Finite Element

Draft DRAFT
Lecture Notes in:
FINITE ELEMENT I
Framed Structures
CVEN4525/5525
°
c VICTOR E. SAOUMA,
Fall 2002
Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428
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Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

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Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1–1
1.1 Why Matrix Structural Analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–1
1.2 Overview of Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–2
1.3 Structural Idealization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–3
1.3.1 Structural Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–4
1.3.2 Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–5
1.3.3 Sign Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–6
1.4 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–6
1.5 Course Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–9
I Matrix Structural Analysis of Framed Structures 1–11
2 ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX 2–1

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–1
2.2 Influence Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–1
2.3 Flexibility Matrix (Review) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–2
2.4 Stiffness Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–3
2.5 Force-Displacement Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–4
2.5.1 Axial Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–4
2.5.2 Flexural Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–4
2.5.3 Torsional Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–7
2.5.4 Shear Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–9
2.6 Putting it All Together, [k] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–11
2.6.1 Truss Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–12
2.6.2 Beam Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–12
2.6.2.1 Euler-Bernoulli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–13
2.6.2.2 Timoshenko Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–13
2.6.3 2D Frame Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–15
2.6.4 Grid Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–15
2.6.5 3D Frame Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–16
2.7 Remarks on Element Stiffness Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–17
2.8 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–18
3 STIFFNESS METHOD; Part I: ORTHOGONAL STRUCTURES 3–1

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–1
3.2 The Stiffness Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–1
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3.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . 3–3
E 3-1 Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–3
E 3-2 Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–5
E 3-3 Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–8
3.4 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–11
3.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–12
4 TRANSFORMATION MATRICES 4–1

4.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–1
4.1.1 [ke ] [Ke ] Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–1
4.1.2 Direction Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–2
4.2 Transformation Matrices For Framework Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–4
4.2.1 2 D cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–5
4.2.1.1 2D Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–5
4.2.1.2 Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–5
4.2.1.3 2D Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–6
4.2.2 3D Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–7
4.2.3 3D Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–11
5 STIFFNESS METHOD; Part II 5–1

5.1 Direct Stiffness Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–1
5.1.1 Global Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–1
5.1.1.1 Structural Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–2
5.1.1.2 Augmented Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–2
5.2 Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–3
5.2.1 Boundary Conditions, [ID] Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–3
5.2.2 LM Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–4
5.2.3 Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–4
E 5-1 Assembly of the Global Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–5
5.2.4 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–7
E 5-2 Direct Stiffness Analysis of a Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–7
E 5-3 Analysis of a Frame with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–12
E 5-4 Analysis of a simple Beam with Initial Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . 5–15
5.3 ‡ Skyline Storage of Global Stiffness Matrix, MAXA Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–19
5.4 Computer Program Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–22
5.5 ‡ Computer Program Flow Charts (FORTRAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–24
5.5.1 Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–25
5.5.2 Element Stiffness Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–28
5.5.3 Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–28
5.5.4 Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–31
5.5.5 Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–31
5.5.6 Backsubstitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–31
5.5.7 Internal Forces and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–31
5.6 Computer Implementation with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–35
5.6.1 Program Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–35
5.6.1.1 Input Variable Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–36
5.6.1.2 Sample Input Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–37
5.6.1.3 Program Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–38

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5.6.2Program Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. 5–38
5.6.2.1 Main Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–38
5.6.2.2 Assembly of ID Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–40
5.6.2.3 Element Nodal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–41
5.6.2.4 Element Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–42
5.6.2.5 Element Stiffness Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–42
5.6.2.6 Transformation Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–43
5.6.2.7 Assembly of the Augmented Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . 5–44
5.6.2.8 Print General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–45
5.6.2.9 Print Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–45
5.6.2.10 Load Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–46
5.6.2.11 Nodal Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–47
5.6.2.12 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–48
5.6.2.13 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–49
5.6.2.14 Sample Output File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–50
5.7 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–52
6 EQUATIONS OF STATICS and KINEMATICS 6–1

6.1 Statics Matrix [B] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–1
6.1.1 Statically Determinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–1
E 6-1 Statically Determinate Truss Statics Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–2
E 6-2 Beam Statics Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–3
6.1.2 Statically Indeterminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–4
E 6-3 Statically Indeterminate Truss Statics Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–5
E 6-4 Selection of Redundant Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–7
6.1.3 Kinematic Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–9
6.2 Kinematics Matrix [A] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–9
E 6-5 Kinematics Matrix of a Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–10
6.3 Statics-Kinematics Matrix Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–10
6.3.1 Statically Determinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–11
6.3.2 ‡Statically Indeterminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–11
6.4 Kinematic Relations through Inverse of Statics Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–12
6.5 ‡ Congruent Transformation Approach to [K] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–12
E 6-6 Congruent Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–13
E 6-7 Congruent Transformation of a Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–15
7 FLEXIBILITY METHOD 7–1

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–1
7.2 Flexibility Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–1
7.2.1 Solution of Redundant Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–2
7.2.2 Solution of Internal Forces and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–3
7.2.3 Solution of Joint Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–3
E 7-1 Flexibility Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–3
7.3 Stiffness Flexibility Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–5
7.3.1 From Stiffness to Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–5
E 7-2 Flexibility Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–6
7.3.2 From Flexibility to Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–6
E 7-3 Flexibility to Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–7

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7.4 Stiffness Matrix of a Curved Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–9

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7.5 Duality between the Flexibility and the Stiffness Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–10
7.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–11
8 SPECIAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURES 8–1

8.1 Semi-Rigid Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–1
8.2 Nonuniform Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–3
8.3 Inclined Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–3
8.4 Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–3
8.5 Substructuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–3
8.6 Reanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–3
8.7 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–3
II Introduction to Finite Elements 8–5
9 REVIEW OF ELASTICITY 9–1

9.1 Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–1
9.1.1 Stress Traction Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–2
E 9-1 Stress Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–2
9.2 Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–4
9.3 Fundamental Relations in Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–5
9.3.1 Equation of Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–5
E 9-2 Equilibrium Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–6
9.3.2 Compatibility Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–6
9.4 Stress-Strain Relations in Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–7
9.5 Strain Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–8
9.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–8
10 VARIATIONAL AND ENERGY METHODS 10–1

10.1 Work, Energy & Potentials; Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–1
10.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–1
10.1.2 Internal Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–2
10.1.2.1 Internal Work versus Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–3
10.1.3 External Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–4
10.1.3.1 † Path Independence of External Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–5
10.1.4 Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–6
10.1.5 Complementary Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–6
10.1.5.1 Internal Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–6
10.1.5.1.1 Elastic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–6
10.1.5.1.2 Linear Elastic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–8
10.1.5.2 External Virtual Work δW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–9
10.1.6 Complementary Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–9
10.1.6.1 Internal Complementary Virtual Strain Energy δU ∗ . . . . . . . 10–9
10.1.6.1.1 Arbitrary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–9
10.1.6.1.2 Linear Elastic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–10
10.1.6.2 External Complementary Virtual Work δW ∗ . . . . . . . . . . . 10–10
10.1.7 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–11

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10.1.7.1 Potential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–11

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10.1.7.2 Potential of External Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–11

10.1.7.3 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–11
10.2 Principle of Virtual Work and Complementary Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . 10–11
10.2.1 Principle of Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–12
10.2.1.1 Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–12
E 10-1 Tapered Cantiliver Beam, Virtual Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–15
10.2.2 Principle of Complementary Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–17
10.2.2.1 † Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–17
E 10-2 Tapered Cantilivered Beam; Virtual Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–18
E 10-3 Three Hinged Semi-Circular Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–20
E 10-4 Cantilivered Semi-Circular Bow Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–21
10.3 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–23
10.3.1 Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–23
10.3.2 ‡Euler Equations of the Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–25
10.3.3 Castigliano’s First Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–27
E 10-5 Fixed End Beam, Variable I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–28
10.3.4 Rayleigh-Ritz Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–29
E 10-6 Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam; Polynomial Approximation . 10–31
E 10-7 Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam; Fourrier Series . . . . . . . . 10–32
E 10-8 Tapered Beam; Fourrier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–33
10.4 † Complementary Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–35
10.4.1 Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–35
10.4.2 Castigliano’s Second Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–35
E 10-9 Cantilivered beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–36
10.4.2.1 Distributed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–36
E 10-10Deflection of a Uniformly loaded Beam using Castigliano’s second Theorem10–36
10.5 Comparison of Alternate Approximate Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–37
E 10-11Comparison of MPE Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–37
10.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–38
10.7 Variational Calculus; Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–41
10.7.1 Euler Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–41
10.7.2 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–45
E 10-12Extension of a Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–45
E 10-13Flexure of a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–47
10.8 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–48
11 INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS 11–1

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–1
11.2 Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–1
11.2.1 Axial/Torsional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–2
11.2.2 Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–3
11.2.3 Flexural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–4
11.2.4 Constant Strain Triangle Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–5
11.3 Interpolation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–7
11.3.1 C 0 : Lagrangian Interpolation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–8
11.3.1.1 Constant Strain Quadrilateral Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–8
11.3.1.2 Solid Rectangular Trilinear Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–9

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11.3.2 C 1 : Hermitian Interpolation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–10

CONTENTS
11.4 Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial Series . . . . . . . . . 11–10
12 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION 12–1

12.1 Strain Displacement Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–1
12.1.1 Axial Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–1
12.1.2 Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–2
12.2 Virtual Displacement and Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–2
12.3 Element Stiffness Matrix Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–2
12.3.1 Stress Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–4
13 SOME FINITE ELEMENTS 13–1

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–1
13.2 Truss Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–1
13.3 Flexural Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–2
13.4 Triangular Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–2
13.4.1 Strain-Displacement Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–3
13.4.2 Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–3
13.4.3 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–4
13.4.4 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–4
13.5 Quadrilateral Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–5
13.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–6
14 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 14–1

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–1
14.2 Variational Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–1
14.2.1 Explicit Time Integration; Central Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–3
14.2.2 Implicit Time Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–4
14.2.2.1 Linear Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–4
14.2.2.2 NonLinear Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–4
14.3 Time Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–5
14.3.1 Explicit Time Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–5
14.3.1.1 Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–5
E 14-1 MATLAB Code for Explicit Time Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–8
14.3.1.2 NonLinear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–9
14.3.2 Implicit Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–9
14.3.2.1 Newmark Method; Forward difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–9
14.3.2.2 Linear Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–11
14.3.2.3 NonLinear Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–11
14.4 Free Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–11
14.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–13
15 GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY 15–1

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–1
15.1.1 Strong Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–2
15.1.1.1 Lower Order Differential Equation; Essential B.C. . . . . . . . . 15–2
15.1.1.2 Higher Order Differential Equation; Essential and Natural B.C. 15–3
15.1.2 Weak Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–6

