June 1998

Process Industry Practices

Process Control

PIP PCEFL001
Flow Measurement Guidelines
 PURPOSE AND USE OF PROCESS INDUSTRY PRACTICES

In an effort to minimize the cost of process industry facilities, this Practice has
been prepared from the technical requirements in the existing standards of major
industrial users, contractors, or standards organizations. By harmonizing these technical
requirements into a single set of Practices, administrative, application, and engineering
costs to both the purchaser and the manufacturer should be reduced. While this Practice
is expected to incorporate the majority of requirements of most users, individual
applications may involve requirements that will be appended to and take precedence over
this Practice. Determinations concerning fitness for purpose and particular matters or
application of the Practice to particular project or engineering situations should not be
made solely on information contained in these materials. The use of trade names from
time to time should not be viewed as an expression of preference but rather recognized as
normal usage in the trade. Other brands having the same specifications are equally
correct and may be substituted for those named. All practices or guidelines are intended
to be consistent with applicable laws and regulations including OSHA requirements. To
the extent these practices or guidelines should conflict with OSHA or other applicable
laws or regulations, such laws or regulations must be followed. Consult an appropriate
professional before applying or acting on any material contained in or suggested by the
Practice.

© Process Industry Practices (PIP), Construction Industry Institute, The University

of Texas at Austin, 3208 Red River Street, Suite 300, Austin, Texas 78705. PIP
member companies may copy this practice for their internal use.

Not printed with state funds.


Process Industry Practices
Process Control
PIP PCEFL001
Flow Measurement Guidelines
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ..................................2
1.1 Purpose ..............................................2
1.2 Scope .................................................2
2. References....................................2
2.1 Process Industry Practices (PIP) .........2
2.2 Industry Codes and Standards ............2
2.3 Other References................................4
3. General Considerations...............5
3.1 Flow Metering Quality Considerations .5
3.2 Primary Flow Element Selection
Information .......................................6
3.3 Choosing Between Flow Elements ......6
3.4 Piping Installation Considerations .......6
3.5 Flow Conditioning ...............................7
3.6 Considerations for Removal of
Insertion Type Flow Instruments .......7
3.7 Local Flow Indicator ............................7
3.8 Differential Pressure (DP) ...................7
3.9 Static Pressure and Temperature........8
3.10 Pressure Taps...................................8
3.11 Control Valve Location......................9
3.12 Special Equipment............................9
Process Industry Practices
June 1998
4. Specific Considerations .............. 9
4.1 Orifice Meters..................................... 9
4.2 Flow Nozzles .................................... 10
4.3 Venturi (Classical and Proprietary
Designs) ......................................... 11
4.4 Averaging Pitot Elements ................. 11
4.5 Integral Orifice.................................. 12
4.6 Wedge Type Meters ......................... 13
4.7 Turbine Meters (Liquid)..................... 14
4.8 Turbine Meters (Gas)........................ 15
4.9 Positive Displacement Meters (Liquid)15
4.10 Magnetic Flow Meters..................... 16
4.11 Mass Meters (Coriolis) .................... 17
4.12 Mass Meters (Thermal)................... 18
4.13 Ultrasonic Meters............................ 19
4.14 Vortex Meters ................................. 20
4.15 Variable Area Meters (Rotameters). 21
5. Custody Transfer Metering
Considerations........................... 22
Tables
Table 1 Selection of Flow Elements
Table 2 Flange Tap Orifice Meter Run
Requirements
Page 1 of 25
PIP PCEFL001
Flow Measurement Guidelines June 1998

1. Introduction

1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this Practice is to provide guidance in the application of flow meters.

1.2 Scope
This Practice provides recommendations for the selection of the meter, its general
applications, and its performance considerations. This guideline applies to devices
used to measure the flow of single phase, homogeneous liquids, vapors, and gases.
This Practice presents commonly accepted meter types but does not limit application
choices. Unique or special requirements may require consideration of other meter
types.
Specific custody transfer guidelines are not provided and are only mentioned with
reference to other industry practices.

2. References

Applicable considerations in the latest edition (or the edition indicated) of the following
industry standards may be referenced for additional information. Short titles may be used
herein when appropriate.

2.1 Process Industry Practices (PIP)

– PIP PCCFL001 - Flow Measurement Criteria
– PIP PCCGN002 - General Instrument Installation Criteria

2.2 Industry Codes and Standards

• American Gas Association
– AGA 7 - Measurement of Gas by Turbine Meters
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
– ANSI-2530/API-14.3/AGA-3/GPA-8185 - Natural Gas Fluids Measurement
- Concentric, Square-Edged Orifice Meters
Part 1 General Equations and Uncertainty Guidelines
Part 2 Specification and Installation Requirements
Part 3 Natural Gas Applications
Part 4 Background, Development, Implementation Procedures and
Subroutine Documentation
• American Petroleum Institute (API)
– API RP 551 – Process Measurement Instrumentation
– API RP 554 – Process Instrument and Control

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 PIP PCEFL001
June 1998 Flow Measurement Guidelines

– API Manual Of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS):

Chapter 4 - Proving Systems
4.2 Conventional Pipe Provers
4.3 Small Volume Provers
4.5 Master-Meter Provers
4.8 Operation of Proving Systems
Chapter 5 - Metering
5.2 Measurement of Liquid Hydrocarbons by Displacement Meters
5.3 Measurement of Liquid Hydrocarbons by Turbine Meters
Chapter 6 - Metering Assemblies
Chapter 12 - Calculation of Petroleum Quantities
12.2 Calculation of Liquid Petroleum Quantities Measured by Turbine or
Displacement Meters
Chapter 14 - Natural Gas Fluids Measurement
14.2 Compressibility Factors of Natural Gas and Other Related
Hydrocarbon Gases (AGA Report No. 8)
14.3 Concentric, Square-Edged Orifice Meters
14.4 Converting Mass of Natural Gas Liquids and Vapors to Equivalent
Liquid Volumes
14.5 Calculation of Gross Heating Value, Specific Gravity, and
Compressibility of Natural Gas Mixtures from Compositional
Analysis
14.6 Continuous Density Measurement
14.7 Mass Measurement of Natural Gas Liquids
14.8 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Measurement
Chapter 21 - Flow Measurement Using Electronic Metering Systems
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
– ASME MFC-1M - Glossary of Terms Used in the Measurement of Fluid
Flow in Pipes
– ASME MFC-2M - Measurement Uncertainty for Fluid Flow in the Closed
Conduits
– ASME MFC-3M - Measurement of Fluid Flow in Pipes Using Orifice,
Nozzle, and Venturi
– ASME MFC-4M - Measurement of Gas Flow by Turbine Meters
– ASME MFC-5M - Measurement of Liquid Flow in Closed Conduits Using
Transit-Time Ultrasonic Flow Meters

