Module V: Semiconductors-II

Dr. L. N. Patro
GITAM University
Bangalore
 Recombination of electron-hole pairs

p-n junction diode and junction layer formation

Direct and indirect band gap of semiconductors

Hall effect and its applications Syllabus of

Magneto resistance module V
Optical and thermal properties of Semiconductors

Fundamentals of LED

Photovoltaic cell (solar cell)

Tunnel diode Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 2

 Introduction

Recombination: The process of combining a conduction electron with a valence

hole is known as recombination. During this process, some energy which is equal to the
energy gap of the semiconductor is released.

Life time: The duration of time between the electron-hole pair generation and
recombination is known as life time.
Unit: seconds

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 3

Hall effect and its applications
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying conductor or
semiconductor, an electric field is produced inside the material in a direction
perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called
the Hall effect. The voltage generated is known as Hall voltage.
Let us consider a slab of extrinsic semiconductor carrying current ‘I’ in the X-
direction.
Let a magnetic field ‘B’ is applied along the Y-direction.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 4

The charge carriers will experience a force due to the magnetic field and is given by
FB  q (v  B)  qvB sin  .............................(1)
where q is the ch arg e of the carriers
v is the velocity of the charge carriers
B is the magnetic field
sin ce v and B are perpendicular to each other ,   90o
So FB  BqV .................................................(2)

Due to this force, the charge carriers are migrated to one of the faces (face 1 or face 2)
perpendicular to both current and field direction.
The accumulation of the charges on one face results in the formation of an electric
field known as Hall electric field.
If EH is the electric field, the force experienced by the charge carriers is given by
FE= qEH……………..(3)
At equilibrium, FB=FE
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 5
From equation 2 and equation 3
BqV  qEH
EH  BV .....................(4)
J
We know current density J  nqV or V 
nq
From equation 4, we have
B.J
EH 
nq
1 E
or  H  RH ................(5)
nq BJ
1
 RH is known as Hall coefficient
nq
1
Since electrons have negative ch arg e, Hall coefficient is - ve i.e. RH  -
ne
1
Since holes have positive ch arg e, Hall coefficient is  ve i.e. RH 
ne
From equation 5, it is seen that the Hall coefficient can be evaluated by substituting
the quantities EH, J, B.
The Hall coefficient is inversely proportional to density of charge carrier.
By knowing the Hall coefficient, the carrier density, n (N-type) or p (P-type) can be
6
estimated.
 Determination of Hall coefficient
If w is the width of the sample across which Hall voltage VH is measured,
VH
EH 
w
EH VH
Therefore, RH  
BJ BJw
or VH  RH BJw
if t is the thickness of the sample, then its cross sec tional area is wt
I
So the currentdensity, J 
wt
RH BIw RH BI
Hence VH  
wt t
V t
The Hall coefficient , RH  H
BI
The Hall voltage will be opposite for N  type and P  type semiconductors.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 7

Applications of Hall effect

1. Determination of type of semiconductors

Hall coefficient is positive for P-type and is negative for N-type semiconductors.
so by measuring the Hall voltage or Hall coefficient, the type of semiconductor
can be found.

2. Determination of the carrier density or carrier concentration

By measuring the Hall coefficient (RH) for the given semiconductor, the carrier
concentration can be calculated.
1 1
RH  - for N  type and RH  for the P  type
ne pe
where n is the carrier concentration of N  type semiconductor
p is the carrier concentration of P  type semiconductor

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 8

3. Determination of the mobility of charge carriers
e h
Mobility is given by e  ( N  type) and h  ( P  type)
ne pe
1 1
Since RH  - ( N  type) and RH  ( P  type)
ne pe
Thus, e  -  e RH ( N  type) and h   h RH ( P  type)

4. Determination of the magnetic flux density

VH t
We know that RH 
BI
VH t
So, Magnetic flux density  B 
IRH

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 9

Problem 1: The Hall coefficient of a certain silicon specimen was found
to be -7.35×10-5 m3C-1 from 100 to 400K. Determine the nature of the
semiconductor. Further the electrical conductivity was found to be 200 Ω
-1m-1. Calculate the electron density and mobility of charge carriers.

Given RH  - 7.35 10-5 m3C -1

  200-1m-1
T  300 K
 ?
n ?
The negative sign of the Hall coefficient indiactes that the nature of the semiconductor is N - type.
Hence the electron density can be obtained from the equation
1 1
n  -   8.5  10 22 3
m
eRH 1.6 10  7.35  10
-19 -5

 200
mobility      1.47 10-3 m3V -1s -1
ne 8.5 10 1.6  10
22 -19

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 10

 P-N junction diode and junction layer formation
When a P-type semiconductor and an N-type semiconductor are in contact, a P-N
junction diode is formed.
In most integrated circuit applications, the entire semiconductor material is a single
crystal, with one region doped to be P-type and the adjacent region doped to be N-type.
P–N junctions are elementary "building blocks" of most semiconductor electronic
devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells etc.