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15.1.2.1 Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0–7
. 15–6
15.1.2.2 Euler Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–7
15.2 Finite Element Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–8
15.3 Elastic Instability; Bifurcation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–9
E 15-1 Column Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–10
E 15-2 Frame Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–13
15.4 Second-Order Elastic Analysis; Geometric Non-Linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–15
E 15-3 Effect of Axial Load on Flexural Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–16
E 15-4 Bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–19
15.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–22
16 REFERENCES 16–1
A REVIEW of MATRIX ALGEBRA A–1

A.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A–1
A.2 Elementary Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A–3
A.3 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A–3
A.4 Singularity and Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A–4
A.5 Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A–5
A.6 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A–5
B SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS B–1

B.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–1
B.2 Direct Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–1
B.2.1 Gauss, and Gaus-Jordan Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–1
E B-1 Gauss Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–2
E B-2 Gauss-Jordan Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–3
B.2.1.1 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–4
B.2.2 LU Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–4
B.2.2.1 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–5
E B-3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–5
B.2.3 Cholesky’s Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–6
E B-4 Cholesky’s Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–7
B.2.4 Pivoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–8
B.3 Indirect Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–8
B.3.1 Gauss Seidel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–8
B.4 Ill Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–9
B.4.1 Condition Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–9
B.4.2 Pre Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–9
B.4.3 Residual and Iterative Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B–10
C TENSOR NOTATION C–1

C.1 Engineering Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C–1
C.2 Dyadic/Vector Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C–1
C.3 Indicial/Tensorial Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C–2

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D INTEGRAL THEOREMS
CONTENTS
D–1
D.1 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D–1
D.2 Green-Gradient Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D–1
D.3 Gauss-Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D–1

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List of Figures
1.1 Global Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–6

1.2 Local Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–6
1.3 Sign Convention, Design and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–6
1.4 Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–7
1.5 Independent Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–7
1.6 Examples of Global Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–9
1.7 Organization of the Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–10
2.1 Example for Flexibility Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–2

2.2 Definition of Element Stiffness Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–5
2.3 Stiffness Coefficients for One Dimensional Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–6
2.4 Flexural Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–6
2.5 Torsion Rotation Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–8
2.6 Deformation of an Infinitesimal Element Due to Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–9
2.7 Effect of Flexure and Shear Deformation on Translation at One End . . . . . . . 2–11
2.8 Effect of Flexure and Shear Deformation on Rotation at One End . . . . . . . . . 2–12
2.9 Coordinate System for Element Stiffness Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–12
3.1 Problem with 2 Global d.o.f. θ1 and θ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–2

3.2 Frame Example (correct K23 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–6
3.3 Grid Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–9
4.1 Arbitrary 3D Vector Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–3

4.2 3D Vector Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–3
4.3 2D Frame Element Rotation with respect to Z (or z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–5
4.4 Grid Element Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–6
4.5 2D Truss Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–6
4.6 Reduced 3D Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–8
4.7 Special Case of 3D Transformation for Vertical Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–9
4.8 Complex 3D Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–10
5.1 Frame Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–1

5.2 Example for [ID] Matrix Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–4
5.3 Simple Frame Analyzed with the MATLAB Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–5
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–8
5.5 Simple Frame Analyzed with the MATLAB Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–13
5.6 Stiffness Analysis of one Element Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–16
5.7 Example of Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–20
5.8 Numbering Schemes for Simple Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–21
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5.9 Program Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF FIGURES
. . . . . . . . . . . 5–26
5.10 Program’s Tree Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–27
5.11 Flowchart for the Skyline Height Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–29
5.12 Flowchart for the Global Stiffness Matrix Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–30
5.13 Flowchart for the Load Vector Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–32
5.14 Flowchart for the Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–33
5.15 Flowchart for the Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–34
5.16 Structure Plotted with CASAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–50
6.1 Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Determinate Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–2

6.2 Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Determinate Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–4
6.3 Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Indeterminate Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–5
6.4 Example 1, Congruent Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–14
6.5 Example 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–16
7.1 Stable and Statically Determinate Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–5
8.1 Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Rigid Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–1

8.2 Deformations of a Semi-Rigid Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–2
8.3 Fixed End Forces in a Semi-Rigid Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–2
9.1 Stress Components on an Infinitesimal Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–1

9.2 Stresses as Tensor Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–2
9.3 Stress Traction Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–3
9.4 Equilibrium of Stresses, Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–5
9.5 Fundamental Equations in Solid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–9
10.1 Strain Energy and Complementary Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–2

10.2 Effects of Load Histories on U and Wi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–4
10.3 Torsion Rotation Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–7
10.4 Flexural Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–7
10.5 Tapered Cantilivered Beam Analysed by the Vitual Displacement Method . . . . 10–15
10.6 Tapered Cantilevered Beam Analysed by the Virtual Force Method . . . . . . . . 10–19
10.7 Three Hinge Semi-Circular Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–21
10.8 Semi-Circular Cantilevered Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–22
10.9 Single DOF Example for Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–24
10.10Graphical Representation of the Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–25
10.11Variable Cross Section Fixed Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–28
10.12Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam Analysed by the Rayleigh-Ritz Method10–31
10.13Example xx: External Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–34
10.14Summary of Variational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–39
10.15Duality of Variational Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–40
10.16Variational and Differential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–42
11.1 Axial Finite Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–2

11.2 Flexural Finite Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–4
11.3 Shape Functions for Flexure of Uniform Beam Element. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–6
11.4 Constant Strain Triangle Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–6
11.5 Constant Strain Quadrilateral Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–9

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LIST OF FIGURES 0–3
11.6 Solid Trilinear Rectangular Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–10
15.1 Level of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–1

15.2 Euler Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–2
15.3 Simply Supported Beam Column; Differential Segment; Effect of Axial Force P . 15–4
15.4 Solution of the Tanscendental Equation for the Buckling Load of a Fixed-Hinged
Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–5
15.5 Summary of Stability Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–23

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0–4 LIST OF FIGURES

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List of Tables
1.1 Example of Nodal Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–4

1.2 Example of Element Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–5
1.3 Example of Group Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–5
1.4 Degrees of Freedom of Different Structure Types Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–8
2.1 Examples of Influence Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–1
4.1 3D Transformations of Linear Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–7
6.1 Internal Element Force Definition for the Statics Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–2
6.2 Conditions for Static Determinacy, and Kinematic Instability . . . . . . . . . . . 6–9
10.1 Possible Combinations of Real and Hypothetical Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . 10–12

10.2 Comparison of 2 Alternative Approximate Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–38
10.3 Summary of Variational Terms Associated with One Dimensional Elements . . . 10–41
10.4 Essential and Natural Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–46
11.1 Characteristics of Beam Element Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–5

11.2 Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial Series (1D & 2D) . . . 11–11
11.3 Polynomial Terms in Various Element Formulations (1D & 2D) . . . . . . . . . . 11–11
Draft
0–2 LIST OF TABLES

Draft
LIST OF TABLES
NOTATION
0–3
a Vector of coefficcients in assumed displacement field

A Area
A Kinematics Matrix
b Body force vector
B Statics Matrix, relating external nodal forces to internal forces
[B0 ] Statics Matrix relating nodal load to internal forces p = [B0 ]P
[B] Matrix relating assumed displacement fields parameters to joint displacements
C Cosine
[C1|C2] Matrices derived from the statics matrix
{d} Element flexibility matrix (lc)
{dc }
[D] Structure flexibility matrix (GC)
E Elastic Modulus
[E] Matrix of elastic constants (Constitutive Matrix)
{F} Unknown element forces and unknown support reactions
{F0 } Nonredundant element forces (lc)
{Fx } Redundant element forces (lc)
{Fe } Element forces (lc)
0
{F } Nodal initial forces
e
{F } Nodal energy equivalent forces
{F} Externally applied nodal forces
FEA Fixed end actions of a restrained member
G Shear modulus
I Moment of inertia
[L] Matrix relating the assumed displacement field parameters
to joint displacements
[I] Idendity matrix
[ID] Matrix relating nodal dof to structure dof
J St Venant’s torsional constant
[k] Element stiffness matrix (lc)
[p] Matrix of coefficients of a polynomial series
[kg ] Geometric element stiffness matrix (lc)
[kr ] Rotational stiffness matrix ( [d] inverse )
[K] Structure stiffness matrix (GC)
[Kg ] Structure’s geometric stiffness matrix (GC)
L Length
L Linear differential operator relating displacement to strains
lij Direction cosine of rotated axis i with respect to original axis j
{LM } structure dof of nodes connected to a given element
{N} Shape functions
{p} Element nodal forces = F (lc)
{P} Structure nodal forces (GC)
P, V, M, T Internal forces acting on a beam column (axial, shear, moment, torsion)
R Structure reactions (GC)
S Sine
t Traction vector

Draft
0–4
b
t Specified tractions along Γt
LIST OF TABLES
u Displacement vector
ũ Neighbour function to u(x)
b (x)
u Specified displacements along Γu
u, v, w Translational displacements along the x, y, and z directions
U Strain energy
U∗ Complementary strain energy
x, y loacal coordinate system (lc)
X, Y Global coordinate system (GC)
W Work
α Coefficient of thermal expansion
[Γ] Transformation matrix
{δ} Element nodal displacements (lc)
{∆} Nodal displacements in a continuous system
{∆} Structure nodal displacements (GC)
ε Strain vector
ε0 Initial strain vector
{Υ} Element relative displacement (lc)
{Υ0 } Nonredundant element relative displacement (lc)
{Υx } Redundant element relative displacement (lc)
θ rotational displacement with respect to z direction (for 2D structures)
δ Variational operator
δM Virtual moment
δP Virtual force
δθ Virtual rotation
δu Virtual displacement
δφ Virtual curvature
δU Virtual internal strain energy
δW Virtual external work
δε Virtual strain vector
δσ Virtual stress vector
Γ Surface
Γt Surface subjected to surface tractions
Γu Surface associated with known displacements
σ Stress vector
σ0 Initial stress vector
Ω Volume of body
lc: Local Coordinate system

GC: Global Coordinate System

Draft
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Why Matrix Structural Analysis?
1 In most Civil engineering curriculum, students are required to take courses in: Statics,
Strength of Materials, Basic Structural Analysis. This last course is a fundamental one which
introduces basic structural analysis (determination of reactions, deflections, and internal forces)
of both statically determinate and indeterminate structures.
2 Also Energy methods are introduced, and most if not all examples are two dimensional. Since
the emphasis is on hand solution, very seldom are three dimensional structures analyzed. The
methods covered, for the most part lend themselves for “back of the envelope” solutions and
not necessarily for computer implementation.
3 Those students who want to pursue a specialization in structural engineering/mechanics, do
take more advanced courses such as Matrix Structural Analysis and/or Finite Element Analysis.
4 Matrix Structural Analysis, or Advanced Structural Analysis, or Introduction to Structural
Engineering Finite Element, builds on the introductory analysis course to focus on those meth-
ods which lend themselves to computer implementation. In doing so, we will place equal
emphasis on both two and three dimensional structures, and develop a thorough understanding
of computer aided analysis of structures.
5 This is essential, as in practice most, if not all, structural analysis are done by the computer
and it is imperative that as structural engineers you understand what is inside those “black
boxes”, develop enough self assurance to be capable of opening them and modify them to
perform certain specific tasks, and most importantly to understand their limitations.
6 With the recently placed emphasis on the finite element method in most graduate schools,
many students have been tempted to skip a course such as this one and rush into a finite element
one. Hence it is important that you understand the connection and role of those two courses.
The Finite Element Method addresses the analysis of two or three dimensional continuum. As
such, the primary unknowns is u the nodal displacements, and internal “forces” are usually
restricted to stress σ. The only analogous one dimensional structure is the truss.
7 Whereas two and three dimensional continuum are essential in civil engineering to model
structures such as dams, shells, and foundation, the majority of Civil engineering structures
are constituted by “rod” one-dimensional elements such as beams, girders, or columns. For
those elements, “displacements” and internal “forces” are somehow more complex than those
Draft
1–2
encountered in continuum finite elements.

