1. What are 4 classes of biological macromolecules and their building blocks?

 Proteins (polymers of amino acids)

 Carbohydrates (polymers of sugars)
 Lipids (polymers of lipid monomers)
 Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA; polymers of nucleotides)

2. Describe structure of carbohydrate (starch, sugar).

- Carbohydrates consist of the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
with a ratio ofhydrogen twice that of carbon and oxygen. Carbohydrates include
sugars, starches, cellulose andmany other compounds found in living organisms. In
their basic form, carbohydrates are simplesugars or monosaccharides. These simple
sugars can combine with each other to form morecomplex carbohydrates. The
combination of two simple sugars is a disaccharide. Carbohydratesconsisting of two
to ten simple sugars are called oligosaccharides, and those with a largernumber are
called polysaccharides.
 Sugar: (also known as simple sugars) form single monomer units
and are morecommonly known as simple carbohydrates. These
monosaccharide molecules cannot bebroken down during digestion and have a
general chemical formula of CnH2nOn wherebythe n stands for the whole
number of atoms present.
 Starch: consisting of long carbohydrate chains of sugar molecules
that are linkedtogether. The type of linking bond is important as these will
determine what kind ofcomplex molecule it forms. For example, glucose
molecules are linked together by alpha-1,4 and alpha-1,6 glucosidic
bonds while cellulose also consists of linked glucosemolecules
however these are linked by beta-1,4 glucosidic bonds.
3. What is the difference between Lugol and Iodine solution? How can we prepare
them?

Lugol
- Is a solution of potassium iodine and
iodine in distilled water
- Way to prepare:
+ Mix up distilled water with
potassium iodine 4%
+ Then use non-metal spoon or
spatula to stir until the potassium
iodine completely dissolved
+ Add the iodine crystal 2% to the
Iodine
- Is predominantly iodine molecules
- Way to prepare:
+ Mix up distilled water with potassium
iodine 9.5-10.5%
+ Then use non-metal spoon or spatula
to stir until the potassium iodine
completely dissolved
+ Add the iodine crystal 4.5-5.5% to the
mix and redo the second step.
 mix and redo the second step. + After the crystal dissolved, coverthe
+ After the crystal dissolved, cover solution with non-metal cover for 10 to
the solution with non-metal cover 12 hours.
for 10 to 12 hours.

4. Describe structure of protein.

- Proteins are polymers of amino acids, formed by long chains of amino acids
joined together by peptide bonds. These bonds are formed by condensation
reactions which allow two single amino acid molecules to join together forming a
dipeptide molecule and water. There are four levels of protein structure. The
primary structure is the order of amino acids in the peptide. Secondary structure is
the folding of the polypeptide chain due to hydrogen bonding into an alpha helix
structure, resembling a coiled spring, or a beta pleated sheet. Tertiary structure is
the 3-D folding due to ionic and disulphide bonds between sulphur molecules in
distant parts of the chain. These bonds may also be hydrogen bonds which occur
between distant parts of the chain. The majority of proteins, such as enzymes,
only exhibit primary, secondary and tertiary structure. Some proteins, such as
haemoglobin, have quarternary structure which is when the protein has two or
more polypeptide chains joined together.

5. How would you prepare 100 ml of 0.5% CuSO4 solution from CuSO4.5H2O
(MW = 250)?
CuSO4.5H2 -> CuSO4 + 5H2O
This is 0.5g of CuSO4 in 100ml of solution
Molar mass CuSO4.5H2O = 249.7 g/mol
Molar mass CuSO4 =159.6 g/mol
Mass of CuSO4.5H2O to weigh out to give 0.5g CuSO4 = 0.5*249.7/159.6 = 0.78g
CuSO4.5H2O
Weigh out 0.78g of CuSO4.5H2O , dissolve in some water - make up to a final
volume of 100 ml in a volumetric flask.
6. Where can we find lipid in plant cells and animal cells?
- Plant cells: Plasma membrane and vacuole.
- Animal cells: Many places. (As fatty lipid)
7. Describe structure of nucleic acid.
- Nucleic acids exist as polymer called polynucleotides.
- Each polynucleotide consists of monomers called nucleotides. Each nucleotide
made of 5-Csugar (deoxyribose and ribose), phosphate group and nitrogen base
 (A, T, C, G, U). Thoseadjacent nucleotides are linked by a phosphodiester bond to
incorporate into polynucleotide.
- Nucleic Acids also have four levels of structure as same as protein.

8. In the forthcoming practical session, you will have to use a number of different
chemical solutions: Lugol solution, concentrated HCl, NaOH, CuSO4, Soudan
III, 20% Ethanol and glycerin. List three solutions, which are most potentially
toxic and thus require caution while handling, in your opinion. Explain your
reason.
- Three solutions which are most potentially toxic and thus require caution while
handling in myopinion is concentrated HCl, Lugol solution and Soudan III
because HCl is strong acid, Lugolhave the idodide from 1% to 5%, so it is still
harmful and Soudan III is a toxic with red color, itcan go to the body through
food, drink,…