diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials.
Write a short note on ferrite materials.
3. What do you mean by ferromagnetic domains. Distinguish between soft and hard
magnetic materials.
4. Explain the hysteresis curve for a ferromagnetic material. What are the hysteresis
losses.

Magnetic Properties-Dr - Ramesh Singampalli

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Magnetic Properties-Dr - Ramesh Singampalli

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module III: Magnetic Properties

Dr. Ramesh Singampalli

❖Unit: Ampere/metre (A/m)

❖ Where χ is the proportionality constant and is known as magnetic susceptibility.

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 4

having high susceptibility are easily magnetized.

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 5

❖Magnetic induction = B = Magnetic flux/Area = φ/A

❖Unit: Weber per square metre (Wb/m2) or Tesla

CGS unit is Gauss

1Tesla = 104 Gauss

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University 6

When a material is placed in a magnetic field, two types of induction arises

The magnetic induction, B produced inside the material is given by

Where μ0 is known as permeability of the free space and μ0 = 4π×10-7Henry/metre

Where χ is the magnetic susceptibility

✓They exhibit the phenomena of hysteresis and posses retentivity.

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 15

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 16

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 17

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 18

Solids, liquid or gas Solids, liquid or gas Solids and posses

Susceptibility, χ is small Susceptibility, χ < 1 and Susceptibility, χ is large

Relative permeability is Relative permeability is Relative permeability is

No permanent dipoles Permanent dipoles Permanent dipoles

No Curie point No Curie point Curie point above which

No retentivity No retentivity Posses retentivity

Do not exhibit the Do not exhibit the Exhibit the phenomena

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 23

Alignment of magnetic momentsDr.inS.Ramesh,

Alignment of magnetic moments in each domain in the presence of field.

➢ 1. Consider a unmagentised ferromagnetic substance each domain in the specimen

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 27

❖Hysteresis loop shows the history dependent nature of the magnetization of a

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 29

When H becomes zero, B B A

Coercive field, -Hc D O G H

Based on the area of the hysteresis loop. Magnetic materials are

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 31

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 32

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 33

sub-lattices are not exactly equal in magnitude and oriented in opposite

direction. This uncompensated antiferromanetism is called

ferrimagnetic materials or ferrites.

and the other is one or more oxides of divalent metals.

Mn, Zn, Fe etc. Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 35

Ferrites have three different types of structures.

1. Spinel (MFe2O4; M:Zn, Ni, Mg, Mn etc.]

2. Garnet [M3Fe2O12; M: Sm, Tb, Ho, Y etc]

3. Magnetoplumbite [MFe12O19; M: Ba]

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University

oxygen ions octahedrally.

✓Ex: Zinc ferrite (Zn2+ )AO(Fe3+)BO3

✓Arrangement is (Fe3+ )A(Fe3+M2+ )BN.OPatro,

✓The magnetic susceptibility is large and positive.

✓They exhibit spontaneous magnetization.

✓They posses small domains in which electron spins are antiparallel.

✓The saturation magnetization is not as high as ferromagnetic materials.

✓The saturation magnetization decreases with increasing temperature until it vanishes

Curie-Weiss law is not valid

✓They exhibit the phenomena of hysteresis. There is a characteristic retentivity and

coercivity for each ferrites.

Dr. S.Ramesh, GITAM University 38