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PIP PCEFL001
Flow Measurement Guidelines June 1998

– ASME MFC-6M - Measurement of Fluid Flow in Pipes Using Vortex Flow

Meters
– ASME MFC-7M - Measurement of Gas Flow by Means of Critical Flow
Venturi Nozzles
– ASME MFC-8M - Fluid Flow in Closed Conduits - Connections for
Pressure Signal Transmissions Between Primary and Secondary Devices
– ASME MFC-9M - Measurement of Liquid Flow in Closed Conduits by
Weighing Method
– ASME MFC-10M - Method of Establishing Installation Effects on Flow
Meters
– ASME MFC-11M - Measurement of Fluid Flow by Means of Coriolis Mass
Flowmeters
– ASME MFC-14M - Measurement of Fluid Flows Using Small Bore
Precision Orifice Meters
[Note: For ½" to 1- ½" Orifice Meters and Integral Orifice]
– ASME MFC-16M - Measurement of Fluid Flow in Close Conduit by Means
of Electromagnetic Flowmeter
– ASME B16.5 - Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
– ASME B16.36 - Orifice Flanges
– ASME PTC-6 - Performance Test Code, Steam Turbines
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
– ISO 5167-1 - Measurement of Fluid Flow by Means of Pressure Differential
Devices
• ISA, The International Society for Measurement and Control (ISA)
– ISA RP16.1,2,3 - Terminology, Dimensions and Safety Practices for
Indicating Variable Area Meters
– ISA RP16.4 - Nomenclature and Terminology for Extension Type Variable
Area Meters
– ISA RP16.5 - Installation, Operation, Maintenance Instructions for Glass
Tube Variable Area Meters
– ISA RP16.6 - Methods and Equipment for Calibration of Variable Area
Meters
– ANSI/ISA RP31.1 - Specifications, Installations, and Calibration of Turbine
Flowmeters

2.3 Other References

– Miller, R.W., Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook
– ISA - Flow Measurement - Practical Guides for Measurement and Control,
Spitzer, D.W., Editor
– ASME - Fluid Meters, Their Theory and Application

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 PIP PCEFL001
June 1998 Flow Measurement Guidelines

3. General Considerations

3.1 Flow Metering Quality Considerations

Flow meter selection and installation are major contributors to the performance of a
plant control system. During the conceptual design, performance requirements should
be considered for the flow meter.
Follow the minimum industry requirements and manufacturer’s guidelines for the flow
meter technology being applied where repeatable measurement is desired for control or
general indication of flow.
Accurate flow measurement is becoming more relevant to unit efficiency
determination, production reporting, emissions monitoring and tighter process controls.
Where accuracy and confidence (e.g., low uncertainty) in the measured value is
needed, additional requirements over traditional practices may be necessary to achieve
the desired results. Such requirements include using vendor fabricated orifice meters
and piping runs, using longer than minimum upstream and downstream piping lengths,
compensating for changes in fluid physical properties as the process varies, and using
smart transmitters. Another requirement might include periodic flow calibration as
part of operation and maintenance of the meter.
Overall flow measurement performance can be estimated using a root-sum-of-squares
technique in combining error contributions of the metering system components that
make up the measurement system. This measurement uncertainty should be applied to
the daily integrated measured quantities of steady flow through the meter. Methods for
determining the measurement uncertainty are given in the references identified in
Section 2.
Quality flow measurement is dependent on the type of meter selected, manufacturer’s
tolerances, proper installation, calibration procedures, operation and maintenance
procedures, and accounting methods. The designer should have a good estimate of the
following before selecting a meter:
• The range of physical and chemical characteristics of the fluid including:
composition, viscosity, flowing density, vapor pressure, corrosive, abrasive or
contaminated nature, lubricating quality, and plugging or fouling tendencies
• Acceptable materials of construction
• Range of flow rates expected (maximum and minimum with normal expected
value)
• Process fluid temperature and pressure variations expected
• Seasonal and daily ambient temperature changes at the meter
• Duration of operation (continuous or intermittent)
• Location of meter or metering station (local or remote)
• Pressure drop allowable for the measurement
• Maintenance accessibility
• Meter servicing or replacement while the process is on-line

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PIP PCEFL001
Flow Measurement Guidelines June 1998

• Required accuracy of the overall measurement

• Plant equipment preferences and experiences with similar metering applications
3.2 Primary Flow Element Selection Information
There are many types of flow metering technologies available. Table 1 provides
general information to aid in selecting primary flow elements.

3.3 Choosing Between Flow Elements

If more than one type of flow element will meet application requirements, the flow
measurement system, including the flow element, should be evaluated. The system
includes primary elements, transmitters, installation cost and cost of operation and
maintenance.

