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Geological and geotechnical characteristics of Metro Manila volcanic soils and

their suitability for landfill soil liner

Article · May 2010

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 Suitability of Volcanic Soils in Metro Manila, Philippines for
Landfill Liner Material
S.G. Catane1, E.P.P. Mendoza1, C. S. Pascua2 and M.A.H. Zarco3
1
Engineering Geology Laboratory, National Institute of Geological Sciences, University of the Philippines-
Diliman, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines
2
Clay Minerals and Materials Laboratory, National Institute of Geological Sciences, University of the
Philippines-Diliman, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines
3
Institute of Civil Engineering, University of the Philippines-Diliman, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines

Abstract

This study investigates the mineralogy and geochemical characteristics of Metro Manila soils for
landfill liner material. Samples were taken at different locations around Metro Manila and were
analyzed for its clay content using XRD and XRF. The results show the predominance of smectite-
type clays in the fine-grained fraction of Metro Manila soils. Smectite has low hydraulic
conductivity, a characteristic desirable for landfill liner. Other minerals identified are quartz and
calcite. Most of the smectite-type clays are weathering products of volcanic glass, a dominant
component of the parental rock consisting mostly of andesitic pyroclastic rocks. The variable amount
of smectite-type clays in soils in different areas of Metro Manila is due to the differing degree of
weathering of volcanic glass, which is mainly controlled by micro-topography and drainage system
of the area.

Keywords: volcanic soils and sediments, landfill liner, Metro Manila, Philippines

Introduction dumpsites and their impending closure

In the Philippines, the need for a basic
understanding of the physio-chemical
characteristics of soils as construction
materials and for industrial purposes has
increased tremendously in the last two
decades. Increasing use of soil as construction
material and the growing need to use poorer
quality aggregates and soils in construction, as
well as land development of marginal soils
require thorough understanding of how the
mechanical and geochemical properties of soil
depend on its mineralogical composition and
and other properties. Recently, the use of soil
as barrier materials (e.g., landfill liners) and
the need to ensure that properties do not
change adversely over time spans of many
years or even millennia, especially in cases
involving the isolation of hazardous wastes, is
a controlling factor in environmental
protection.
underscore the need for engineered landfills.
Geology of Metro Manila
Based on the presence of both marine and
terrestrial mollusks, the area of Metro Manila
has been interpreted to be below sea level
during the early Pleistocene (Gervacio, 1968).
Intermittent volcanic eruptions from nearby
caldera centers namely Laguna and Taal
calderas located east and south of the
metropolis, led to deposition of volcanic
gravity flows which filled up the shallow basin
(Catane and Arpa, 1999; Catane et al., 2005).
During repose periods, volcanic sediments are
reworked to form lahars and epiclastic
sediments. The end of each volcanic episode is
marked by soil horizon. Interbeds of tuff and
re-deposited sediments each with a soil
capping is typical sequence of Metro Manila
deposits.

Metro Manila is one of the most densely Subsurface Soils and Sediments
populated centers (12 million) in the world.
The estimated 6,700 tons per day of refuse Geologic mapping and various subsurface
diverted to uncontrolled open municipal investigations showed that Metro Manila is