INTRODUCTION
8 Hence, contrarily to continuum finite element where displacement is mostly synonymous with
translation, in one dimensional elements, and depending on the type of structure, generalized
displacements may include translation, and/or flexural and/or torsional rotation. Similarly,
“internal forces” are not stresses, but rather axial and shear forces, and/or flexural or torsional
moments. Those concepts are far more relevant in the analysis/design of most civil engineering
structures.
9 Hence, Matrix Structural Analysis, is truly a bridge course between introductory analysis
and finite element courses. The element stiffness matrix [k] will first be derived using methods
introduced in basic structural analysis, and later using energy based concepts. This later
approach is the one exclusively used in the finite element method.
10 An important component of this course is computer programing. Once the theory and the
algorithms are thoroughly explained, you will be expected to program them in either Fortran
(preferably 90) or C (sorry, but no Basic) on the computer of your choice. The program
(typically about 3,500 lines) will perform the analysis of 2 and 3 dimensional truss and frame
structures, and many students have subsequently used it in their professional activities.
11 There will be one computer assignment in which you will be expected to perform sim-
ple symbolic manipulations using Mathematica. For those of you unfamiliar with the Bechtel
Laboratory, there will be a special session to introduce you to the operation of Unix on Sun
workstations.
1.2 Overview of Structural Analysis
12 To put things into perspective, it may be helpful to consider classes of Structural Analysis
which are distinguished by:

1. Excitation model
(a) Static
(b) Dynamic
2. Structure model
(a) Global geometry

• small deformation (² = ∂u
∂x )
³ ´2
• large deformation (εx = ddux + 12 ddvx , P-∆ effects), chapter 15
(b) Structural elements element types:
• 1D framework (truss, beam, columns)
• 2D finite element (plane stress, plane strain, axisymmetric, plate or shell ele-
ments), chapter 13
• 3D finite element (solid elements)
(c) Material Properties:
• Linear
• Nonlinear

Draft
1.3 Structural Idealization
(d) Sectional properties:

1–3
• Constant
• Variable
(e) Structural connections:
• Rigid
• Semi-flexible (linear and non-linear)
(f) Structural supports:
• Rigid
• Elastic
3. Type of solution:
(a) Continuum, analytical, Partial Differential Equation

(b) Discrete, numerical, Finite ELement, Finite Difference, Boundary Element
13 Structural design must satisfy:

1. Strength (σ < σf )
2. Stiffness (“small” deformations)
3. Stability (buckling, cracking)
14 Structural analysis must satisfy

1. Statics (equilibrium)
2. Mechanics (stress-strain or force displacement relations)
3. Kinematics (compatibility of displacement)
15 Prior to analysis, a structure must be idealized for a suitable mathematical representation.
Since it is practically impossible (and most often unnecessary) to model every single detail,
assumptions must be made. Hence, structural idealization is as much an art as a science. Some
of the questions confronting the analyst include:
1. Two dimensional versus three dimensional; Should we model a single bay of a building,
or the entire structure?
2. Frame or truss, can we neglect flexural stiffness?
3. Rigid or semi-rigid connections (most important in steel structures)
4. Rigid supports or elastic foundations (are the foundations over solid rock, or over clay
which may consolidate over time)
5. Include or not secondary members (such as diagonal braces in a three dimensional anal-
ysis).

Draft
1–4 INTRODUCTION
6. Include or not axial deformation (can we neglect the axial stiffness of a beam in a build-
ing?)
7. Cross sectional properties (what is the moment of inertia of a reinforced concrete beam?)
8. Neglect or not haunches (those are usually present in zones of high negative moments)
9. Linear or nonlinear analysis (linear analysis can not predict the peak or failure load, and
will underestimate the deformations).
10. Small or large deformations (In the analysis of a high rise building subjected to wind
load, the moments should be amplified by the product of the axial load times the lateral
deformation, P − ∆ effects).
11. Time dependent effects (such as creep, which is extremely important in prestressed con-
crete, or cable stayed concrete bridges).
12. Partial collapse or local yielding (would the failure of a single element trigger the failure
of the entire structure?).
13. Load static or dynamic (when should a dynamic analysis be performed?).
14. Wind load (the lateral drift of a high rise building subjected to wind load, is often the
major limitation to higher structures).
15. Thermal load (can induce large displacements, specially when a thermal gradient is
present.).
16. Secondary stresses (caused by welding. Present in most statically indeterminate struc-
tures).
1.3.1 Structural Discretization
16 Once a structure has been idealized, it must be discretized to lend itself for a mathematical
representation which will be analyzed by a computer program. This discretization should

uniquely define each node, and member.
17 The node is characterized by its nodal id (node number), coordinates, boundary conditions,
and load (this one is often defined separately), Table 1.1. Note that in this case we have two
Node No. Coor. B. C.

X Y X Y Z
1 0. 0. 1 1 0
2 5. 5. 0 0 0
3 20. 5. 0 0 0
4 25. 2.5 1 1 1
Table 1.1: Example of Nodal Definition
nodal coordinates, and three degrees of freedom (to be defined later) per node. Furthermore,

Draft
a 0 and a 1 indicate unknown or known displacement. Known displacements can be zero

1–5
(restrained) or non-zero (as caused by foundation settlement).

18 The element is characterized by the nodes which it connects, and its group number, Table
1.2.
Element From To Group

No. Node Node Number
1 1 2 1
2 3 2 2
3 3 4 2
Table 1.2: Example of Element Definition
19 Group number will then define both element type, and elastic/geometric properties. The
last one is a pointer to a separate array, Table 1.3. In this example element 1 has element code
1 (such as beam element), while element 2 has a code 2 (such as a truss element). Material
group 1 would have different elastic/geometric properties than material group 2.
Group Element Material

No. Type Group
1 1 1
2 2 1
3 1 2
Table 1.3: Example of Group Number
20 From the analysis, we first obtain the nodal displacements, and then the element internal
forces. Those internal forces vary according to the element type. For a two dimensional frame,
those are the axial and shear forces, and moment at each node.
21 Hence, the need to define two coordinate systems (one for the entire structure, and one for
each element), and a sign convention become apparent.
1.3.2 Coordinate Systems
22 We should differentiate between 2 coordinate systems:

Global: to describe the structure nodal coordinates. This system can be arbitrarily selected
provided it is a Right Hand Side (RHS) one, and we will associate with it upper case axis
labels, X, Y, Z, Fig. 1.1 or 1,2,3 (running indeces within a computer program).
Local: system is associated with each element and is used to describe the element internal
forces. We will associate with it lower case axis labels, x, y, z (or 1,2,3), Fig. 1.2.
23 The x-axis is assumed to be along the member, and the direction is chosen such that it points
from the 1st node to the 2nd node, Fig. 1.2.
24 Two dimensional structures will be defined in the X-Y plane.

Draft
1–6 INTRODUCTION
Y Y
X X X
Z
2D TRUSS 3D TRUSS
BEAM FRAME GRID & FRAME
Figure 1.1: Global Coordinate System
y, 2
x, 1 x, 1
z, 3
BEAM, TRUSS GRID, FRAME
Figure 1.2: Local Coordinate Systems
1.3.3 Sign Convention
25 The sign convention in structural analysis is completely different than the one previously
adopted in structural analysis/design, Fig. 1.3 (where we focused mostly on flexure and defined
a positive moment as one causing “tension below”. This would be awkward to program!).
26 In matrix structural analysis the sign convention adopted is consistent with the prevailing
coordinate system. Hence, we define a positive moment as one which is counter-clockwise, Fig.
1.3
27 Fig. 1.4 illustrates the sign convention associated with each type of element.
28 Fig. 1.4 also shows the geometric (upper left) and elastic material (upper right) properties
associated with each type of element.
1.4 Degrees of Freedom
29 A degree of freedom (d.o.f.) is an independent generalized nodal displacement of a node.

30 The displacements must be linearly independent and thus not related to each other. For
+ve M
-
+
+ve M
Design Sign Convention (US) Analysis Sign COnvention
Figure 1.3: Sign Convention, Design and Analysis

Draft
1.4 Degrees of Freedom
I x, L Beam E A, L 2D Truss E A, I x, L 2D Frame E

1–7
v1 θ2 v3 θ4 v2 v5
u1 u4
u1 u2
θ3 θ6
I , I x, L y Grid E A, L 3D Truss E A, I ,x I y, I z, L 3D Frame E
v2 v5 v2 θ v8 θ11
5
θ1 θ4 u1 u2 θ4 θ 10
u1 u7
θ3 θ6 θ6 θ12
v3 v9
Figure 1.4: Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements
Figure 1.5: Independent Displacements
example, a roller support on an inclined plane would have three displacements (rotation θ, and
two translations u and v), however since the two displacements are kinematically constrained,
we only have two independent displacements, Fig. 1.5.
31 We note that we have been referring to generalized displacements, because we want this term
to include translations as well as rotations. Depending on the type of structure, there may
be none, one or more than one such displacement. It is unfortunate that in most introductory
courses in structural analysis, too much emphasis has been placed on two dimensional structures,
and not enough on either three dimensional ones, or two dimensional ones with torsion.
32 In most cases, there is the same number of d.o.f in local coordinates as in the global coordinate
system. One notable exception is the truss element. In local coordinate we can only have one
axial deformation, whereas in global coordinates there are two or three translations in 2D and
3D respectively for each node.
33 Hence, it is essential that we understand the degrees of freedom which can be associated
with the various types of structures made up of one dimensional rod elements, Table 1.4.
34 This table shows the degree of freedoms and the corresponding generalized forces.
35 We should distinguish between local and global d.o.f.’s. The numbering scheme follows the

Draft
1–8 INTRODUCTION
Type Node 1 Node 2 [k] [K]