3.4 Piping Installation Considerations

3.4.1 Some flow meters are sensitive to upstream and downstream velocity profile
conditions. Piping components such as fittings, reducers, expanders, elbows,
strainers, branch connections, valves, pipe lengths and spacing all effect the
fluid’s flowing velocity profile. Many possible configurations make it difficult
to predict changes in velocity profile. Flow meters’ installed performance will
be influenced by insufficient piping approaches and departures. Straight runs
before and after a primary flow element should meet established minimum
upstream and downstream requirements for the specific meter. Piping run
length for orifice meters can be applied to other meters as these will provide
the minimum necessary lengths to assure adequate velocity profile
development. Maximizing run lengths contributes to quality flow
measurements. Use of less than minimum lengths compromises metering
performance. Refer to Table 2 for guidelines. The metering piping design
should consider the possibility of increased flow resulting from
debottlenecking or future process expansion. Maximizing meter run piping
lengths based on a high beta ratio will accommodate the increase in flow
without the added cost of piping revisions.
3.4.2 Temperature wells or connections should be located downstream of the
primary flow elements to minimize velocity profile distortion. In some cases it
may be necessary to insulate the piping to maintain temperature. Measure
pressure and temperature at or very near the meter when flow compensation is
needed.
3.4.3 Piping should be arranged to ensure liquid flow meters are always full of
liquid (vapor free) and gas flow meters are always liquid free. Avoid turning
down after a meter in a liquid horizontal run or turning up after a meter in a
condensing vapor flow. In vertical piping runs, liquids should flow up while
condensing vapors should flow down.
3.4.4 Piping layout should consider meter dimensions, tap orientation and access for
maintenance service work.

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June 1998 Flow Measurement Guidelines

3.5 Flow Conditioning

Installation of flow conditioning devices to reduce flow velocity distortion should be
avoided and should be considered only in extreme cases after all other alternatives
have been exhausted. Flow conditioning devices introduce pressure drop, can be
dislodged causing metering error or, if a failure occurs downstream, may damage
equipment.

3.6 Considerations for Removal of Insertion Type Flow Instruments

Insertion flow devices are typically used in large line sizes. Where the process line
cannot be practically shut down, safe meter removal should be provided using flow
assemblies that are fully retractable under line pressure and process temperature. The
packing assembly and isolation valve should be properly sized to meet piping
specifications. Blowout prevention should be considered as part of the installation
design.

3.7 Local Flow Indicator

Flow transmitters may have local flow indication. The flow indicator should be located
so it is easily readable by the operator when used in conjunction with manual control
of valves.

3.8 Differential Pressure (DP)

3.8.1 Ranges:
A preferred DP calibration range should be 0-100 inches of water. Other
ranges may be considered to meet the application requirements (e.g., low
pressure gas or to meet beta ratio constraints). High DP may cause
deformation in orifice plates and adds excessive energy loss. Fractional
settings (e.g., 95.5 inches of water) should be avoided.
3.8.2 Rangeability:
Flow rangeability (ratio of full scale flow to minimum flow but not zero flow)
should be considered carefully in choosing DP type flow meters. Use of smart
transmitters can improve turndown and accuracy for differential meters. If
turndown cannot be met with head meters, other meter types may be
considered. In any case, the meter performance at the minimum flow rate
should be evaluated along with the maximum flow rate.
3.8.3 Square root operation in calculating flows from head type meters should be
performed in the control system when using analog output of non-digital
transmitters. Smart transmitters and multivariable transmitters with digital
output may be used to provide a linearized output.
Comment: If the user wishes to use the transmitter to linearize the output
signal, care must be taken to avoid the problem of multiple square root
extraction.
3.8.4 Transmitters should be located as close as practical to the primary element for
differential pressure measurement applications. Impulse line length,

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PIP PCEFL001
Flow Measurement Guidelines June 1998

temperature difference in the impulse lines and long piping configurations can
be detrimental to the measurement.

3.9 Static Pressure and Temperature

Static pressure and temperature measurements may be necessary for compensation of
flow to meet the process metering uncertainty levels or applicable flow metering
standards. Meter response behavior may change with variations of operating
temperature and pressure. As the process fluid density varies with pressure and
temperature, the metering accuracy may be influenced.
In gases both pressure and temperature effect the gas density so pressure and
temperature compensation may be necessary. In most liquid applications temperature
is the more dominant influence. Proper temperature compensation should reflect the
way temperature influences liquid density. Avoid applying gas law compensation
methods to liquids.
The preference for the static pressure location, especially for differential pressure type
devices, is the upstream pressure tap. The upstream pressure tap for line pressure is
allowed by standards and for many applications. The upstream tap will provide a
steadier reading (less noise or pressure fluctuation) than the downstream pressure tap.
Also, the process design data given on data sheets are typically given as upstream
conditions unless otherwise indicated.
Comment: For low pressure gas applications, the user is advised to evaluate the
impact of the variation in Gas Expansion factor (Y) for head type meters. The
variability in Y2 is about one half that of Y1 over a flow turndown. Depending on
beta ratio, dp/static pressure and isentropic exponent value the variation in Y1 can
be 1 to 2% while Y2 is 0.5 to 1%. Unless there is compensation for changes in Y as
well as compensation for the pressure effect on density, a more significant bias in
measurement will occur when using the upstream line pressure. For higher metering
accuracy applications there are multivariable smart transmitters and flow computers
that provide expansion factor calculation. Refer to R.W. Miller “Flow
Measurement Engineering Handbook.”

3.10 Pressure Taps

3.10.1 Pressure taps should not be connected to the bottom of the pipe to avoid
plugging or fouling of the sensing line with materials that may settle on the
bottom of the pipe.
3.10.2 Pressure taps for liquid, steam or heat transfer media services are preferred to
be horizontal on the side of the line. This may require wider spacing of
process piping at the orifice section. Or it may be necessary to raise or lower
the orifice run with respect to other piping for sufficient side clearance for the
tap connections. Alternatively the taps may be oriented 45 degrees down from
horizontal. The impulse lines should always slope toward the transmitter
avoiding traps. Review of piping layouts is advised.
3.10.3 Pressure taps for dry gas services should preferably be vertical up from the
top of the line with connecting instrument piping lines sloped up and avoid
pocketing. Optionally, the pressure taps may be horizontal on the side of the

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June 1998 Flow Measurement Guidelines

line or 45 degrees downward from vertical. The flow transmitter should be

located above the taps with impulse lines always sloping so the lines are self-
draining to the process pipe.