S.G. Catane, E.P.P. Mendoza, C.S. Pascua, and M.A.H. Zarco 1

underlain by a thick sequence of pyroclastic
and epiclastic deposits (Tan, 1983; Catane and
Arpa, 1999). Pyroclastic deposits are primary
volcanic rocks (mainly tuff) derived from
eruptions of nearby volcanoes while epiclastic
deposits are products of reworking of
pyroclastic deposits such as river (fluvial) and
lake deposition. Tan (1983) described the
fluvial deposits to be typically consists of
loose to firm silty fine sand layer near the
surface. They are underlain by very soft clayey
silt or silty clay that usually gets firmer at the
bottom. These materials are in turn underlain
by stiff to very stiff clay; then, by hard clay
and silt interspersed with dense to very dense
sand and/or gravel that grade into the
underlying sound bedrock. The thicknesses
and lateral extents of the layers are
unpredictable. For instance, it is not unusual
for boreholes in a subsurface exploration of a
building to show different thicknesses of the
layers or for layers in one borehole to be Fig. 1. Map of Metro Manila showing
observed in nearby boreholes. the location of boreholes from which soil
samples were obtained. From left to
right, Tondo, Manila City; Taft Ave.,
Methods Manila City; Dela Rosa, Makati City;
Fort Bonifacio, Taguig; Pasig City; and
Surface soil samples were collected in various Fortune, Marikina City.
places in Metro Manila while subsurface soil
samples up to 40m were provided by private
drilling companies (Fig. 1). Identification of Surface soils in Fort Bonifacio, Taguig City
fine grained minerals in bulk soil samples was show small amounts of smectite-type clay
done using X-ray diffraction (XRD) of the (Fig. 2a). In Tondo, Manila City, soils are
Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI). largely smectite-type clays (Fig. 2b). For
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of the Makati City soils, smectite-type clays are
University of the Philippines-Diliman (UPD) dominant (Fig. 2c). Soils in Fortune,
was employed to determine the parent rock of Marikina City and Pasig City areas are
the soils. This is useful in predicting the abundant in smectite-type clays (Figs. 2d and
behavior of volcanic rocks when exposed to 2e, respectively). The same clay minerals
elements. were also found in Taft, Manila City (Fig.2f).

Results The results of the chemical analysis of soil

XRD analysis of Metro Manila soils showed
that all samples obtained from various depths
contain variable amounts of smectite-type
clays (10-12 Å), quartz (4.26 Å and 3.34 Å)
and calcite (3.04 Å) (Fig. 2). Smectite-type
clays exhibit peaks in the (001) and (060)
basal spacing. Other minerals such as
hematite, magnetite and chlorite were
detected.
samples using XRF are presented in Table 2.
All samples exhibit high amounts of Al2O3
indicating an Al-rich type of soil. Using both
the XRF data of Al and XRD basal spacing at
(060) of smectite, the clay species is either di-
or tri-octahedral type, which points to
montmorillonite as the specific type of
smectite. Also, low Na2O/high CaO ratios
suggest the presence of Ca-rich
montmorillonite, which is less expansive than
the Na-rich montmorillonite. High CaO may
also suggest the presence of
allophane/imogolite, which is known to
increase hydraulic conductivity. The presence

S.G. Catane, E.P.P. Mendoza, C.S. Pascua, and M.A.H. Zarco 2

of allophane/imogolite needs further Figure 2: XRD patterns of smectites
verification using other analysis, i.e. (10-12 Å), quartz (3.54Å), and calcite
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). (3.04Å) present in Metro Manila soils.
(a) Fort Bonifacio, Taguig City (b)
Discussions Tondo, Manila City (c) Makati City
(d) Fortune, Marikina City (e) Pasig
City (f) Taft, Manila City.
The predominance of smectite-type clays is
due to the abundance of volcanic glass in the
source pyroclastic rocks (tuff). Weathering
mechanism of volcanic glass through a
alteration and hydrolysis produces smectite-
type clays. Some soil samples with strong
intensity signals may contain higher amounts
of smectite-type clay. Water-glass interaction
may have been more enhanced in areas where
water is readily available, e.g. Tondo, Manila.
Rocks exposed along the drainage system and
the coastal area tends to be more susceptible
to alteration, thereby producing more
smectite-type clays. This type of clay is an
important compononent of a landfill liner due
to its high swelling capacity, decreasing the
permeablity of the soil and results in lowering
the hydraulic conductivity of the liner.

XRF analysis showed that high amounts of

SiO2 in comparison with parent rock tuff.
Metro Manila tuffs do not contain modal
quartz on the basis of petrographic analysis.
In the absence of modal quartz, the excess b
silica must have been derived from the
volcanic glass, which is a common
constituent of andesitic pyroclastic rocks.
Being a chemically stable and mechanically
strong mineral, quartz can strengthen and
extend the life span of the landfill liner.

