Trần Vinh Quang

BTCEIU21113
PRELAB 2
1. What are 4 classes of biological macromolecules and their
building blocks?
The four basic classes of biological macromolecules are Carbohydrates,
Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic acid.
- Carbohydrates have the monomer of basic sugar which is known as
monosaccharides.
- The building blocks of lipids are fatty acids and glycerol C3H5(OH)3.
- Proteins are made up of amino acids.
- Nucleic acids are the chain of nucleotides.
2. Describe the structure of carbohydrates (starch, sugar).
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen
(O), represented by the stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, where n is a
ratio of hydrogen twice that of carbon and oxygen.
Carbohydrates can be divided into three main types: monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Starch is the primary example of polysaccharides comprising glucose
monomers joined in α 1,4 linkages or 1-6 glycosidic bonds. Starch is
stored in form of sugar in plants and it is a mixture of amylose and
amylopectin.
- Amylose is an unbranched linear chain that is made up of glucose
monomers linked together by α 1-4 linkages.
- Amylopectin is a branched polysaccharide and contains both α 1-4 or α
1-6 glycosidic bonds. While α 1-4 linkages connect the monomers in the
same chain together, α 1-6 glycosidic bonds appear only at the branch
points.
Simple sugar can be considered as a monosaccharide molecule and has
a form of single monomer units, including glucose, fructose, and
galactose. The combination of two monosaccharides creates
disaccharides or double sugars. They are joined together by the
glycosidic bonds. Common examples of this are sucrose (glucose +
fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (two molecules of
glucose).
3. What is the difference between Lugol and Iodine? How can we
prepare them?

Lugol solution Iodine solution

Definition Lugol solution is a Lugol solution is a

mixture of 5% mixture of
Iodine (I2) and 10% predominantly Iodine
potassium iodine (I2) molecules
(KI) in distilled water. and less amount of
potassium iodine (KI)
 Preparation -Mix up distilled water Mix up distilled water
with with potassium iodine
potassium iodine 4% 9.5-10.5%
-Then use a non-metal -Then use a non-metal
spoon or spatula to spoon or
stir until the spatula to stir until
potassium iodine the potassium iodine
completely dissolved completely dissolved
-Add the iodine -Add the iodine
crystal 2% to the crystal 4.5-5.5%
mixture and redo the to the mix and redo
second step. the second step.
-After the crystal -After the crystal
dissolved, cover the dissolved, cover
solution with the solution with a
non-metal cover for non-metal cover
10 to 12 hours for 10 to 12 hours

4.Describe the structure of protein.

Proteins are polymers, which are macromolecules composed of a long
chain of amino acids. Peptide bonds are created when amino acids
combine. A dipeptide is a combination of two amino acids, whereas a
polypeptide is a chain of numerous amino acids. There are around 20
distinct types of amino acids, resulting in approximately 20.000 protein
combinations. Proteins can be classified into four types of structures:
primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
- The primary structure of proteins is considered as linear, simple chains
of amino acids.
- When hydrogen bonds are formed between the hydroxyl (-OH) group
and the hydrogen molecule of the neighboring amino acids, the chains
are folding, creating the secondary protein structure. Secondary protein
structures can be divided into two types: the α-helix and the β- pleated
sheet.
- The tertiary structure of proteins in 3D is created by additional folding of
secondary proteins. To be more specific, the tertiary protein structure is
created when amino acid side chains
interact with one another and bonds are created as well. The formation
of this structure involves hydrogen bonds, electrostatic or ionic bonds,
covalent bonds, or hydrophobic bonds.
+ The combination of the hydroxyl (OH) group with a nearby hydrogen
molecule results in a hydrogen bond, which provides a strong binding
between polar R groups.
+ Electrostatic or ionic bonds are formed between the positive and
negative charges.
+ Disulfide bonds are covalent bonds which are stronger than other
forms of bonds because they originate between sulfur-containing side
chains. The disulfide bonds function in holding the
tertiary structure of the protein in place.
+ The interaction of non-polar groups creates hydrophobic bonds.
- The combination of several polypeptide chains leads to the formation of
the quaternary protein structure. Proteins are fully functional and play a
key role in many parts of the body thank to their quaternary structure.
Hemoglobin, which is made up of four polypeptide chains and is uniquely
designed to bind oxygen in the blood, is the most significant example of
this
5. How would you prepare 100 ml of 0.5% CuSO4 solution from
CuSO4.5H2O (MW = 250)?
- Step 1: For the preparation of 100 ml of 0.5% CuSO4 solution, we can
take 0.5g of CuSO4 in 100ml solution.
- Step 2: The molar mass of CuSO4 is 160g/mol and the molar mass of
CuSO4.5H2O is 250g/mol.
- Step 3: Mass of CuSO4.5H2O to weigh out 0.5g CuSO4 is
(0.5×250)/160~0.8 (g)
So, to prepare 100 ml of 0.5% CuSO4 solution from CuSO4.5H2O, 0.8
grams of CuSO4.5H2O is needed
6. Where can we find lipids in plant cells and animal cells?