3.11 Control Valve Location

The preferred location of flow and pressure control valves is downstream of the meter.
This avoids flow profile disturbances on the meter. In liquid service, locating the valve
downstream of the meter can provide adequate back pressure to avoid flashing in the
meter.

3.12 Special Equipment

Some types of meters may require specialized testing and calibration equipment to
operate, calibrate and maintain. Installation, calibration and operation of the special
equipment should be considered as part of the engineering design.

4. Specific Considerations

4.1 Orifice Meters

Advantages:
• Easy to install
• Common transmitters regardless of pipe size (true with all head type meters)
• Relatively low cost
• Wide variety of types and materials available
• Easy to re-range and troubleshoot
• May provide a repeatable, controllable output below specified turndown
• Has large data base to support coefficient uncertainty
Limitations:
• Limited turndown due to square root function
• Accuracy is severely degraded as the plate wears or fouls
• Straight runs of upstream and downstream piping required
• Subject to process leaks through tubing, fittings, valves, & taps
• Significant permanent pressure loss across meter
• Impulse lead lines subject to freezing/plugging
4.1.1 Concentric, square-edged orifice meters may be used for services in which the
Newtonian fluid is clean, homogeneous, low viscous liquid, vapor or gas and
in a single phase, such as:
a. Fluids in turbulent flow (pipe Reynolds number at minimum measured
flow above 4000)
b. Corrosive fluids

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PIP PCEFL001
Flow Measurement Guidelines June 1998

c. Steam
d. Air
4.1.2 Retractable orifice holder assemblies may be used for concentric orifices if
there is a need to frequently inspect or change orifice plates (e.g., custody
transfer applications).
4.1.3 Consider using quadrant edge or conic type orifice plates if the maximum
measured flow pipe Reynolds number is below 10,000 or if the anticipated
process viscosity changes would cause significant errors with standard square-
edge orifices.
4.1.4 If abrasive suspended solids are present, quadrant-edged orifice plates should
be considered.
4.1.5 For process conditions where occasional entrained liquid or gas can exist, the
use of a drain or vent hole is suggested. Consider using an eccentric or
segmental plate if suspended solids may be present.
4.1.6 The following tap types are preferred:
a. Flange taps for line sizes 2 inches and larger where higher metering
accuracy is needed
b. Corner tapped honed flow meter runs or integral orifices for 1.5 inches
and smaller line sizes
c. Other tap types may be considered for lower flange cost in large line
sizes or alloy piping installations and less metering accuracy is
acceptable
4.1.7 Table 2 gives design guidelines for flange tap concentric, square-edged orifice
meters.
4.1.8 Orifices should typically have a beta ratio (ratio of orifice bore diameter to
pipe internal diameter) greater than or equal to 0.2 and less than or equal to
0.7. See Table 2 for recommended beta ratio ranges for measurement
performance.
4.1.9 For best accuracy the flow sizing and calculation should be based on actual
meter tube internal dimensional data. Refer to Table 2.

4.2 Flow Nozzles

Advantages:
• Slightly lower permanent pressure loss than orifice at similar beta ratios
• Good for fluid flows with entrained solids
• Lower cost than venturi
• Dimensionally more stable at higher temperatures and velocities than an orifice
Limitations:
• Because flow nozzles are fabricated, quality of workmanship varies. Inspection
is generally desirable before shipment and required before installation.

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June 1998 Flow Measurement Guidelines

4.2.1 Flow nozzles may be used in low viscosity, non-abrasive fluids at high flow
rates in which:
a. Lower head loss than an orifice plate is desired
b. A contoured element is needed for long service life where a sharp edge
would wear
4.2.2 Installation and removal of the nozzle should be considered in the piping
design. However in high pressure steam applications (greater than 1000 psig),
the flow nozzle should be welded directly into the pipe.
4.2.3 Orifice plate upstream and downstream piping criteria should apply to a flow
nozzle as it is a flow profile sensitive device.

4.3 Venturi (Classical and Proprietary Designs)

Advantages:
• Very low permanent pressure loss
• Good for fluid flows with entrained solids
• Upstream run length is less than for orifice meters
Limitations:
• Expensive in larger sizes
• Big and heavy in larger sizes
• Because a venturi is fabricated, quality of workmanship varies. Inspection is
generally desirable before shipment and required before installation.
• Limited data set for coefficient and upstream straight pipe requirements
• Higher measurement uncertainty at pipe Reynolds numbers less than 100,000
4.3.1 A venturi may be used in low viscosity, non-abrasive fluids at high flow rates
where only a small pressure drop or permanent head loss is allowed.
4.3.2 Process conditions which can tolerate only a relatively small amount of
unrecovered losses of developed differential pressure may require a
proprietary low loss venturi tube. In some cases one of the proprietary design
meters may provide lower installation cost.
4.3.3 For high accuracy applications, the venturi should be flow calibrated.

4.4 Averaging Pitot Elements

Advantages:
• Low cost
• Low permanent pressure loss
• Negligible flow obstruction
• May be installed using hot taps
• Shorter upstream and downstream piping requirements than for orifice

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PIP PCEFL001
Flow Measurement Guidelines June 1998

Limitations:
• Very low differential pressures developed, so signal may be noisy
• Impulse lines must be kept to minimum length due to low DPs involved
• Must be precisely aligned in pipe
• Turndown limited due to low differential pressure
• Subject to plugging or fouling
• Subject to vibration induced fatigue failure if maximum velocity limit is
exceeded
4.4.1 An averaging pitot tube may be an alternative to an orifice plate where lower
head loss is needed, lower cost is desired and less accuracy is acceptable.
4.4.2 Averaging pitot tubes are subject to plugging and should be limited to clean
process liquids and gases.
4.4.3 Depending on velocity profile characteristics, averaging pitot tubes are more
accurate than pitot tubes.
4.4.4 Maximum expected fluid velocity should be considered in the design to avoid
exceeding manufacturer’s recommended limits.
4.4.5 In large line sizes, where long traverse lengths may be encountered, opposite
side support should be provided or heavier walled elements used.
4.4.6 Since most designs of averaging pitot type devices only average flow over a
single plane of the full cross-section of the conduit, the flow profile distortions
can have an adverse effect on measurement accuracy.
4.4.7 If a failed pitot tube could enter and damage downstream rotating equipment,
another element type should be considered. If a pitot tube is used, opposite
side support should be considered.