(Local) (Global)
1 Dimensional
{p} Fy1 , Mz2 Fy3 , Mz4
Beam 4×4 4×4
{δ} v1 , θ 2 v3 , θ4
2 Dimensional
{p} Fx1 Fx2
Truss 2×2 4×4
{δ} u1 u2
{p} Fx1 , Fy2 , Mz3 Fx4 , Fy5 , Mz6
Frame 6×6 6×6
{δ} u1 , v2 , θ 3 u4 , v5 , θ 6
{p} Tx1 , Fy2 , Mz3 Tx4 , Fy5 , Mz6
Grid 6×6 6×6
{δ} θ1 , v2 , θ3 θ4 , v5 , θ 6
3 Dimensional
{p} Fx1 , Fx2
Truss 2×2 6×6
{δ} u1 , u2
{p} Fx1 , Fy2 , Fy3 , Fx7 , Fy8 , Fy9 ,
Tx4 My5 , Mz6 Tx10 My11 , Mz12
Frame 12 × 12 12 × 12
{δ} u1 , v2 , w3 , u7 , v8 , w9 ,
θ4 , θ 5 θ6 θ10 , θ11 θ12
Table 1.4: Degrees of Freedom of Different Structure Types Systems

Draft
1.5 Course Organization 1–9
Figure 1.6: Examples of Global Degrees of Freedom
following simple rules:
Local: d.o.f. for a given element: Start with the first node, number the local d.o.f. in the same
order as the subscripts of the relevant local coordinate system, and repeat for the second
node.
Global: d.o.f. for the entire structure: Starting with the 1st node, number all the unrestrained
global d.o.f.’s, and then move to the next one until all global d.o.f have been numbered,
Fig. 1.6.
1.5 Course Organization

Draft
1–10 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.7: Organization of the Course

Draft
Part I
Matrix Structural Analysis of

Framed Structures
Draft
Draft
Chapter 2
ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX
2.1 Introduction
1 In this chapter, we shall derive the element stiffness matrix [k] of various one dimensional
elements. Only after this important step is well understood, we could expand the theory and
introduce the structure stiffness matrix [K] in its global coordinate system.
2 As will be seen later, there are two fundamentally different approaches to derive the stiffness
matrix of one dimensional element. The first one, which will be used in this chapter, is based on
classical methods of structural analysis (such as moment area or virtual force method). Thus,
in deriving the element stiffness matrix, we will be reviewing concepts earlier seen.
3 The other approach, based on energy consideration through the use of assumed shape func-
tions, will be examined in chapter 12. This second approach, exclusively used in the finite
element method, will also be extended to two and three dimensional continuum elements.
2.2 Influence Coefficients
4 In structural analysis an influence coefficient Cij can be defined as the effect on d.o.f. i due to
a unit action at d.o.f. j for an individual element or a whole structure. Examples of Influence
Coefficients are shown in Table 2.1.
Unit Action Effect on

Influence Line Load Shear
Influence Line Load Moment
Influence Line Load Deflection
Flexibility Coefficient Load Displacement
Stiffness Coefficient Displacement Load
Table 2.1: Examples of Influence Coefficients
5 It should be recalled that influence lines are associated with the analysis of structures sub-
jected to moving loads (such as bridges), and that the flexibility and stiffness coefficients are
Draft
2–2 ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX
Figure 2.1: Example for Flexibility Method
components of matrices used in structural analysis.
2.3 Flexibility Matrix (Review)
6 Considering the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 2.1, and using the local coordinate
system, we have ( ) " #( )

δ1 d11 d12 p1
= (2.1)
δ2 d21 d22 p2
Using the virtual work, or more specifically, the virtual force method to analyze this problem,
(more about energy methods in Chapter 10), we have:
Z l M
δM dx = δP
|
∆+{z
δM θ} (2.2)
0 EI z
| {z } External
Internal
M
where δM , EI z
, δP and ∆ are the virtual internal force, real internal displacement, virtual
external load, and real external displacement respectively. Here, both the external virtual force
and moment are usualy taken as unity.

Draft
2.4 Stiffness Coefficients 2–3
Virtual Force:
Z  
δU = δσ x εx dvol 
 


 


 


 

δσ x = M xy
 Z l 

I M 
εx = σx
= My δU = δM dx 

Z l
Z E EI 
 EI M


0
δM dx = δP ∆ (2.3)
y 2 dA = I 
 
 EI

 

0
 

dvol = dAdx 



δW = δP ∆ 



δU = δW
Hence: Z Lµ x
¶2
L
1 d11 =
EI |{z} 1− dx = (2.4)
|{z} 0 L 3
δM ∆ | {z }
δM ·M
Similarly, we would obtain:

Z L µ x ¶2 L
EId22 = dx = (2.5-a)
0 L 3
Z Lµ x
¶
x L
EId12 = 1− dx = − = EId21 (2.5-b)
0 L L 6
7 Those results can be summarized in a matrix form as:

" #
L 2 −1
[d] = (2.6)
6EIz −1 2
8 The flexibility method will be covered in more detailed, in chapter 7.
2.4 Stiffness Coefficients
9 In the flexibility method, we have applied a unit force at a time and determined all the
induced displacements in the statically determinate structure.
10 In the stiffness method, we
1. Constrain all the degrees of freedom
2. Apply a unit displacement at each d.o.f. (while restraining all others to be zero)
3. Determine the reactions associated with all the d.o.f.

Draft
{p} = [k]{δ} (2.7)
11 Hence kij will correspond to the reaction at dof i due to a unit deformation (translation or
rotation) at dof j, Fig. 2.2.
12 The actual stiffness coefficients are shown in Fig. 2.3 for truss, beam, and grid elements in
terms of elastic and geometric properties.

13 In the next sections, we shall derive those stiffness coefficients.
2.5 Force-Displacement Relations

2.5.1 Axial Deformations
14 From strength of materials, the force/displacement relation in axial members is
AE
σ = E² ⇒ |{z}
Aσ = ∆ (2.8)
L |{z}
P 1
AE
Hence, for a unit displacement, the applied force should be equal to L . From statics, the force
at the other end must be equal and opposite.
2.5.2 Flexural Deformation
15 Our objective is to seek a relation for the shear and moments at each end of a beam, in terms
of known displacements and rotations at each end.
V1 = V1 (v1 , θ1 , v2 , θ2 ) (2.9-a)
M1 = M1 (v1 , θ1 , v2 , θ2 ) (2.9-b)
V2 = V2 (v1 , θ1 , v2 , θ2 ) (2.9-c)
M2 = M2 (v1 , θ1 , v2 , θ2 ) (2.9-d)
16 We start from the differential equation of a beam, Fig. 2.4 in which we have all positive
known displacements, we have from strength of materials
d2 v
M = −EI = M 1 − V1 x (2.10)
dx2
17 Integrating twice
1
−EIv 0 = M1 x − V1 x2 + C1 (2.11-a)
2
1 1
−EIv = M1 x2 − V1 x3 + C1 x + C2 (2.11-b)
2 6

Draft
2.5 Force-Displacement Relations 2–5
Figure 2.2: Definition of Element Stiffness Coefficients

Draft
Figure 2.3: Stiffness Coefficients for One Dimensional Elements
M2
M
1
θ1
θ2
V1 v v V2
2
1
Figure 2.4: Flexural Problem Formulation

Draft
18 Applying the boundary conditions at x = 0

2–7
) (
v 0 = θ1 C1 = −EIθ1
⇒ (2.12)
v = v1 C2 = −EIv1
19 Applying the boundary conditions at x = L and combining with the expressions for C1 and
C2 ) (
v 0 = θ2 −EIθ2 = M1 L − 12 V1 L2 − EIθ1
⇒ (2.13)
v = v2 −EIv2 = 12 M1 L2 − 16 V1 L3 − EIθ1 L − EIv1
20 Since equilibrium of forces and moments must be satisfied, we have:
V 1 + V2 = 0 M1 − V1 L + M2 = 0 (2.14)
or
(M1 + M2 )
V1 = V2 = −V1 (2.15)
L
21 Substituting V1 into the expressions for θ2 and v2 in Eq. 2.13 and rearranging
(
M 1 − M2 = 2EIz
L θ1 − 2EIz
L θ2 (2.16)
2M1 − M2 = 6EIz
L θ1 + 6EIz
L2 1
v − 6EIz
L2 2
v
22 Solving those two equations, we obtain:
2EIz 6EIz
M1 = (2θ1 + θ2 ) + (v1 − v2 ) (2.17)
L L2
2EIz 6EIz
M2 = (θ1 + 2θ2 ) + (v1 − v2 ) (2.18)
L L2
23 Finally, we can substitute those expressions in Eq. 2.15
6EIz 12EIz
V1 = (θ1 + θ2 ) + (v1 − v2 ) (2.19)
L2 L3
6EIz 12EIz
V2 = − 2 (θ1 + θ2 ) − (v1 − v2 ) (2.20)
L L3
2.5.3 Torsional Deformations
24 From Fig. 2.2-d. Since torsional effects are seldom covered in basic structural analysis, and
students may have forgotten the derivation of the basic equations from the Strength of Material
course, we shall briefly review them.
25 Assuming a linear elastic material, and a linear strain (and thus stress) distribution along
the radius of a circular cross section subjected to torsional load, Fig. 2.5 we have:
Z
ρ
T = dA ρ
τmax |{z} (2.21-a)
A |c {z } |{z}
area arm
stress
| {z }
F orce
| {z }
Victor Saouma torque
Finite Element I; Framed Structures
Draft
Figure 2.5: Torsion Rotation Relations

Z
τmax
= ρ2 dA (2.21-b)
c A
| {z }
J
Tc
τmax = (2.21-c)
J
Mc
Note the analogy of this last equation with σ = Iz .
Z
26 ρ2 dA is the polar moment of inertia J. It is also referred to as the St. Venant’s torsion
A
constant. For circular cross sections
Z Z c
J = ρ2 dA = ρ2 (2πρdρ)
A 0
πc4
πd4
= = (2.22-a)
2 32
For rectangular sections b × d, and b < d, an approximate expression is given by
J = kb3 d (2.23-a)
0.3
k = ³ ´2 (2.23-b)
1 + db
For other sections, J is often tabulated.

27 Note that J corresponds to Ixx where x is the axis along the element.
28 Having developed a relation between torsion and shear stress, we now seek a relation between
torsion and torsional rotation. In Fig. 2.5, we consider the arc length BD
 
γmax dx = dΦc  
 dΦ
γmax T
⇒d dΦ
= dΦ
dx =
τmax
= (2.24)
τmax  
x c Gc
 TC  dx GJ
γmax = G τmax = J
Z Z
29 Finally, we can rewrite this last equation as T dx = GjdΦ and obtain:
GJ
T = Φ (2.25)
L
Note the similarity between this equation and Equation 2.8.