Diode symbol

P-type: Anode
N-type: Cathode Anode Cathode

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 11

P-N junction in thermal equilibrium
N-type semiconductors have positive donor ions and negatively charged electrons
(majority carriers) and P-type semiconductors have negative acceptor ions and
positively charged holes (majority carriers).

Since P-type has high concentration of holes and N-type has high concentration of
electrons, there is a tendency of holes to diffuse over to N-side leaving behind
uncompensated negatively charged acceptor ions and electrons to P-side leaving
behind the uncompensated positively charged donor ions. This process is known as
diffusion. Thus a double layer of charges is formed near the junction having negative
charge on the P-side and positive charge on the N-side. This region is known as
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depletion region or space charge region or charge free region.
When the depletion layer is formed, there are negative immobile ions in P-type and
positive immobile ions in N-type. Due to this charge separation, a voltage VB is
developed across the junction known as junction voltage or built in voltage or built in
potential barrier. This junction voltage gives rise to an electric field which prevents
further diffusion of holes and electrons across the depletion layer.
In this case, no net current flows across the junction

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 13

Built in potential barrier
Electrons in the conduction band of the N-region see a potential barrier in trying to
move into the conduction band of the P-region. It is denoted by Vbi
This built in potential barrier maintains equilibrium between majority carrier electrons
in the N-region and minority carrier electrons in the P-region and also between majority
carrier holes in the P-region and minority carrier holes in the N-region.
The intrinsic Fermi level is equidistant from the conduction band edge through the
junction, thus the built in potential barrier can be determined as the difference between
the intrinsic Fermi levels in the P and N regions.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 14

As shown in the figure, we can have the potentials φFn and φFp. So

Vbi   Fn   Fp
k BT  N D  k BT  N A 
Vbi  ln    ln  
e  i 
n e  ni 
k T N N  N N 
or Vbi  B ln  D A   Vt ln  D A 
e  ni   ni 
k BT
where Vt  is known as thermal voltage
e
Vt is approximately VT  0.026 V at room temperature, T  300 K .

Na and Nd are the net acceptor and donor concentrations in the P- and N-regions

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 15

Application of Bias
Application of an external voltage to the P-N junction is known as biasing.

P-N junction diodes are generally studied under two biasing conditions mainly .
a. Forward bias b. Reverse bias
A. Forward bias
When an external voltage is applied to a P-N junction in such a way that it cancels
the potential barrier and permits current flow is called forward bias.
In this case, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type
semiconductor and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to N-type
semiconductor.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 16

In the case of forward bias, the applied forward potential produces an electric field
opposite to the potential barrier. The holes from the P-type are repelled by the positive
battery terminal and will move towards the junction.
At the same time, the electrons in the N-type semiconductor are repelled by the
negative battery terminal and will move towards the junction.
The applied voltage should be high enough so that the carriers should overcome the
potential barrier at the junction.
When the potential barrier is eliminated by the forward bias junction resistance
becomes almost zero.
Thus the constant movement of electrons towards the positive terminal and holes
towards the negative terminal produces a high forward current.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 17

C. Reverse bias
When an external voltage is applied to a P-N junction in such a way that it increases
the potential barrier then it is called reverse bias.
In this case, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-type
semiconductor and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to P-type
semiconductor.
In the case of reverse bias, the applied forward potential produces an electric field
which is acting in the same direction of the potential barrier. Thus the width of the
depletion layer increases.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 18

The holes from the P-type and the electrons in the N-type are attracted away from the
junction. Thus produces no current in the circuit.

So a P-N junction is one-way device which offers a low resistance when forward
biased and behaves like insulator when reverse biased.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 19

V-I characteristics of P-N junction
Forward bias
• In this P-type is connected to positive terminal and N-type is connected to the
negative terminal
• When the applied voltage crosses the junction voltage, the depletion layer is
completely eliminated.
• So a forward current starts flowing in the circuit when the applied voltage is beyond
the threshold voltage (0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge). This voltage is known as cut in
voltage or Knee voltage.
• Beyond this voltage the current increases exponentially with voltage.
Reverse bias
 In this P-type is connected to negative terminal and N-type is connected to the
positive terminal.
 The depletion layer width increases with applied voltage. Therefore the junction
resistance becomes very high and no current flows through the circuit.
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 20
 But, the minority carriers (electrons in P-type and holes in N-type) will contribute
a small current of the order of microampere. This current is known as reverse
current.
 As the reverse voltage is increased from zero, after a certain voltage, the reverse
current suddenly raises to maximum value.
 In addition to reverse current, there exists a current known as surface leakage
current in reverse bias. This surface current arises due to the impurities on the
surface of the semiconductor.
 If the reverse voltage is increased further, the minority charge carriers achieve
more kinetic energy so that they can knock out electrons and holes from the
semiconductor atoms.
 The voltage above which the knocking out of electrons happens is known as
breakdown voltage. A t this point the depletion layer is destroyed completely. So
the current increases with Dr.
voltage.
L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 21
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 22
Energy band diagrams in P-N junction