4.5 Integral Orifice

Advantages:
• Good for very low flows
• Other meters may be more expensive or unavailable in small sizes
Limitations:
• Subject to plugging
• May be less accurate unless flow calibrated
4.5.1 When low flow rates dictate a meter tube less than 2 inch, an integral orifice
assembly may be used.
4.5.2 Integral orifices and honed pre-fabricated meter tubes can be designed in sizes
that meter comparable flow rates. Selection between the two should be based
on cost (both hardware and installation), metallurgy requirements, transmitter
mounting options, on-line servicing requirements and metering accuracy
needs.

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June 1998 Flow Measurement Guidelines

4.5.3 Integral orifices are available in two types of configurations. One design type
routes the process flow through one or both chambers of the differential
pressure transmitter. The other design is much like a standard orifice flange
except the transmitter connection is machined (like a manifold flange) so the
transmitter can be mounted directly up against the orifice assembly.
4.5.4 If the meter needs to be serviced while the process is on-line, isolation valves
must be installed. Process line block and bypass valves are required for
servicing the flow-through design while on-line. For an adjacent transmitter
design, root valves (or a flange by flange manifold) allow servicing the
transmitter. If the expected on-line servicing includes checking a small bore
for plugging, then the block and bypass arrangement are required for either
integral orifice design.
Comment: Even small leakage through a meter bypass will result in
significant flow measurement errors of small integral orifices. Ensure the
bypass valve is capable of zero leakage.
4.5.5 The fluid should be of low viscosity and contain no solids when small bores
are dictated. This may require a strainer installed upstream of the meter run
and be located beyond the manufacturers minimum recommended pipe
diameters upstream of the orifice. Normal process operating conditions as well
as potential start up contaminants (pipe scale, welding slag, etc.) should be
considered.
4.5.6 If high accuracy is needed, the integral orifice should be flow tested prior to
use and a calibration curve developed.

4.6 Wedge Type Meters

Advantages:
• Excellent for slurries and very dirty fluids
• Relatively low permanent pressure loss
• Self-cleaning
• Good for low Reynolds number applications. Minimum Reynolds number of
500
• May be used in bi-directional service
Limitations:
• Some installations may require remote seals
• More expensive than orifice installation

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4.7 Turbine Meters (Liquid)

Advantages:
• High accuracy
• High turndown
• Easy to install
• Low permanent pressure loss
• Linear output (frequency or analog output available)
• Insertion style available, subject to special installation requirements
Limitations:
• Easily damaged
• Typically requires more maintenance than other meters due to moving parts
• Fluid must be clean
• Sensitive to viscosity changes
• Bearings wear and will reduce accuracy
• Requires special techniques for start-up
4.7.1 Turbine meters may be used in fluids that are clean, provide lubricity, in
single phase (not operated near the liquid vapor pressure), and are limited in
viscosity changes.
4.7.2 Full line sized turbines are typically used in lines 8 inches and below. Insertion
type turbine meters may be used on larger lines.
4.7.3 Bearing types and materials of construction should be evaluated for fluid and
process stream compatibility.
4.7.4 For high accuracy services, turbine meters used in low density or high
viscosity fluids may have to be operated over a reduced range of flows. Refer
to manufacturer’s guidelines.
4.7.5 Strainers, filters, air or vapor eliminators or other protective devices should be
provided upstream to remove solids or gases that will cause wear and
measurement errors.
4.7.6 Turbine meter damage can occur when the process lines are blown clear with
gas or steam. Special provisions may be required to protect the meter.
4.7.7 Liquid turbine meters should only be used in moderate to low viscosity
services. Turbine meters are velocity profile sensitive and flow profile
conditioning devices upstream of the turbine should be considered.
4.7.8 Refer to API MPMS Chapter 5 for high accuracy application guidelines. For
plant applications refer to ISA RP 31.1.

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4.8 Turbine Meters (Gas)

Advantages:
• High turndown
• Easy to install
• Low permanent pressure loss
• Linear output (frequency or analog output available)
• Insertion style available, subject to special installation requirements
Limitations:
• Easily damaged
• Typically requires more maintenance than other meters due to moving parts
• Fluid must be clean
• Bearings wear and will reduce accuracy
• Requires special techniques for starting up
4.8.1 Gas turbine meters may be used in clean and liquid free gas services; however,
these meters are not typically used in chemical process service.
4.8.2 Gas turbine meter factors shift with density changes and should be used only
after calibration within intended density range.
4.8.3 In-line gas turbine meters should be provided with block and bypass valves
and piping for maintenance. The full bore block valves should be installed so
they do not introduce flow profile disturbances to the meter.
4.8.4 Manufacturer recommended upstream and downstream lengths should be
followed.
4.8.5 The insertion type gas turbine meter is available for use in large line sizes. If
on-line removal is required, refer to Section 3.6 of this document for
guidelines.
4.8.6 Liquid separation and removal from the stream ahead of the turbine meter
should be considered.
4.8.7 Gas turbine meters should not be installed in pulsating flow conditions.