Draft
τ
2–9
y γ
τ
τ
dy
dv
γ s
τ
dx
x
Figure 2.6: Deformation of an Infinitesimal Element Due to Shear
2.5.4 Shear Deformation
30 In general, shear deformations are quite small. However, for beams with low span to depth
ratio, those deformations can not be neglected.
31 Considering an infinitesimal element subjected to shear, Fig. 2.6 and for linear elastic ma-
terial, the shear strain (assuming small displacement, i.e. tan γ ≈ γ) is given by
dvs τ
tan γ ≈ γ = = (2.26)
dx
|{z} G
|{z}
Kinematics M aterial
where dv
dx is the slope of the beam neutral axis from the horizontal while the vertical sections
s
remain undeformed, G is the shear modulus, τ the shear stress, and vs the shear induced
displacement.
32 Along a beam cross section, the shear stress is not constant. For example for rectangular
sections, it varies parabolically, and in I sections, the flange shear components can be neglected.
VQ
τ= (2.27)
Ib
where V is the shear force, Q is the first moment (or static moment) about the neutral axis of
the portion of the cross-sectional area which is outside of the section where the shear stress is
to be determined, I is the moment of inertia of the cross sectional area about the neutral axis,
and b is the width of the rectangular beam.
33 The preceding equation can be simplified as
V
τ= (2.28)
As
where As is the effective cross section for shear (which is the ratio of the cross sectional area
to the area shear factor)

Draft
34 Let us derive the expression of As for rectangular sections. The exact expression for the
shear stress is
VQ
τ= (2.29)
Ib
where Q is the moment of the area from the external fibers to y with respect to the neutral
axis; For a rectangular section, this yields
VQ
τ = (2.30-a)
Ib Ã !
Z
V h/2 V h2
= by 0 dy 0 = − y2 (2.30-b)
Ib y 2I 4
Ã !
6V h2
= − y2 (2.30-c)
bh3 4
and we observe that the shear stress is zero for y = h/2 and maximum at the neutral axis
V
where it is equal to 1.5 bh .
35 To determine the form factor λ of a rectangular section such that As = λA (clarify)
 ³ ´ 
τ = VIbQ 
 QA h2 

 k = = A
− y2 

= k VA ZIb 2I 4
Z Ã ! λ = 1.2 (2.31)
h/2
0 0 b h2 
 λ |{z}
bh = k 2 dydz 

Q = by dy = − y2 
 A 
y 2 4 A
Thus, the form factor λ may be taken as 1.2 for rectangular beams of ordinary proportions,
and As = 1.2A
For I beams, k can be also approximated by 1.2, provided A is the area of the web.
36 Combining Eq. 2.26 and 2.28 we obtain
dvs V
= (2.32)
dx GAs
Assuming V to be constant, we integrate
V
vs = x + C1 (2.33)
GAs
37If the displacement vs is zero at the opposite end of the beam, then we solve for C1 and
obtain
V
vs = − (x − L) (2.34)
GAs
38 We define
def 12EI
Φ = (2.35)
GAs L2
µ ¶2
A r
= 24(1 + ν) (2.36)
As L
r
Hence for small slenderness ratio L compared to unity, we can neglect Φ.
39 Next, we shall consider the effect of shear deformations on both translations and rotations

Draft
2.6 Putting it All Together, [k]
12EI
2–11
6EI
L3
L2
1
6EI
L2
12EI
L3
Figure 2.7: Effect of Flexure and Shear Deformation on Translation at One End
Effect on Translation Due to a unit vertical translation, the end shear force is obtained from
Eq. 2.19 and setting v1 = 1 and θ1 = θ2 = v2 = 0, or V = 12EI
L3
z
. At x = 0 we have, Fig.
2.7, and Eq. 2.34 
VL
vs = GA s
= βV 

V = 12EI z
vs = Φ (2.37)
L3
12EI 

Φ = GA sL
2
Hence, the shear deformation has increased the total translation from 1 to 1 + Φ. Similar
arguments apply to the translation at the other end.
Effect on Rotation Considering the beam shown in Fig. 2.8, even when a rotation θ1 is
applied, an internal shear force is induced, and this in turn is going to give rise to shear
deformations (translation) which must be accounted for. The shear force is obtained from
Eq. 2.19 and setting θ1 = 1 and θ2 = v1 = v2 = 0, or V = 6EI L2
z
. At x = 0,
VL

vs = GAs 

6EIz
V = vs = 0.5ΦL (2.38)
L2
12EI 

Φ = GAs L2
in other words, the shear deformation has moved the end of the beam (which was supposed
to have zero translation) by 0.5ΦL.
40 Using basic structural analysis methods we have derived various force displacement relations
for axial, flexural, torsional and shear imposed displacements. At this point, and keeping in
mind the definition of degrees of freedom, we seek to assemble the individual element stiffness
matrices [k]. We shall start with the simplest one, the truss element, then consider the beam,
2D frame, grid, and finally the 3D frame element.
41 In each case, a table will cross-reference the force displacement relations, and then the element
stiffness matrix will be accordingly defined.

Draft
6EI
θ1
L2
4EI 2EI
L L
6EI
L2
θ1=1
0.5βLθ1
0.5βLθ1
Figure 2.8: Effect of Flexure and Shear Deformation on Rotation at One End
Y Y
X X
Beam Element
Grid Element
Frame Element X
Figure 2.9: Coordinate System for Element Stiffness Matrices
42 Fig. 2.9 illustrates the coordinate syatems used for the element stiffness matrix definitions
in this section.
2.6.1 Truss Element
43 The truss element (whether in 2D or 3D) has only one degree of freedom associated with
each node. Hence, from Eq. 2.8, we have
 u1 u2 
AE p1 1 −1 (2.39)
[kt ] = p2 −1 1 
L
2.6.2 Beam Element
44 There are two major beam theories:

Draft
Euler-Bernoulli which is the classical formulation for beams.

2–13
Timoshenko which accounts for transverse shear deformation effects.
2.6.2.1 Euler-Bernoulli
45 Using Equations 2.17, 2.18, 2.19 and 2.20 we can determine the forces associated with each
unit displacement.
v1 θ1 v2 θ2
 
V1 Eq. 2.19(v1 = 1) Eq. 2.19(θ1 = 1) Eq. 2.19(v2 = 1) Eq. 2.19(θ2 = 1)
M1
 Eq. 2.17(v1 = 1) Eq. 2.17(θ1 = 1) Eq. 2.17(v2 = 1) Eq. 2.17(θ2 = 1) 

[kb ] =  
V2 Eq. 2.20(v1 = 1) Eq. 2.20(θ1 = 1) Eq. 2.20(v2 = 1) Eq. 2.20(θ2 = 1) 
M2 Eq. 2.18(v1 = 1) Eq. 2.18(θ1 = 1) Eq. 2.18(v2 = 1) Eq. 2.18(θ2 = 1)
(2.40)
46 The stiffness matrix of the beam element (neglecting shear and axial deformation) will thus
be
 
v1 θ1 v2 θ2
V1  12EIz
 6EI
L3
6EIz
L2
− 12EI
L3
z 6EIz
L2


M1 L2
z 4EIz
L − L2
6EIz 2EIz
L

 (2.41)
[kb ] = 
V2 − L3
12EIz
− 6EI 12EIz
− 6EI 
L2
z
L3 L2
z

 
M2 6EIL2
z 2EIz
L − 6EI
L2
z 4EIz
L 
2.6.2.2 Timoshenko Beam
47 If shear deformations are present, we need to alter the stiffness matrix given in Eq. 2.41 in
the following manner
1. Due to translation, we must divide (or normalize) the coefficients of the first and third
columns of the stiffness matrix by 1 + Φ so that the net translation at both ends is unity.
2. Due to rotation and the effect of shear deformation
(a) The forces induced at the ends due to a unit rotation at end 1 (second column)
neglecting shear deformations are
6EI
V1 = −V2 = (2.42-a)
L2
4EI
M1 = (2.42-b)
L
2EI
M2 = (2.42-c)
L
(b) There is a net positive translation of 0.5ΦL at end 1 when we applied a unit rotation
(this “parasitic” translation is caused by the shear deformation) but no additional
forces are induced.

Draft
(c) When we apply a unit rotation, all other displacements should be zero. Hence,
we should counteract this parasitic shear deformation by an equal and opposite
one. Hence, we apply an additional vertical displacement of −0.5ΦL and the forces
induced at the ends (first column) are given by
12EI 1
V1 = −V2 = (−0.5ΦL) (2.43-a)
|
L3 {z1 + Φ} | {z }
vs
bt
k11
6EI 1
M 1 = M2 = (−0.5ΦL) (2.43-b)
|
1 + Φ} | {z }
L2 {z
vs
bt
k21
Note that the denominators have already been divided by 1 + Φ in kbt .

(d) Summing up all the forces, we have the forces induced as a result of a unit rotation
only when the effects of both bending and shear deformations are included.
6EI 12EI 1
V1 = −V2 = + 3 1+Φ|
(−0.5ΦL) (2.44-a)
|L
2
{z } L {z }
| {z } vs
Due to Unit Rotation bt
k11
| {z }
Due to Parasitic Shear
6EI 1
= − (2.44-b)
L2 1 + Φ
4EI 6EI 1
M1 = + 2 1+Φ|
(−0.5ΦL) (2.44-c)
L}
| {z L {z }
| {z } vs
k21
| {z }
4 + Φ EI
= (2.44-d)
1+Φ L
2EI 6EI 1
M2 = + 2 1+Φ|
(−0.5ΦL) (2.44-e)
L}
| {z L {z }
| {z } vs
k21
| {z }
2 − Φ EI
= (2.44-f)
1+Φ L
48 Thus, the element stiffness matrix given in Eq. 2.41 becomes
 
v1 θ1 v2 θ2
V1  12EIz
 L3 (1+Φy )
6EIz
L2 (1+Φy )
− L312EI z
(1+Φy )
6EIz
L2 (1+Φy )


 (4+Φy )EIz (2−Φy )EIz 
M1 6EIz
 L2 (1+Φy ) (1+Φy )L − L26EI z
(1+Φy ) L(1+Φy )

 (2.45)
[kbV ] = V2  
 − L3 (1+Φz y ) − L26EI − L26EI
12EI 12EIz
z
L3 (1+Φy )
z

 (1+Φy ) (1+Φy ) 
M2 
(2−Φy )EIz (4+Φy )EIz
6EIz
 L2 (1+Φy ) L(1+Φy ) − L26EI z
(1+Φy ) L(1+Φy ) 