Figure 1 shows the energy band diagram of P-N junction in thermal equilibrium. In
this case the potential barrier seen by the electrons holds back the large concentration
of electrons in the N-region and keeps them from flowing into the P-type. Similarly the
potential barrier seen by the holes holds back the large concentration of holes in the P
region and keeps them flowing in to the n-region.
Figure 2 shows the energy band diagrams for the case of forward biased P-N junction.
The Fermi level in the P-region is now lower than in the N-region. The total barrier is
now reduced.
Figure 3 shows the energy band diagram for the case of reverse biased P-N junction.
The potential of N-region is positive with respect to P-region so the Fermi energy in the
N-region is lower that in the P-region. Thus the potential barrier is larger than that of
zero biased case.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 23

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 24
Built in potential barrier

Electrons in the conduction band of the N-region see a potential barrier in trying to
move into the conduction band of the P-region. It is denoted by Vbi
This built in potential barrier maintains equilibrium between majority carrier electrons
in the N-region and minority carrier electrons in the P-region and also between majority
carrier holes in the P-region and minority carrier holes in the N-region.
The intrinsic Fermi level is equidistant from the conduction band edge through the
junction, thus the built in potential barrier can be determined as the difference between
the intrinsic Fermi levels in the P and N regions.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 25

Vbi   Fn   Fp .......................(1)
In the N - region, the electron concentration in the conduction band is givenby
 E -E 
no  N c exp  F C 
 k BT 
 E -E 
ni  N c exp  Fi C 
 k BT 
 E -E 
Hence, no  ni exp  F Fi 
 k BT 
where ni is the int rinsic carrier concentration and EFi is the int rinsic Fermi energy
 e 
From the figure EF - EFi  e Fn , therefore no  ni exp  Fn 
 k BT 
if all the donor atoms are ionized , then
 e 
no  N D  ni exp  Fn 
 k BT 
e N 
or Fn  - ln  D 
k BT  ni 
k BT  N D 
 Fn  - ln   ..............................................(2)
e  ni 
k T N 
Similarly one can derive  Fp  B ln  A  ..............(3)
e  ni 
Substituting equations 2 and 3 in equation 1
k BT  N D  k BT  N A 
Vbi  ln    ln  
e  ni  e  ni 
k T N N  N N 
or Vbi  B ln  D A   Vt ln  D A 
e  ni   ni 
k BT Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 26
where Vt  is known as thermal voltage
e
Direct and Indirect band gap of semiconductors
Based on the structure of energy bands, the semiconductors are classified into two types
1. Direct band gap semiconductor s 2. Indirect band gap semiconductors
Direct band gap semiconductor Indirect band gap semiconductors

1. Semiconductors for which maximum 1. Semiconductors for which maximum of

of valence band and minimum of valence band and minimum of conduction
conduction band lie for same value of band do not occur for same value of k
k (momentum), called direct band gap (momentum), called indirect band gap
semiconductors. semiconductors.
2. Ex: GaAs, InP, CdS etc 2. Ex: Silicon and Germanium
3. The efficiency factor is higher. Thus, 3. The efficiency factor is lower.
they are always preferred for making
optical sources. Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 27
 Direct band gap semiconductor Indirect band gap semiconductors
4. Life time (recombination time) of the 4. Life time (recombination time) of the
charge carriers is very less charge carriers is high
5. They are used for the fabrication of 5. Due to longer life time of charge
applications in LEDs and Laser diodes. carriers, They are used to amplify the
signals as in the case of diodes and
transistors.
6. 6.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 28

Magnetoresistance of semiconductors
The magnetoresistance is defined as the ratio of change in resistance of a substance
due to application of magnetic field to its resistance in zero field.
When magnetic field is applied normal to the current flow, the effect is termed as
transverse magnetoresistance and when field is applied parallel to the current flow, it is
termed as longitudinal magnetoresistance.