4.9 Positive Displacement Meters (Liquid)

Advantages:
• High accuracy
• Wide rangeability
• Suitable for high viscosity
• No straight upstream piping required
• Linear volumetric output
• Good for local totalization
• Can be installed at remote locations without power

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Limitations:
• Moving parts are subject to wear which introduces measurement error
• Requires periodic maintenance
• High permanent pressure drop
• Not suitable for fluids with entrained or abrasive solids or gases
• May completely disrupt the flow if mechanical failure jams or locks the moving
parts of the meter
4.9.1 Strainers and air eliminators should be considered upstream of the meter.
4.9.2 Liquid positive displacement meters may be used for custody transfer if other
meters capable of operating in the service conditions do not meet accuracy or
rangeability requirements.
4.9.3 Manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed for viscosity and flow
rate limitations.

4.10 Magnetic Flow Meters

Advantages:
• No flow obstruction
• Low or no pressure loss
• Good for plugging services and slurries
• Good for corrosive services by using liners
• Not effected by physical property changes in fluid other than conductivity
• Minimal straight piping requirements
• Can be set up for bi-directional flow
Limitations:
• Fluid must have electrical conductivity (generally 2 micromhos per cm or
greater)
• Liners can be fragile or be easily damaged
• Cannot use on gases
• Grounding is a major concern to prevent errors due to stray field currents
• Requires separate power source
• Large meters are heavy
• Installed cost may be prohibitive on large meters
• Coating of electrodes may be a problem
• May be temperature limited
4.10.1 Magnetic flow meters may be used on conductive fluids that are:
a. Corrosive
b. Contain suspended or abrasive solids
c. Very low flow

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4.10.2 Proper liner material and electrode selection is needed for process fluid
compatibility. The manufacturer should be consulted for material availability.
4.10.3 A minimum fluid conductivity in micromhos/centimeter is needed for the meter
to operate properly. Consult with the manufacturer for the minimum
requirement.
4.10.4 Microprocessor based, digital magnetic flow meters are preferred.
4.10.5 The application of magnetic flow meters should be evaluated for startup and
cleanout conditions (fluids, conductivity, and temperature).
4.10.6 Grounding method should follow manufacturer’s recommendations.
4.10.7 Avoid liner damage due to over tightening of bolts and crushing the liner
during installation.
4.10.8 Do not subject the meter to thermal shock or exceed the meter’s specified
temperature limits.
4.10.9 Magnetic flow meters generally require a separate power source.

4.11 Mass Meters (Coriolis)

Advantages:
• Accurate direct mass measurement
• Good for just about all types of liquids and some high density gases
• Minimal restriction to flow, though in some cases head loss may be high
• Can measure density of fluid in addition to mass flow
Limitations:
• High cost
• Installation may be more critical than other meters
• Somewhat more complex to maintain
• Slugs of gases will effect the measurement
• Typically temperature limited to 400° F
• Available in limited sizes
• High pressure drop
4.11.1 Coriolis meters should be sized for the desired accuracy at minimum and
normal flow rates without exceeding the permissible pressure drop at the
maximum flow rate.
4.11.2 Corrosion mechanisms should be given extra consideration. Vibration of the
meter tube increases the potential for stress related corrosion. Other alloy
materials may be required in applications where 316 SS would otherwise be
acceptable. Most meter tubes have no corrosion allowance, particularly
galvanic corrosion from dissimilar metals.
4.11.3 If the density measurement offered as an option by the manufacturer is to be
used, the accuracy provided should be evaluated for the application.

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4.11.4 Adequate discharge back pressure should be insured in liquid service to

prevent flashing in meter tube.
4.11.5 Meters should not be located in areas susceptible to vibration. External
sources of vibration in frequency ranges and harmonics of the meter operating
frequency may effect meters. Installing two meters in series can be susceptible
to crosstalk. Consult with the meter manufacturer.
4.11.6 Care should be taken to avoid subjecting the meter body to piping induced
stresses.
4.11.7 When entrained gas is present, evaluation of the application with the meter
manufacturer is advised. Meter performance will deteriorate significantly due
to the presence of entrained gases in the liquid.
4.11.8 Secondary containment should be considered when using coriolis meters for
measuring highly corrosive or hazardous materials.
4.11.9 Coriolis meters to be used in highly viscous slurries, shear-sensitive slurries,
or fluids that could solidify or settle out to block the flow path may require
additional tube/sensor design considerations.
4.11.10 Coriolis meters are available with either or both digital and analog type
outputs. Care should be taken to insure that output is compatible with control
system I/O (i.e., pulse width, pulse height, edge trigger, etc.).
4.11.11 The application of coriolis meters should be evaluated for startup and cleanout
conditions (entrained gas, temperature extremes, plugging, slug flow, etc.).

4.12 Mass Meters (Thermal)

Advantages:
• Good for low velocity pure component gas or air measurement
• Very low pressure loss
• Probe type thermal meters are cost effective for large flows
• Cost effective flow switch
Limitations:
• May be effected by coatings on probe-fluid should be relatively clean
• Some designs are fragile
• Relatively slow response time
• Generally used in gas and vapor service
• Must be flow calibrated for accuracy
• Cost is generally higher for low flow applications (flow-through type meters)
• May be difficult to maintain
• Accuracy extremely effected by fluid composition and property changes
• Entrained liquids in gas streams can render this technique unacceptable
• Insertion type is a point measurement device

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4.12.1 Thermal sensors should only be applied where the fluid thermal conducting
properties are well known. Changes in thermal conductivity will give cause for
shift in sensor response and give false readings of flow. The thermal
conductivity for most process streams is not listed nor readily available.
4.12.2 To obtain stated accuracy, the meter should be calibrated using the actual
fluid being measured.
4.12.3 Thermal mass meters (insertion probe type) should be easily removable for
cleaning while line is in service.
4.12.4 Insertion probe type thermal meters have been successfully used as flow
switches in large process lines.