Draft
2.6.3 2D Frame Element

2–15
49 The stiffness matrix of the two dimensional frame element is composed of terms from the
truss and beam elements where kb and kt refer to the beam and truss element stiffness matrices
respectively.
u1x v1y θ1z u2x v2y θ2z
 t t 
P1x k11 0 0 k12 0 0
V1y
 0
b
k11 b
k12 0 k13b b 
k14 

M1z 0 k21b b b b 
2df r k22 0 k23 k24 
[k ]=  t  (2.46)
P2x k21 0 0 k22t 0 0 
 
V2y 0 k31b b
k32 0 k33b b 
k34
M2z 0 k41 b b
k42 0 k43b b
k44
Thus, we have:
 u1x v1y θ1z u2x v2y θ2z 

P1x EA 0 0 − EA 0 0 
 L L 
V1y
 0
12EIz
L3
6EIz
L2
0 − 12EI
L3
z 6EIz
L2


M1z
 0
6EIz
L2
4EIz
0 − L2
6EIz 2EIz 
 (2.47)
[k2df r ] = L L
P2x
 − EA 0 0 EA
0 0 

 L L 
V2y

0 − 12EI
L3
z
− 6EI
L2
z
0 12EIz
L3
− 6EI
L2


M2z 0 6EIz
L2
2EIz
L 0 − 6EI
L2
z 4EIz
L

50Note that if shear deformations must be accounted for, the entries corresponding to shear
and flexure must be modified in accordance with Eq. 2.45
2.6.4 Grid Element
51 The stiffness matrix of the grid element is very analogous to the one of the 2D frame element,
except that the axial component is replaced by the torsional one. Hence, the stiffness matrix is
α1x u1y β1z α2x u2y β2z

 
T1x Eq. 2.25 0 0 Eq. 2.25 0 0
V1y
 0 b
k11 b
k12 0 b
k13 b 
k14 

M1z b b b b 
0 k21 k22 0 k23 k24 
[kg ] =   (2.48)
T2x Eq. 2.25 0 0 Eq. 2.25 0 0 
 
V2y 0 b
k31 b
k32 0 b
k33 b 
k34
M2z 0 b
k41 b
k42 0 b
k43 b
k44

Draft
2–16
Upon substitution, the grid element stiffness matrix is given by

 α1x u1y β1z α2x u2y β2z 

T1x GI x
0 0 − GIx
0 0 
 L L 
V1y
 0
12EIz
L3
6EIz
L2
0 − 12EI
L3
z 6EIz
L2


M1z
 0
6EIz
L2
4EIz
0 − L2
6EIz 2EIz 
 (2.49)
[kg ] = L L
T2x
 − Gi x
0 0 GIx
0 0 

 L L 
V2y

0 − 12EI
L3
z
− 6EI
L2
z
0 12EIz
L3
− 6EI
L2
z 


M2z 0 6EIz 2EIz
0 − 6EI z 4EIz 
L2 L3 L2 L
52 Note that if shear deformations must be accounted for, the entries corresponding to shear
2.6.5 3D Frame Element

u1 v1 w1 θx1 θy1 θz1 u2 v2 w2 θx2 θy2 θz2
 t t

Px1 k11 0 0 0 0 0 k21 0 0 0 0 0

Vy1 0 b b b k b 14 
k11 0 0 0 k12 0 k13 0 0 0 
 
V z1 0 0 b
k11 0 −k12b 0 0 0 b
k13 0 −k14b 0 
 
Tx1 0 0 0 g
k11 0 0 0 0 0 g
k12 0 0  
My1 0 0 b
k32 0 b
k22 0 0 0 b
k12 0 b
k24 0  
Mz1 0
b
k21 0 0 0 b
k22 0 −k12b 0 0 0 b 
k24 
[k3df r ] =  t 
Px2 k21 0 0 0 0 0 t
k22 0 0 0 0 0 
 
Vy2 0
b
k13 0 0 0 b
k14 0 b
k33 0 0 0 b 
k34 
V z2
 0 0 b
k13 0 −k14b 0 0 0 b
k33 0 −k34b 0  
Tx2 0 0 0 g
k12 0 0 0 0 0 g
k22 0 0  
 
My2 0 0 b
k12 0 b
k24 0 0 0 −k43b 0 b
k44 0 
Mz2 0 −k12b 0 0 0 b
k24 0 b
k43 0 0 0 b
k44
(2.50)
For [k3D
11 ] and with we obtain:
 u1 v1 w1 θx1 θy1 θz1 u2 v2 w2 θx2 θy2 θz2 

Px1 EA 0 0 0 0 0 − EA 0 0 0 0 0
 0 l
12EIz 6EIz
L
−
12EIz 6EIz 
Vy1
 L3
0 0 0
L2
0
L3
0 0 0
L2 
Vz1 0 
12EIy 6EIy 12EIy EIy
− − −6 2
 0
L3
0
L2
0 0 0
L3
0
L
0

Tx1 0 
GIx GI
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 − Lx 0 0
 0 6EIy
L
4EIy 6EIy 2EIy 
My1 0 −
L2
0 0 0 0
L2
0 0 
 0 
L L
6EIz 4EIz 6EIz 2EIz
−
3df r
Mz1
 L2
0 0 0 L
0
L2
0 0 0 L 
Px2 − EA 
[k ]= EA
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vy2 0 
L L
12EIz 6EIz 12EIz 6EIz
 −
L3
0 0 0 −
L2
0
L3
0 0 0 −
L2 
Vz2 0 
12EIy EIy 12EIy 6EIy
−
 0
L3
0 6
L2
0 0 0
L3
0
L2
0

Tx2 0 
GI GIx
0 0 − Lx 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 0 6EIy 2EIy 6EIy
L
4EIy 
My2 0
6EIz
−
L2
0 L
2EIz
0 0 0
6EIz
L2
0 L
4EIz
0 
Mz2 0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0
L2 L L2 L
(2.51)
53Note that if shear deformations must be accounted for, the entries corresponding to shear

Draft
2.7 Remarks on Element Stiffness Matrices
2.7 Remarks on Element Stiffness Matrices

2–17
Singularity: All the derived stiffness matrices are singular, that is there is at least one row and
one column which is a linear combination of others. For example in the beam element,
row 4 = −row 1; and L times row 2 is equal to the sum of row 3 and 6. This singularity
(not present in the flexibility matrix) is caused by the linear relations introduced by the
equilibrium equations which are embedded in the formulation.
Symmetry: All matrices are symmetric due to Maxwell-Betti’s reciprocal theorem, and the
stiffness flexibility relation.
54 More about the stiffness matrix properties later.

Draft
2–18
2.8 Homework
Using the virtual force method, derive the flexibility matrix of a semi-circular box-girder of
radius R and angle α in terms of shear, axial force, and moment.
The arch is clamped at one end, and free at the other.
Note: In a later assignment, you will combine the flexibility matrix with equilibrium relations
to derive the element stiffness matrix.
11
00 y x
00
11
z
R
Y Y
α θ
O O
Z X Z X

Draft
Chapter 3
STIFFNESS METHOD; Part I:

ORTHOGONAL STRUCTURES
3.1 Introduction
1 In the previous chapter we have first derived displacement force relations for different types
of rod elements, and then used those relations to define element stiffness matrices in local
coordinates.
2 In this chapter, we seek to perform similar operations, but for an orthogonal structure in
global coordinates.
3 In the previous chapter our starting point was basic displacement-force relations resulting in
element stiffness matrices [k].
4 In this chapter, our starting point are those same element stiffness matrices [k], and our
objective is to determine the structure stiffness matrix [K], which when inverted, would yield
the nodal displacements.
5 The element stiffness matrices were derived for fully restrained elements.
6 This chapter will be restricted to orthogonal structures, and generalization will be discussed
later. The stiffness matrices will be restricted to the unrestrained degrees of freedom.
7 From these examples, the interrelationships between structure stiffness matrix, nodal dis-
placements, and fixed end actions will become apparent. Then the method will be generalized
in chapter 5 to describe an algorithm which can automate the assembly of the structure global
stiffness matrix in terms of the one of its individual elements.
3.2 The Stiffness Method
8 As a “vehicle” for the introduction to the stiffness method let us consider the problem in Fig
3.1-a, and recognize that there are only two unknown displacements, or more precisely, two
global d.o.f: θ1 and θ2 .
9 If we were to analyse this problem by the force (or flexibility) method, then
Draft
3–2 STIFFNESS METHOD; Part I: ORTHOGONAL STRUCTURES
Figure 3.1: Problem with 2 Global d.o.f. θ1 and θ2

Draft
3.3 Examples
1. We make the structure statically determinate by removing arbitrarily two reactions (as
3–3
long as the structure remains stable), and the beam is now statically determinate.
2. Assuming that we remove the two roller supports, then we determine the corresponding
deflections due to the actual laod (∆B and ∆C ).
3. Apply a unit load at point B, and then C, and compute the deflections fij at note i due
to a unit force at node j.
4. Write the compatibility of displacement equation
" #( ) ( ) ( )
fBB fBC RB ∆1 0
− = (3.1)
fCB fCC RC ∆2 0
5. Invert the matrix, and solve for the reactions
10 We will analyze this simple problem by the stiffness method.

