INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY (IU)

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HCMC

SCHOOL OF BIOTECHNOLOGY (BT)
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PRE-LABORATORY 2
ORGANIC COMPOSITIONS OF THE CELL

Course name: Biology (BT155IU)

Instructor: MSc. Tống Thị Hằng
Academic year: 2022-2023

Student name: Mai Minh Trang

Student ID: BTCEIU21011
 PRACTICAL 2: ORGANIC COMPOSITION OF THE CELLS

1. What are 4 classes of biological macromolecules and building blocks?

The four basic classes of biological macromolecules are Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and
Nucleic acid.
- Carbohydrates have the monomer of basic sugar which is known as monosaccharides.
- The building block of lipids are fatty acids and glycerol C3H5(OH)3.
- Proteins are made up of amino acids.
- Nucleic acids are the chain of nucleotides.

2. Describe structure of carbohydrate (starch, sugar)

Carbohydrates are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O), represented by the
stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, where n is a ratio of hydrogen twice that of carbon and
oxygen. Carbohydrates can be divided into three main types: monosaccharides, disaccharides,
and polysaccharides.

Starch is the primary example of polysaccharides comprising glucose monomers joined in α

1,4linkages or 1-6 glycosidic bonds. Starch is stored in form of sugar in plants and it is a mixture
of amylose and amylopectin.

- Amylose is an unbranched linear chain that is made up of glucose monomers linked together
byα 1-4 linkages.

- Amylopectin is a branched polysaccharide and contains both α 1-4 or α 1-6 glycosidic bonds.
While α 1-4 linkages connect the monomers in the same chain together, α 1-6 glycosidic bonds
appear only at the branch points.

Simple sugar can be considered as monosaccharide molecule and has a form of single monomer
units, including glucose, fructose, and galactose. The combination of two monosaccharides
creates disaccharides or double sugars. They are joined together by the glycosidic bonds.
Common examples of this are sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose),and
maltose (two molecules of glucose).
3. What is the difference between Lugol and Iodine solution? How can we prepare
them?

Lugol solution Iodine solution

Lugol solution is a mixture of Lugol solution is a mixture of

5% Iodine (I2) and 10% predominantly Iodine (I2)
Definition potassium iodine (KI) in distilled moleculesand less amount of
water. potassium iodine (KI).

- Mix up distilled water with - Mix up distilled water with

potassium iodine 4%
- Then use a non-metal spoon
or spatula to stir until the
potassium iodine completely
dissolved
Preparation
- Add the iodine crystal 2% to
the mixture and redo the
second step.
- After the crystal dissolved,
cover the solution with non-
metal cover for 10 to 12 hours.
potassium iodine 9.5-10.5%
- Then use a non-metal spoon or
spatula to stir until the potassium
iodine completely dissolved
- Add the iodine crystal 4.5-5.5% to
the mix and redo the second step.
- After the crystal dissolved, cover
the solution with a non-metal cover
for 10 to 12 hours.

4. Describe structure of protein.

Proteins are polymers, which are macromolecules composed of a long chain of amino
acids. Peptide bonds are created when amino acids combine. A dipeptide is a
combination of two amino acids, whereas a polypeptide is a chain of numerous amino
acids. There are around 20distinct types of amino acids, resulting in approximately
20.000 protein combinations. Proteins can be classified into four types of structures:
primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
- The primary structure of proteins is considered as linear, simple chains of amino acids.
- When hydrogen bonds are formed between the hydroxyl (-OH) group and the
hydrogen molecule of the neighboring amino acids, the chains are folding, creating the
 secondary protein structure. Secondary protein structures can be divided into two
types: the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet.
- The tertiary structure of proteins in 3D is created by additional folding of secondary
proteins. To be more specific, the tertiary protein structure is created when amino acid
side chains interact with one another and bonds are created as well. The formation of
this structure involves hydrogen bonds, electrostatic or ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or
hydrophobic bonds.
+ The combination of the hydroxyl (OH) group with a nearby hydrogen molecule results
in a hydrogen bond, which provides a strong binding between polar R groups.
+ Electrostatic or ionic bonds are formed between the positive and negative charges.
+ Disulfide bonds are covalent bonds which are stronger than other forms of bonds
because they originate between sulfur-containing side chains. The disulfide bonds
function in holding the tertiary structure of the protein in place.
+ The interaction of non-polar groups creates hydrophobic bonds.
- The combination of several polypeptide chains leads to the formation of the
quaternary protein structure. Proteins are fully functional and play a key role in many
parts of the body thank to their quaternary structure. Hemoglobin, which is made up of
four polypeptide chains and is uniquely designed to bind oxygen in the blood, is the
most significant example of this.