4.13 Ultrasonic Meters

Advantages:
• Some liquid models can be installed outside the pipe, so there is no contact with
process fluid and can be installed while process is running
• No pressure drop
• Can be bi-directional
• Depending on technology, good for clean (transit time technology) or dirty
(Doppler technology) fluids
• Portable strap-on models are available
• May provide high turndown (transit time)
Limitations:
• Straight piping runs required
• Installation more critical than other meters
• Sensors are somewhat limited on temperature
• Meter must be matched with fluid, and fluid properties must be consistent (i.e.,
always clean or always dirty, bubbles always present or never present).
• Clamp-on devices may have limited accuracy
Application and installation requirements for ultrasonic meters depend on parameters
such as:
• Process fluid speed of sound characteristics
• Presence or absence of echo particles in the fluid
• Number of transducers
• Minimum and maximum distance between transducers
• Single path or multiple chords
• Acoustical characteristics in the piping system
• Piping dimension data
The manufacturer should assist in the system design and the installation should adhere
to the manufacturer’s specifications and recommendations.

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4.13.1 Transit Time

4.13.1.1 The fluid flow should be fully turbulent and clean.
4.13.1.2 Transducer configurations should be determined based on the
application requirements.
4.13.1.3 Manufacturer’s recommendations for minimum numbers of straight
diameters upstream and downstream of the sensors varies but
should always be followed.
4.13.1.4 Meters with cavities (recesses for transducers) should not be used if
a significant amount of solids in liquids, or liquids or solids in
gases, is present. Check with the manufacturer for suitability and
signal degradation effects.
4.13.1.5 If it is not possible to shut down a line to install a meter, strap-on
type meters may be used for liquid service. The sensors must have
solid acoustic contact with the pipe wall through the use of
conducting grease or material.
Comment: Pipe wall thickness information is often needed data.
4.13.1.6 These meters should not be used on piping systems that generate
noise upstream of the meter. They perform best on “acoustically
quiet” installations.
4.13.1.7 Ultrasonic meters should not be used on lined pipe and may not
work properly on thick walled pipe.
4.13.2 Doppler
Ultrasonic Doppler meters should be used only in fluids that always contain
acoustically reflective medium, e.g., particulate or bubbles homogeneously
dispersed.

4.14 Vortex Meters

Advantages:
• High accuracy
• Low installed cost
• High rangeability
• No moving parts (most vendors)
• Linear output
• Low pressure drop
Limitations:
• Minimum Reynolds number velocity required to operate properly
• Not suitable for high viscosity service
• Can be effected by vibration in the pipe

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4.14.1 Vortex shedding meters may be used on relatively clean, low viscosity, non-
abrasive fluids and can provide higher turndown than orifice meters.
4.14.2 Vortex meters are generally applicable to liquids of low viscosity. Accuracy,
turndown, and pressure drop requirements should be carefully reviewed for
gas service applications (vortex meters are often unsuitable for low density
gases).
4.14.3 Sizing should consider minimum flow rates as well as maximum. The
minimum value of the pipe Reynolds number at the lowest expected flow
should exceed 10,000 for liquids and 50,000 for gases. Below these values the
vortex meter may not generate a reliable flow signal. These Reynolds number
limitations may vary between manufacturers.
4.14.4 Line size vortex meters are available in pipe sizes 16 inches or less. Insertion
type meters are available for larger line sizes.
4.14.5 The meter body inside diameter is normally available in nominal pipe
schedules. Upstream and downstream piping design should match the
schedule. Care must be taken to ensure that the meter factors are calculated
based on the piping schedule used. The meter should be centered in the piping.
4.14.6 Welds on mounting flanges must be ground smooth, and gaskets between the
mounting flanges and the vortex meter should be full face. Ensure that no part
of the gasket protrudes into the flowing stream.
4.14.7 The upstream and downstream straight run piping requirements for the vortex
meter should be in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
4.14.8 The installed cost of vortex meters through 4 inch is typically less than for
orifice meters. Vortex meters 6 inches and larger may have higher costs than
orifice meters.
4.14.9 Vortex meters have low flow cut-off. In other words, there is zero reading
until flow reaches high enough level to register on the meter.

4.15 Variable Area Meters (Rotameters)

Advantages:
• Low cost
• Direct indicating
• No electrical power needed
• Minimal upstream and downstream piping requirements
Limitations:
• Limited accuracy
• Must be vertically mounted
• Gas use requires minimum back pressure
• Requires accessories for data transmission
• May be high maintenance items

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4.15.1 Rotameters may be used if:

a. Fluid measured is clean
b. Fluid flow rate is so small that use of a differential pressure type
primary element is impractical
c. Flow of fluid is not pulsating
d. Local flow indication is needed
4.15.2 Glass type meters should not be used for measuring fluids that contain hot or
strong alkali, strong acids, steam, hydrocarbons, or other fluids that are
hazardous to equipment or personnel. The use of armored type rotameters is
preferred. Owner’s approval is required for use of glass type rotameters.
4.15.3 For purge meter applications, a check valve should be installed on the outlet of
the meter to prevent back flow.

5. Custody Transfer Metering Considerations

Custody Transfer generally applies to those flow metering applications where fiscal or
custodial information is developed. Metering information is used for exchange of moneys,
materials, or trades between two parties, companies, business units, or financial institutions.
The design of a custody transfer measurement system usually has a requirement for higher
integrity and accuracy than conventional process measurement. Industry standards such as
American Petroleum Institute are available as a resource.