1. The first step consists in making it kinematically determinate (as opposed to statically
determinate in the flexibility method). Kinematically determinate in this case simply
means restraining all the d.o.f. and thus prevent joint rotation, Fig 3.1-b.
2. We then determine the fixed end actions caused by the element load, and sum them for
each d.o.f., Fig 3.1-c: ΣFEM1 and ΣFEM2 .
3. In the third step, we will apply a unit displacement (rotation in this case) at each degree
of freedom at a time, and in each case we shall determine the intenal reaction forces, K11 ,
K21 , and K12 , K22 respectively. Note that we use [K], rather than [k] since those are
forces in the global coordinate system, Fig 3.1-d. Again note that we are focusing only
on the reaction forces corresponding to a global degree of freedom. Hence, we are not
attempting to determine the reaction at node A.
4. Finally, we write the equation of equilibrium at each node:
( ) ( ) " #( )
M1 ΣFEM1 K11 K12 θ1
= + (3.2)
M2 ΣFEM2 K21 K22 θ2
11Note that the FEM being on the right hand side, they are detemined as the reactions to the
applied load. Strictly speaking, it is a load which should appear on the left hand side of the
equation, and are the nodal equivalent loads to the element load (more about this later).
12 As with the element stiffness matrix, each entry in the global stiffness matrix Kij , corresponds
to the internal force along d.o.f. i due to a unit displacement (generalized) along d.o.f. j (both
in global coordinate systems).
3.3 Examples
Example 3-1: Beam

Draft
Considering the previous problem, Fig. 3.1-a, let P1 = 2P , M = P L, P2 = P , and P3 = P ,

Solve for the displacements.
Solution:
1. Using the previously defined sign convention:

P1 L P2 L 2P L P L PL
ΣFEM1 = − + =− + =− (3.3-a)
| {z8 } | {z
8} 8 8 8
BA BC
PL
ΣFEM2 = − (3.3-b)
| {z8 }
CB
2. If it takes 4EI BA 4EI BC

L (k44 ) to rotate BA (Eq. 2.41) and L (k22 ) to rotate BC, it will take
8EI
a total force of L to simultaneously rotate BA and BC, (Note that a rigid joint is
assumed).
3. Hence, K11 which is the sum of the rotational stiffnesses at global d.o.f. 1. will be equal
to K11 = 8EI 2EI BC
L ; similarly, K21 = L (k42 ) .
4EI BC ) and K 2EI
4. If we now rotate dof 2 by a unit angle, then we will have K22 = L (k22 12 = L
BC ) .
(k42
5. The equilibrium relation can thus be written as:

( ) ( ) " #( )
PL − P8L 8EI
L
2EI
L θ1
= + (3.4)
0 − P8L 2EI
L
4EI
L
θ2
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
M F EM K ∆
or ( ) " #( )
P L + P8L 8EI
L
2EI
L θ1
= (3.5)
+ P8L 2EI
L
4EI
L
θ2
6. The two by two matrix is next inverted

( ) " #−1 ( ) ( )
8EI 2EI 17 P L2
θ1 L L P L + P8L 112 EI
= 2EI 4EI = 5 P L2 (3.6)
θ2 L L + P8L − 112 EI
7. Next we need to determine both the reactions and the internal forces.
8. Recall that for each element {p} = [k]{δ}, and in this case {p} = {P} and {δ} = {∆}
for element AB. The element stiffness matrix has been previously derived, Eq. 2.41, and
in this case the global and local d.o.f. are the same.
9. Hence, the equilibrium equation for element AB, at the element level, can be written as
(note that we must include the fixed end actions to maintain equilibrium):
      

 p1 

12EI 6EI
− 12EI 6EI

 0 
 

2P



 p   L3 L2 L3 L2
 
 

2 

2 
6EI
L2
4EI
− 6EI
L2
2EI
 0 2P L
= L L  + 8 (3.7)



p3 


 − 12EI
L3
− 6EI
L2
12EI
L3
− 6EI
L2





0 


2P
2




p4  6EI
L2
2EI
L − 6EI
L2
4EI
L
17 P L2  
− 2P8 L

| {z }
Victor Saouma | {z Finite
112 EI
} | Element
{z }I; {z
|Framed }
Structures
{p} [k] {δ } FEM
Draft
3.3 Examples
solving
3–5
b p1 p2 p3 p4 c = b 107
56 P
31
56 P L
5
56 P
5
14 P L c (3.8)
10. Similarly, for element BC:

      

 p1 

12EI 6EI
− 12EI 6EI

 0 
 

P



 p   L3 L2 L3 L2
 17 P L2 
 

2 

2 
6EI
L2
4EI
− 6EI
L2
2EI

PL
= L L  112 EI + 8 (3.9)



p3 


 − 12EI
L3
− 6EI
L2
12EI
L3
− 6EI
L2


0 





P
2




p4  − 6EI
   
2
6EI
L2
2EI
L L2
4EI
L − 112
5 PL − P8L
| {z } | {z }| EI
{z } | {z }
{p} [k] {δ } FEM
or
b p1 p2 p3 p4 c = b 7
8P
9
14 P L − P7 0 c (3.10)
11. This simple example calls for the following observations:
(a) Node A has contributions from element AB only, while node B has contributions
from both AB and BC.
(b) We observe that pAB3 6= pBC
1 eventhough they both correspond to a shear force
at node B, the difference betweeen them is equal to the reaction at B. Similarly,
pAB
4 6= pBC
2 due to the externally applied moment at node B.
(c) From this analysis, we can draw the complete free body diagram, Fig. 3.1-e and
then the shear and moment diagrams which is what the Engineer is most interested
in for design purposes.
Example 3-2: Frame
Whereas in the first example all local coordinate systems were identical to the global one,
in this example we consider the orthogonal frame shown in Fig. 5.1,
Solution:
1. Assuming axial deformations, we do have three global degrees of freedom, ∆1 , ∆2 , and θ3 .

2. Constrain all the degrees of freedom, and thus make the structure kinematically determinate.
3. Determine the fixed end actions for each element in its own local coordinate system:
b p 1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 c = b 0 P
2
PL
8 0 P
2 − P8L c (3.11-a)
| {z }
AB
b p1 v1 m1 p2 v2 m2 c = b 0 wH 2 2
c
wH
0 wH
− wH (3.11-b)
| {z } 2 12 2 12
BC
(3.11-c)
4. Summing the fixed end actions at node B in global coordinates we have
b P1 P2 P3 c = b wH 2 c
wH
2
P
2 − P8L + 12
(3.12)

Draft
3–6
P
STIFFNESS METHOD; Part I: ORTHOGONAL STRUCTURES
∆2 θ3 P
M
1A
0 P/2 1
0 A
1A
0
0
1 EI
B 0
1 B
∆1 0
1 B
w H
w
C C
L/2 L/200
11 11
00
C
11
00
K22 K32 K23 K 33
1 K12 K13
1
0 A K21 K31 1
0 A 1 1
0 A B 1
0
1 B 0
1 B
0
1
K11
C C
11
00 11
00 11
00
C
Figure 3.2: Frame Example (correct K23 )
5. Next, we apply a unit displacement in each of the 3 global degrees of freedom, and we seek
to determine the structure global stiffness matrix. Each entry Kij of the global stiffness matrix
will correspond to the internal force in degree of freedom i, due to a unit displacement in degree
of freedom j.
6. Recalling the force displacement relations derived earlier, we can assemble the global stiffness
matrix in terms of contributions from both AB and BC:
Ki1 Ki2 Ki3
∆1 ∆2 θ3
EA
K1j AB L 0 0
12EI c 6EI c
BC H3
0 H2
12EI b b
K2j AB 0 L3
− 6EI
L2
EA
BC 0 H 0
b 4EI b
K3j AB 0 − 6EI
L2 L
6EI c 4EI c
BC H2
0 H
7. Summing up, the structure global stiffness matrix [K] is:
∆1 ∆2 θ3
 EA c 6EI c 
P1 L + 12EI
H3
0 H2
 12EI b b 
[K] = P2 0 L3
+ EA H − 6EIL2  (3.13-a)
6EI c b 4EI b 4EI c
M3 H2
− 6EI
L 2 L + H
∆1 ∆2 θ3
 
P1 k44AB BC
+ k22 AB
k45 BC
+ k21 AB
k46 BC
+ k23
 AB BC 
= P2 k + k BC AB
k55 BC
+ k11 AB
k56 + k13  (3.13-b)
M3 k64AB BC
+ k32 AB
k65 BC
+ k31 AB
k66 BC
+ k33

Draft
3.3 Examples
8. The global equation of equilibrium can now be written

3–7
     EA c 6EI c  

 −2 
P
 

wH
2

 L + 12EI
H3
0 H2 
 ∆1 

P  12EI b b 
0 = + 0 + EA − 6EI  ∆2 (3.14)

 M 
 

2
2 
 6EI c
L3
b
H
4EI b
L2
4EI c

 θ 
− P8L + wH
12 H2
− 6EI 2 L + H
3
| {z } | L
{z }
F EA [K]
9. Solve for the displacemnts

   EA c 6EI c −1  

 ∆1 
 L + 12EI
H3
0 H2 
 − P2 − wH2


 12EI b b 
2∆ =  0 + EA − 6EI  − P2

 θ  c
L3
6EI b
H
b
L2
4EI c

 2 

3
6EI
H2
− L2
4EI
L + H
M + P8L − wH 12
 
 −(L3 (84Ib+19AL2 )P ) 

  

 32E(3Ib+AL2 )(12Ib+AL2 ) 

−(L3 (12Ib+13AL2 )P )
= (3.15-a)

 32E(3Ib+AL2 )(12Ib+AL2 ) 


 L2 (12Ib+AL2 )P 

 
64EIb(3Ib+AL2 )
10. To obtain the element internal forces, we will multiply each element stiffness matrix by the
local displacements. For element AB, the local and global coordinates match, thus
 
    0 

EA
0 0 − EA 0 0 
 


 p1 
  
 
L L 0

   0  
p2   
12EIy 6EIy 12EI 6EIy

 
  0 − L3 y  

 p   L3 L2 L2  0 

 0 6EIy 4EIy
0
6EI
− L2 y
2EIy  −(L3 (84Ib+19AL2 )P )

3
= 
 − EA
L2 L L 


 p4 
  0 0 EA
0 0  32E(3Ib+AL2 )(12Ib+AL2 ) 


 
  L L
 −(L3 (12Ib+13AL2 )P ) 


 p5 
  0 12EI
− L3 y
6EI
− L2 y 0
12EIy
− 6EI  


 
 L3 L2 
 32E(3Ib+AL2 )(12Ib+AL2 ) 

p6 6EIy 2EIy 6EIy 4EIy 
 

0 0 − L2 
 L2 (12Ib+AL2 )P 

L2 L L
64EIb(3Ib+AL2 )
 

 0 


 P 


 



2
PL 

+ 8 (3.16-a)

 0 


 


 P 


 2 

− P8L
11. For element BC, the local and global coordinates do not match, hence we will need to
transform the displacements from their global to their local coordinate components. But since,
vector (displacement and load), and matrix transformation have not yet been covered, we note
by inspection that the relationship between global and local coordinates for element BC is
Local δ1 δ2 θ3 δ4 δ5 θ6
Global 0 0 0 ∆2 −∆1 θ3
and we observe that there are no local or global displacements associated with dof 1-3; Hence

Draft
the internal forces for element BC are given by:

 
   

0 


EA
0 0 − EA 0 0 
 0 


 p1 
  
 
L L

   0  
p2   
12EIy 6EIy 12EI 6EIy

 
  0 − L3 y  0 

 p   L3 L2 L2  

 0 6EIy 4EIy
0
6EI
− L2 y
2EIy  −(L3 (12I b +13AL2 )P ) 
3
= 
 − EA
L2 L L 
 32E (3I b +AL2 )(12I b +AL2 )

 p4   0 0 EA
0 0  


 
  L L
 

(L3 (84I b +19AL2 )P )

 p 
  0
12EI
− L3 y
6EI
− L2 y 0
12EIy
− 6EI  



5 
 L3 L2 
 32E (3I +AL )(12I +AL ) 
b 2 b 2

p6 6EIy 2EIy 6EI 4EIy 
 

0 0 − L2 y 

2 b 2
L (12I +AL )P 

L2 L L  
64EIb
(3I
b 2
+AL )
 

 0 


 


 − wH 


 2 

 − wH 2 
+ 12 (3.17-a)

 0 


 


 − wH 


 2 

 wH 2 
12
Note that the element is defined as going from C to B hence, x, y, z correspond to Y, −X, Z.
Mathematica:
Ic=Ib
M= 0
w= 0
H= L
alpha=
K={
{E A /L + 12 E Ic /H^3, 0, 6 E Ic/H^2},
{0, 12 E Ib/L^3 + E A/H, -6 E Ib/L^2},
{6 E Ic/H^2, -6 E Ib/L^2, 4 E Ib/L + 4 E Ic/H}
}
d=Inverse[K]
load={-P/2 - w H/2, -P/2, M+P L/8 -w H^2/12}
displacement=Simplify[d . load]
Example 3-3: Grid
Analyse the orthogonal grid shown in Fig. 3.3. The two elements have identical flexural
and torsional rigidity, EI and GJ.
Solution:
1. We first identify the three degrees of freedom, θ1 , ∆2 , and θ3 .