The simplest description of the Hall effect does not account for such a change in
resistance because it is assumed all charge carriers have the same sign and that they all
travel with the same velocity. A more detailed analysis of the dynamics of charge
carriers in semiconductors leads to the result that if there are both electrons and holes
participating in the conduction or if the carriers indeed have a velocity distribution, then
the Lorentz force due to the magnetic field and the electric force due to the Hall field
may not cancel for each electron and each hole.
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 29
That implies curved paths for some charge carriers leading to a decrease in the mean
drift velocity. The effect is observed as a decrease in the electrical conductivity
corresponding to increases in the applied magnetic field.

If ρ0 is the resistivity of the semiconductor at zero field.

ρ is resistivity at a magnetic field H.
Similarly R and RH represent corresponding resistances.
At smaller fields, the transverse magnetoresistance

  - 0
  H2
0 0
or
R R - R0
  H2
R0 R0

However, in higher field the dependence is quite often linear.

In case of longitudinal magnetoresistance, the above equation holds except that the
constant of proportionality is much
Dr. L. N.smaller
Patro, GITAMthan thatBangalore
University, of the transverse case. 30
Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are basically forward biased P-N junction diodes that
converts electrical energy into light energy due to recombination of electron-hole pairs.
Most of the LEDs use direct band gap semiconductors
They emit radiations in the UV, visible or IR regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
To get a desired colored LED, one should choose the materials with the right
band gap Eg. Optical wavelength generated by an LED is given by,
hc
 Ec - EV  Eg


The light emission from a semiconductor involves basically three processes

The first is an excitation process in which an electron-hole pairs are produced.
The second process is the recombination process in which the excited carriers give up
their energy either through a radiative or nonradiative process. The third process is the
extraction or passage emitted photons from the active region of the semiconductor to the
observer. Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 31
Principle
LED works under the principle of electroluminescence.
Luminescence is the process of emission of radiation from a solid, when some form
of energy supplied to it. In the case of electroluminescence, excitation results from the
electric field.
In LEDs electroluminescence takes place in the following way
An LED will be just like a normal diode under no bias condition.
Under forward bias, the majority carriers from the both sides of the junction can
cross the depletion region and enter the other side.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 32

After entering the majority carriers into the other side they become minority carriers.
For example electrons in N-type (majority carriers) enter to the P-type become minority
carriers. Thus minority carriers will become larger due to minority carrier injection.
Minority carriers will diffuse and recombine with majority carriers For example, the
injected electrons as minority carriers in the P-region will recombine with the holes
where they are the majority carrier in the P-region.
The recombination causes light to be emitted and this process is termed as radiative
recombination.

Construction of LED

33
Advantages
 Longer lifetime
 Operates very fast. They can be turned on and off in very less time.
 Consume low energy
 They can emit different colors of light
 They generate very little heat
 They also fit more easily into modern electronic circuits
 LEDs do not contain toxic material like mercury which is used in fluorescent lamps.
So they are environmentally friendly. Semiconductor
Wavelength Colour
Applications Material
GaAs 850-940 nm Infra-Red
oCalculators, Multimeters GaAsP 630-660 nm Red
oTraffic signals GaAsP:N 585-595 nm Yellow
oDigital computers, Microprocessors AlGaP 550-570 nm Green
oDigital watches SiC 430-505 nm Blue
GaInN
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 450 nm White
34
oCamera flashes
Photovoltaic Cell (or) Solar Cell

A solar cell is a solid state device that converts solar energy into electrical energy.
The principle of solar cell is opposite of an LED (Light emitting diode)
It is also known as photovoltaic cell. It works on the principle of photovoltaic effect.
The generation of voltage across the P-N junction due to the absorption of light
radiation is called photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic energy conversion relies on the number of photons striking the earth.
Construction
Solar cell consists of a n-type semiconductor (emitter) layer and p-type
semiconductor layer (base). The two layers are sandwiched and hence there is
formation of p-n junction.

The surface is coated with anti-refection coating to avoid the loss of incident light
energy due to reflection.
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 35
A proper metal contacts are made on the N-type and P-type side of the semiconductor
for electrical connection

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 36

Single solar cell and Solar panels
It consists of the N-type layer sandwiched with P-type layer.
It can produce only a small amount of electricity and find applications in many small
electronic appliances like watches, calculators
A solar panel or solar array consisting of a number of interconnected solar cells are
used for large applications to get efficient power.
More energy can be produced in solar panels since the absorption area is high.
They are embedded between two glass plates to protect from the bad whether.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 37

Advantages
Consumes no fuel.
No pollution
Environment friendly
High power to weight ratio
Disadvantages
Initial cost
Require large land to achieve average efficiency
Air pollution and weather can also have large effect on the efficiency of the cells
Applications
Renewable power
Power for remote locations
Ocean navigations: many light houses are now powered by solar cells
Telecommunications: Radio transceivers on mountain tops
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 38
Satellites