5. How would you prepare 100 ml of 0.5% CuSO4 solution from CuSO4.5H2O (MW =
250)?

- Step 1: For the preparation of 100 ml of 0.5% CuSO4 solution, we can take 0.5g of
CuSO4 in100ml solution.
- Step 2: The molar mass of CuSO4 is 160g/mol and the molar mass of CuSO4.5H2O is
250g/mol.
0.5 x 250
- Step 3: Mass of CuSO4.5H2O to weigh out 0.5g CuSO4 is ≈0.8(g). So, to
160
prepare 100 ml of 0.5% CuSO4 solution from CuSO4.5H2O, 0.8 grams of CuSO4.5H2O is
needed.

6. Where can we find lipids in plant cells and animal cells?

In plant cells, lipids are mostly found at plasma membrane and vacuoles.
In animal cells, lipids can be found in many places
7. Describe the structure of nucleic acid.

There are two types of nucleic acid, which are considered as deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). They both share the basic structure of
polynucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three components: a nitrogenous base, a
pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate groups. Nitrogenous bases are the most
important components among the three as each nitrogenous base can attach to a sugar
molecule and then combines with one or more phosphate groups. Each nucleic acid
comprises four of the five nitrogen bases: adenine (A), guanine (G),cytosine (C),
thymine (T), and uracil (U). While A and G are categorized as purines, C, T, and U are
collectively called pyrimidines. Nucleotides in the same strand can link to each other by
the phosphodiester linkage. Furthermore, the pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, and
in RNA, it is ribose. - DNA has a double-helix structure as the two stands have different
directions which means that the 5 end of one strand is paired up with the 3 end of its
matching strand′ ′ . The sugar and phosphate molecules are located on the outside of
the helix, forming the DNA back bone. Nucleotides from different strands connect by
hydrogen bonds. However, only certain types of base pairing are allowed. This means
that A can pair up with T and G can link to C. So, there are two types of bonds
presenting in DNA structure, phosphodiester and hydrogen bonding. - Different from
DNA, RNA structure is a single strand. In RNA, there is only phosphodiester bonding. In
this case, A can pair up with U instead of T since the sugar in RNA (ribose) by the
absence of a hydroxyl group (―OH) on the 2 carbon of the sugar ring differs from the
pentose′ sugar in DNA (2 -deoxyribose′). RNA are diverse in shape and types:
messenger RNA (mRNA),ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and regulatory
RNAs.

8. In the forthcoming practical session, you will have to use a number of

different chemical solutions: Lugol solution, concentrated HCl, NaOH, CuSO4, Soudan
III, 20% Ethanol and glycerin. List three solutions, which are most potentially toxic and
thus require caution while handling, in your opinion. Explain your reason.

The three solutions which are most potentially toxic and thus require caution while
handling is the Lugol solution, concentrated HCl and Soudan III.

Lugol solution Lugol solution is distinguished by its iodine level, which

ranges from 1%to 5%. Overdoes of iodine can cause
metabolic acidosis, renal failure, hypotension, and
 circulatory collapse. The addition of 2 to 4 grams of
iodine to the Lugol solution may result in death.

Hydrochloric acid is a dangerous liquid that must be

handled with caution. The acid itself is caustic, and
concentrated forms produce deadly acidic mists. Because
of its corrosive nature, the US Environmental Protection
Concentrated HCl Agency (US EPA) has classified HCl at concentrations of
37%and above as a hazardous material. Concentrated
HCl, if not handled cautiously, can cause harm to our
skin, eyes, and internal organs. In severe circumstances,
the harm might be irreparable or even fatal.

Soudan III is considered as a hazardous substance. As it

comes into the eyes, this material can cause eye
irritation and damage in some persons. Soudan III also
can cause inflammation of the skin contact in some
persons. If you accidentally inhale it, it can lead to some
Soudan III
respiratory problems and it is even more worst when
persons with impaired respiratory function, airway
diseases and conditions such as emphysema or chronic
bronchitis, may incur further disability if excessive
concentrations of particulate are inhaled.