In plant cells, lipids are mostly found at plasma membranes and

vacuoles.

In animal cells, lipids can be found in many place

7. Describe the structure of nucleic acid.

There are two types of nucleic acid, which are considered as
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). They both
share the basic structure of polynucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of
three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or
more phosphate groups. Nitrogenous bases are the most important
components among the three as each nitrogenous base can attach to a
sugar molecule and then combines with one or more phosphate
groups. Each nucleic acid comprises four of the five nitrogen bases:
adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U). While
A and G are categorized as purines, C, T, and U are collectively called
pyrimidines. Nucleotides in the same strand can link to each other by the
phosphodiester linkage. Furthermore, the pentose sugar in DNA is
deoxyribose, and in RNA, it is ribose.
- DNA has a double-helix structure as the two stands have different
directions which means that the 5’ end of one strand is paired up with
the 3’ end of its matching strand . The sugar and phosphate molecules
are located on the outside of the helix, forming the DNA backbone.
Nucleotides from different strands connect by hydrogen bonds. However,
only certain types of base pairing are allowed. This means that A can
pair up with T and G can link to C. So, there are two types of bonds
present in DNA structure, phosphodiester and hydrogen bonding.
- Different from DNA, RNA structure is a single strand. In RNA, there is
only phosphodiester bonding. In this case, A can pair up with U instead
of T since the sugar in RNA (ribose) by the absence of a hydroxyl group
(―OH) on the 2’ carbon of the sugar ring differs from the pentose sugar
in DNA (2’ -deoxyribose). RNA are diverse in shape and types:
messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA),
and regulatory RNAs.
8. In the forthcoming practical session, you will have to use a
number of different chemical solutions: Lugol solution,
concentrated HCl, NaOH, CuSO4, Soudan III, 20% Ethanol and
glycerin. List three solutions, which are most potentially toxic and
thus require caution while handling, in your opinion. Explain your
reason.
The three solutions which are most potentially toxic and thus require
caution while handling is the
Lugol solution, concentrated HCl and Soudan III

Lugol solution Lugol solution is distinguished by its

iodine level, which ranges from 1%
to 5%. Overdose of iodine can cause
metabolic acidosis, renal failure,
hypotension, and circulatory collapse.
The addition of 2 to 4 grams of iodine to
the Lugol solution may result in death.

Concentrated HCl Hydrochloric acid is a dangerous liquid

that must be handled with caution. The
acid itself is caustic, and concentrated
forms produce deadly acidic mists.
Because of its corrosive nature, the US
Environmental Protection Agency (US
EPA) has classified HCl at
concentrations of 37% and above as a
hazardous material. Concentrated HCl,
if not handled cautiously, can cause
harm to our skin, eyes, and internal
organs. In severe circumstances, the
harm might be irreparable or even fatal

Soudan III Soudan III is considered as a hazardous

substance. As it comes into the eyes,
this material can cause eye irritation
and damage in some persons. Soudan
III also can cause inflammation of the
skin contact in some persons. If you
accidentally inhale it, it can lead to
some respiratory problems and it is
even more worse when persons with
impaired respiratory function, airway
diseases and conditions such as
emphysema or chronic bronchitis, may
incur further disability if excessive
concentrations of particulate are inhaled