BIOCHEMISTRY

MODULE 2

CARBOHYDRATES

LEARNING ASSESSMENT:

( Use 3 sheets of bond paper only )

1. Write the open chain structural formula of the

following Aldoses:
A. Aldotriose
B. Aldotetrose
C. Aldopentose
D. D – Glucose
E. D – Galactose

2. Write the open chain structural formula of the following ketoses:

A. D – ketotetrose
B. D – Ketopentose
C. D – ketohexose

3. Describe the difference between complex and simple carbohydrates. Identify the amounts of
each recommended in the daily diet.

 As a source of energy, complex carbohydrates are the better choice. Complex carbs pack
in more nutrients than simple carbs. They’re higher in fiber and digest more slowly. This
also makes them more filling, which means they’re a good option for weight control.
They’re also ideal for people with type 2 diabetes because they help manage blood sugar
spikes after meals. Simple carbohydrates, or sugars, are made up of shorter chains of
molecules and are quicker to digest than complex carbohydrates. This fact means that
simple carbohydrates produce a spike in blood glucose, providing the body with a short-
lasting source of energy. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends that
carbohydrates make up 45 to 65 percent of your total daily calories. So, if you get 2,000
calories a day, between 900 and 1,300 calories should be from carbohydrates. That
translates to between 225 and 325 grams of carbohydrates a day.

4. Describe the concepts of chirality, enantiomers, stereoisomers, and the D and L-families.
  Chirality relates to the study of the three-dimensional structure of molecules. The term
comes from the Greek root kheir-, hand, and means "handedness." Chirality, or
handedness, means that an object or molecule cannot be superimposed on its mirror
image by any translations or rotations.
 Enantiomers are chemical isomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each
other. Therefore, two enantiomers of a chemical compound will have the same chemical
bonds but completely opposite three-dimensional structures.
 Stereoisomers are isomers that differ in spatial arrangement of atoms, rather than order of
atomic connectivity. One of their most interesting type of isomer is the mirror-image
stereoisomers, a non-superimposable set of two molecules that are mirror image of one
another.
 D and L notation is a convenient shorthand for identifying enantiomer. D- glucose, for
example is the enantiomer of L-Glucose. L-Alanine is the D- Alanine enantiomer. It has
been assigned as follows. For a sugae in the Fischer projection formula, with the most
oxidized carbon on top.

5. Discuss the use of the Benedict's reagent to measure the level of

glucose in urine. Draw and name the common, simple
carbohydrates using structural formulas and Fischer projection
formulas.

 Benedict’s Test is used to test for simple carbohydrates.

The Benedict’s test identifies reducing sugars
(monosaccharide’s and some disaccharides), which have
free ketone or aldehyde functional groups. Benedict’s
solution can be used to test for the presence of glucose in
urine.
 Some sugars such as glucose are called reducing sugars because
they are capable of transferring hydrogens (electrons) to other compounds, a process
called reduction. When reducing sugars are mixed with
Benedicts reagent and heated, a reduction reaction
causes the Benedicts reagent to change color. The color
varies from green to dark red (brick) or rusty-brown,
depending on the amount of and type of sugar.
 Benedict’s quantitative reagent contains potassium
thiocyanate and is used to determine how much
reducing sugar is present. This solution forms a copper
thiocyanate precipitate which is white and can be used
in a titration. The titration should be repeated with 1%
glucose solution instead of the sample for calibration.
  Use of the Benedict's reagent to measure the level of glucose in urine. This test have been
used in old days to detect excess blood sugar in diabetic patients. This test shows positive
behavior for all reducing sugars which includes maltose and lactose and therefore not an
very good test for glucose in the urine.

6. Discuss the structural, chemical, and biochemical properties of the

monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharide

 Monosaccharide exists in both as straight chain structure and cyclic

structure .Sugars with five membered rings and with six membered
rings are most stable. Cyclic structures are the result of hemiacetal
formation by intermolecular reaction between carbonyl group and a
hydroxyl group.
 A monosaccharide has a general chemical formula of CnH2nOn and its chemical
structure is H(CHOH)nC=O(CHOH)mH. The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms
is often 2:1. An exception to this is deoxyribose, a type of monosaccharide found in
DNA. Because of this chemical formula rule, monosaccharides and other carbohydrates
are referred to as hydrates of carbon.
 Monosaccharides are often colorless, crystalline solids, and sweet-tasting. They can be
dissolved in water and occur as syrups or liquid sugar. Just like the other carbohydrates,
monosaccharides are organic compounds. They contain carbon covalently bound to other
atoms, especially Carbon-Carbon (C-C) and Carbon-Hydrogen (C-H).

Oligosaccharides

 Oligosaccharide is known as oligose, straight-chain or

branched chain saccharide containing 2 to 10 identical
or different monosaccharide units connected by
glycosidic bond. The physical and chemical properties
of oligosaccharide and monosaccharide are similar,
they both are soluble in water, and many
oligosaccharides have a sweet taste and can be oxidized
by Fehling solution.
 They are soluble in water or other polar solvents, with the discrimination of reductive
and non-reductive.
 Oligosaccharides represent carbohydrates that contain between 3 and 10 single sugar
residues and are not relatively abundant in the diet when compared to other more
common carbohydrates like those in the disaccharide category. Common
oligosaccharides include raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose.
 Polysaccharides

 Polysaccharides are characterized by the

following chemical properties: (1) not sweet in
taste, (2) many of which are insoluble in
water, (3) do not form crystals when
desiccated, (4) compact and not osmotically
active inside the cells, (5) can be extracted to
form white powder, and (6) general chemical
formula of Cx(H2O)y.
 Polysaccharides consist of hydrogen, carbon,
and oxygen, just as the other forms of carbohydrates. The ratio of hydrogen atoms to
oxygen atoms is often 2:1, which is why they are also described as hydrates of carbon.
The general chemical formula of polysaccharides is (C6H10O5)n. Because of the
presence of carbon and C-C and C-H covalent bonds, they are considered as organic
compounds similar to other carbohydrates.
 Polysaccharides are a type of biological macromolecule comprised of multiple
monosaccharide units.
 There are diverse forms of polysaccharides. Their structure ranges from a simple linear to
the more complex, highly branched forms. Many of them are heterogenous. Depending
on their composition, they may be amorphous or water-insoluble.

7. Differentiate galactosemia from lactose intolerance.

 Galactosemia is a genetic disorder that affects how certain sugars are broken down in the
body. Galactosemia is life threatening, lactose intolerance is not. Untreated galactosemia
causes brain damage, speech problems and reproductive problems; untreated lactose
intolerance causes diarrhea, bloating and intestinal cramping.

8. Draw the general formula of carbohydrates.