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Table 1
Selection of Flow Elements
Service Conditions
Clean fluid, low-viscous
Viscous fluid, possibly resulting in a low Reynolds Number
Solids suspended in the fluid
Abrasive material in the fluid
Corrosive fluid
Gas in liquid or liquid in gas
Low pressure drop (or high recovery) required
Low accuracy (2%+) is acceptable
High accuracy is required (1% or better)
Low flow rates
Medium flow rates
High flow rates
High rangeability required
(>5 to 1)
Straight run length
needed?
Primary Flow Element
Orifice, Concentric Y P N N P N N Y P N Y Y P Y

Orifice, Eccentric or Segmental N N P N P P N Y N N Y Y N Y

Orifice, Quadrant or Conic Edge P Y P Y P N N Y N N Y Y N Y

Flow Nozzles Y N P P P P P P P N Y Y P Y

Venturi Y N P Y P P Y P P N Y Y P Y
Averaging Pitot R N N N P N Y Y N N Y Y N Y

Wedge Meters N Y Y Y P P P Y N P Y Y N Y
Integral Orifice R N N N P N N Y N Y N N P Y

Turbine Meters (Liquid) R N N N P N P P Y Y Y Y Y Y

Turbine Meters (Gas) R N N N N N P P Y Y Y Y Y Y

Positive Displacement Meters (Liquid) Y Y N N P N N P Y Y Y P Y N

Magnetic Flow Meters (Conductive fluids only) Y N Y P Y N Y Y N Y Y Y Y P

Mass Meters (Coriolis) Y Y Y P P N N Y Y Y Y N Y N

Mass Meters (Thermal) P N P N P N Y P N P Y Y N Y

Ultrasonic (Transit-Time) Y N N N P N Y P P Y Y Y P Y

Ultrasonic (Doppler) N N R P P R Y P N N Y Y P Y

Vortex Shedding Meters Y N P N P P P Y P N Y P Y Y

Variable Area Meters Y N N N P N N Y N Y P N Y N

Legend
Y = Yes, primary flow element is used in this service.
N = No, primary flow element is not used in this service.
P = Possibly acceptable to use primary flow element in this service.
R = These service conditions are required for satisfactory use of this primary flow element.

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Table 2
Flange Tap Orifice Meter Run Requirements
The following data are recommendations for the design of orifice meter runs. These can be modified by engineering
judgment provided the overall metering performance meets the designated meter classification. Owner's approval is
required when deviations are needed.

Uncertainty: 1% 2% Not Designated (9)

Orifice Run (1) tolerance Per API MPMS, Chap.- 14.3 Per API MPMS, Chap. -14.3
Part 2 1991 Part 2 1991
Straight Run - Upstream and Based on Beta = 0.75 Based on Beta = 0.75 Based on Beta
Downstream per
PIP PCCFL001: Table 1 Table 2 Table 2
Orifice Plate Specs. API 14.3 Part 2 API 14.3 Part 2 API 14.3 Part 2
Static Press. Tap High Side Flange Tap High Side Flange Tap High Side Flange Tap if
Location: (Low side if per contract) required
Temp. Measurement Location: 5 to 12 DIA Downstream of 5 to 12 DIA Downstream of 5 to 15 DIA Downstream of
Orifice(2) Orifice(2) Orifice(2) if required
Design Guidelines
Range of Beta 0.2 to 0.6 0.2 to 0.6 0.2 to 0.7
Flow Coeff. Calculation Using Measured Pipe ID and Using Measured Pipe ID and Using Published Pipe ID and
Measured Orifice Bore Measured Orifice Bore Calculated Orifice Bore
Pipe Bore Reynolds No. at
Mid DP Flow (3):
Liquid RD > 20,000 RD > 10,000 RD > 10,000
Vapor, Gas RD > 100,000 RD > 50,000 RD> 10,000
Rangeability or Turndown (4)
Flow Rate 3 to 1 4 to 1 10 to 1
Differential Pressure 9 to 1 16 to 1 100 to 1
Orifice Run Insulation (10) 50 DIA Upstream of Orifice to As Required by Process As Required by Process
1 DIA Downstream of
Temperature Element or
Densitometer Connection
Transmitters
Flow (DP) - Mfr stated +/- 0.10 % of Span or Better +/- 0.15 % of Span +/- 0.15 % of Span
Accuracy at Calibrated Span
Differential Limit, Gases 1 inch H20 per PSIA line 1 inch H20 per PSIA line 2 inch H20 per PSIA line
pressure pressure pressure
Max. Nominal Differential (6) 0-20 to 0-200 inch w.c. 0-10 to 0-400 inch w.c. 0-10 to 0-400 inch w.c.
Maximum Density Uncertainty 1.5 percent 2.0 percent 4.0 percent
Density Tolerance (5) (8) (Compensation usually req'd) (Compensation often req'd) (Compensation usually not
req'd)
Temperature element Calibrated Platinum RTD Platinum RTD Thermocouple or RTD if req'd
Temperature-Controlled Often required (7) Generally not required (7) Not required
Instrument Housing
Flow Computation Flow Computer, DCS or as Flow Computer, DCS or DCS
required by Contract Process Computer
NOTES
(1) Orifice runs are designed to satisfy appropriate run specification and the governing piping codes.
(2) Orifice runs NPS 2 or smaller can have the temperature sensor located 10 to 25 pipe diameters downstream of the orifice.
(3) Mid DP flow is defined as the flow rate at which the differential pressure is 50 percent of the calibrated span for the transmitter.
(4) Maximum rangeability based on stated accuracy differential pressure transmitters. Use of digital or multiple transmitters may
exceed these limits.
(5) The flowing fluid density is a function of the pressure, temperature, and composition of the fluid. The density can be determined by
direct measurement or calculated from the pressure, temperature and composition.
(6) 0 - 100 inches of water is the preferred starting design point.
(7) The inaccuracy of the transmitters is also a function of the ambient temperature including exposure to sun and rain. This has a
fairly large effect on each measurement. High quality, smart transmitters can often be used without a housing. Shields or open-
sided housings may be required to meet uncertainty 1% and 2%.
(8) Pressure and temperature measurements used for flow compensation should be capable of limiting the density uncertainties
sufficiently to meet the required flow meters performance classification.
(9) The uncertainty of measurement can range from 5 to 10% or even greater. Limited or no testing validation exists for all possible
installation and operational combinations. Measurement is influenced by variation in process conditions away from design if

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uncompensated. Operating near multiple requirement limits (e.g., Beta at 0.7 and Reynolds No. at 10,000 and DP at 2 inches per
PSIA) will result in measurement errors greater than 10% for portions of the measurement range.
(10) Insulating the orifice run is not always necessary and depends on the fluid and the stream condition. The ideal is constant
temperature as the fluid passes through the meter run.

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