Calcite forms when the carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere reacts with calcium hydroxides
present in the soils and groundwater.
Although calcite increases the shear strength
of the soil, it also increases its hydraulic
conductivity. An admixture has to be
formulated to neutralize the effect of calcite
in increasing the hydraulic conductivity.

S.G. Catane, E.P.P. Mendoza, C.S. Pascua, and M.A.H. Zarco 3

 c e

d f

Table 1: Location and depth of soil samples in Metro Manila

Location Soil Sample Depth (m) Location Soil Sample Depth (m)
Fort S-2 1.55-2.00 Fortune, S-8 8.55-9.00
Bonifacio Marikina City
S-3 2.55-3.00 S-9 10.05-10.55
S-5 4.55-5.00 S-10 11.55-12.00
S-7 6.55-7.05 Pasig City S-3 2.55-3.00
Tondo, S-1 1.0-1.45 S-5 4.55-5.00
Manila City
S-12 18.0-18.45 S-11 13.05-13.50
S-19 19.50-19.90 S-12 14.55-15.00
S-23 34.5-34.95 S-13 16.05-16.50
S-26 39.55-40.00 Taft, Manila S-2 1.55-2310
City
Makati City S-3 4.95-5.15 S-3 2.55-3.00
S-4 6.00-6.15 S-6 5.55-6.00
S-8 12.00-12.10 S-13 16.05-16.50
Fortune, S-2 1.55-2.00 S-16
Marikina
City
S-6 5.55-6.00

S.G. Catane, E.P.P. Mendoza, C.S. Pascua, and M.A.H. Zarco 4

 Table 2: Relative percent of major oxide components (using XRF) of bulk soil samples in Metro Manila.

Analyte Taguig City Marikina Tondo, Taft, Manila Pasig City Makati City
City Manila City City
SiO2 60.588 59.980 60.476 61.557 58.945 70.934
Al2O3 14.782 17.445 18.897 16.358 18.343 15.579
Fe2O3 11.568 11.718 14.342 12.278 14.628 8.473
CaO 6.924 5.498 2.443 5.007 3.294 2.017
K2O 3.182 - 1.578 2.257 1.752 0.714
Na2O 0.756 - 0.237 - - -
MgO 0.546 2.321 0.894 0.918 1.078 0.740
TiO2 1.364 2.294 1.437 1.204 1.467 1.243
P2O5 0.341 0.594 0.161 0.177 0.195 0.153
MnO 0.248 0.165 0.106 0.185 0.299 0.155
Values are expressed in wt. %

Conclusion suburbs, The Philippine Geologist, 21:4, 178-

192.
The mineralogy and geochemical
characteristics of Metro Manila soils have Tan RC (1983) Engineering properties of
been studied for use as landfill liner material. Manila subsoils. MSc Thesis, College of
XRD analyses of Metro Manila soils show Engineering, University of the Philippines,
smectite-type clays, quartz and calcite as Diliman, Quezon City, 80 p
major mineral components. XRF and XRD
analysis points out Ca-rich montmorillonite
as the smectite clay species. Smectites are of
particular interest because this clay mineral
group has low hydraulic conductivity, a
characteristic desirable for landfill liner.
Thus, Metro Manila soils can be a source of
landfill liner material for future landfill
projects.

Acknowledgements

We thank Engr. Richard C. Tan for providing

information on the subsurface data of Metro
Manila. Samples were provided by the
following companies: Geotechnics
Philippines, Inc., Advanced Geotechnical
Engineering Service, ARS testing and
Inspection and Philippine Geoanalytics, Inc.
The Commission on Higher Education-Zonal
Research Center (CHED-ZRC) funded the
study.

References

Catane SG and Arpa CB (1999) Large-scale

eruptions of Laguna caldera: contributions to
the accretion and other other geomorphic
development of Metro Manila and adjacent
provinces. PHIVOLCS internal report, 30 p

Gervacio FC (1968) The geology, structures

and landscape development of Manila and

S.G. Catane, E.P.P. Mendoza, C.S. Pascua, and M.A.H. Zarco 5

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