Draft
3.3 Examples 3–9
Figure 3.3: Grid Example
2. Restrain all the degrees of freedom, and determine the fixed end actions:
     

 T1 
 
 0 
 
 0 

P P
V
2 = = (3.18)

 M  
 PL 
2
 
 −Pl 
2

3 8 8
| {z } | {z }
@node A @node B
3. Apply a unit displacement along each of the three degrees of freedom, and determine the
internal forces:
1. Apply unit rotation along global d.o.f. 1.
AB = GJ AB AB
(a) AB (Torsion) K11 L , K21 = 0, K31 = 0
BC = 4EI BC 6EI BC
(b) BC (Flexure) K11 L , K21 = L2 , K31 = 0
4. Apply a unit displacement along global d.o.f. 2.

AB = 0, K AB =
(a) AB (Flexure): K12 22
12EI
L3
AB =
, K32 − 6EI
L2
BC = 6EI BC = 12EI , K BC
(b) BC (Flexure): K12 L2
, K22 L3 32 =0
5. Apply unit rotation along global d.o.f. 3.

AB = 0, K AB = − 6EI , K AB =
(a) AB (Flexure): K13 4EI
23 L2 33 L
BC = 0, K BC = 0, K BC = GJ
(b) BC (Torsion): K13 23 33 L
4. The structure stiffness matrix will now be assembled:

     
GJ 4EI 6EI
K11 K12 K13 0 0 L2
0
   L   L

 K21 K22 K23  =  0 12EI
L3
− 6EI
L2 
+ 6EI
L2
12EI
L3
0 
K31 K32 K33 0 − 6EI
L2
4EI
L 0 0 GJ
L
| {z } | {z }
[KAB ] [KBC ]

Draft
αL2

0 0 4L2 6L 0
  
EI   EI  
=  0 12 −6L  +  6L 12 0 
L3 L3
0 −6L 4L2 0 0 αL2
 
(4 + α)L2 6L 0
EI  
=  6L 24 −6L  (3.19-a)
L3
0 −6L (4 + α)L2
| {z }
[KStructure ]
 
AB + k BC
k44 AB + k BC
k46 AB + k BC
k45
55 56 54
 AB BC AB + k BC AB + k BC 
=  k64 + k65 k66 66 k65 64  (3.19-b)
AB BC
k54 + k45 AB + k BC
k56 AB + k BC
k55
46 44
where α = GJ
EI , and in the last equation it is assumed that for element BC, node 1 corresponds
to C and 2 to B.
5. The structure equilibrium equation in matrix form:
      

 0 
 
 0 
 (4 + α)L2 6L 0 
 θ1 

EI  
0 = P
+ 3  6L 24 −6L  ∆2 (3.20)

 0 
  2
 −PL 
 L  
0 −6L (4 + α)L2  θ3 
| {z } | {z8 } | {z }| {z }
{P} FEA @B [K] {∆}
or    
 P L2 5+2α 

 θ1 
 
 16EI (1+α)(4+α) 

P L3 5+2α
2∆ = − 96EI (3.21)

 θ  

1+α 

3  − 3P L2 1 
16EI (1+α)(4+α)
6. Determine the element internal forces. This will be accomplished by multiplying each element
stiffness matrix [k] with the vector of nodal displacement {δ}. Note these operations should
be accomplished in local coordinate system, and great care should be exercized in writing the
nodal displacements in the same local coordinate system as the one used for the derivation of
the element stiffness matrix, Eq. 2.49.
7. For element AB and BC, the vector of nodal displacements are
     

 
δ1  
 0 
 
 −θ3 


     

 δ2 




 0 




 −θ1 



 δ  
 
 
 ∆  
3 0 2
= = (3.22)

 δ4  
 θ1 
 
 0 


 
 
 
 
 


 δ 
 
 −θ3 
 
 0 



5 
 
 
 
 

δ6 ∆2 0
| {z } | {z }
AB BC
8. Hence, for element AB we have

      
 p1 
GIx
0 0 − GIx
0 0  0   0 

 
  0
L L
 
 
 


 p2 
 
4EIy
−
6EIy
0
2EIy 6EIy
 0 
 
 P/2 


   L2 L2    
 p     
L L
  0 6EI
− L2 y
12EIy
0
6EI
− L2 y
12EI
− L3 y  0   P L/8 
3
=
 − Gix
L3 
 θ +

 p4   0 0 GIx
0 0  
 
 0 


 
  L L
 1 
 
 


 
 2EIy 6EI 4EIy 6EIy
 −θ3 
  


p 5 

 0 L − L2 y 0 L L2 
  
  P/2




p6 0
6EIy 12EI
− L3 y 0
6EIy 12EIy ∆2 −P L/8
L2 L2 L3
(3.23)

Draft
3.4 Observations
9. For element BC:

3–11
    
 
p1 
GIx
0 0 − GIx
0 0  −θ3 


   0
L L
 

 p2 
 
4EIy
−
6EIy
0
2EIy 6EIy
 −θ1 


  L2 L2  
 p    
L L
  0 6EI
− L2 y
12EIy
0
6EI
− L2 y
12EI
− L3 y   ∆2 
3
=
 − Gix
L3 
 0  (3.24)

 p4   0 0 GIx
0 0  

 
  L L
 


 p 
  0
2EIy 6EI
− L2 y 0
4EIy 6EIy
 0 



5 
 L L L2 
 

p6 6EIy 12EI 6EIy 12EIy 0
0 L2
− L3 y 0 L2 L3
3.4 Observations
13On the basis of these two illustrative examples we note that the global structure equilibrium
equation can be written as
{P} = {FEA} + [K]{∆} (3.25)
where [K] is the global structure stiffness matrix (in terms of the unrestrained d.o.f.) {P} the
vector containing both the nodal load and the nodal equivalent load caused by element loading,
{∆} is the vector of generalized nodal displacements.
14 Whereas the preceding two examples were quite simple to analyze, we seek to generalize the
method to handle any arbitrary structure. As such, some of the questions which arise are:
1. How do we determine the element stiffness matrix in global coordinate systems, [Ke ],
from the element stiffness matrix in local coordinate system [ke ]?
2. How to assemble the structure [KS ] from each element [KE ]?
3. How to determine the {FEA} or the nodal equivalent load for an element load?
4. How to determine the local nodal displacements from the global ones?
5. How do we compute reactions in the restrained d.o.f?
6. How can we determine the internal element forces (P , V , M , and T )?
7. How do we account for temperature, initial displacements or prestrain?
Those questions, and others, will be addressed in the next chapters which will outline the
general algorithm for the direct stiffness method.

Draft
3–12
3.5 Homework
STIFFNESS METHOD; Part I: ORTHOGONAL STRUCTURES
1. Solve (analytically) for the three displacements, reactions, and the internal forces for the
frame in terms of P , L, H, E, I, A. Assume both members to have the same elastic and
cross-sectional properties (you may want to use Mathematica).
Solve for P = 10 kip, L = H = 12 ft, E =30,000 Ksi, A = 10 in2 , I = 200 in4 .
Note:
(a) Show on three separate figures all the (global) stiffness terms.
(b) Determine the fixed end actions.
(c) Assemble the global stiffness matrix.
(d) Define Z = AL2 /I, factor the matrix, and invert.
(e) You may either proceed with Mathematica from that point onward, or give up,
substitute the numerical values and solve for internal forces and reactions.
(f) Draw the free body diagram for each member.
(g) Draw the shear and moment diagram for the structure.
(h) SOlve for the reaction
2. Using Mathematica, derive the analytical expression fo the stiffness matrix of a frame
element in global coordinate system.

Draft
Chapter 4
TRANSFORMATION MATRICES
4.1 Preliminaries
4.1.1 [ke ] [Ke ] Relation
1 In the previous chapter, in which we focused on orthogonal structures, the assembly of the
structure’s stiffness matrix [Ke ] in terms of the element stiffness matrices was relatively straight-
forward.
2 The determination of the element stiffness matrix in global coordinates, from the element
stiffness matrix in local coordinates requires the introduction of a transformation.
3 This chapter will examine the 2D and 3D transformations required to obtain an element
stiffness matrix in global coordinate system prior to assembly (as discussed in the next chapter).
4 Recalling that
{p} = [k(e) ]{δ} (4.1)

{P} = [K (e)
]{∆} (4.2)
5 Let us define a transformation matrix [Γ(e) ] such that:
{δ} = [Γ(e) ]{∆} (4.3)

{p} = [Γ (e)
]{P} (4.4)
Note that we use the same matrix Γ(e) since both {δ} and {p} are vector quantities (or tensors
of order one).
6 Substituting Eqn. 4.3 and Eqn. 4.4 into Eqn. 4.1 we obtain
[Γ(e) ]{P} = [k(e) ][Γ(e) ]{∆} (4.5)
premultiplying by [Γ(e) ]−1

{P} = [Γ(e) ]−1 [k(e) ][Γ(e) ]{∆} (4.6)
7 But since the rotation matrix is orthogonal, we have [Γ(e) ]−1 = [Γ(e) ]T and
{P} = [Γ(e) ]T [k(e) ][Γ(e) ]{∆} (4.7)

| {z }
[K(e) ]
Draft
4–2 TRANSFORMATION MATRICES
[K(e) ] = [Γ(e) ]T [k(e) ][Γ(e) ] (4.8)
which is the general relationship between element stiffness matrix in local and global coordi-
nates.
4.1.2 Direction Cosines
8 The dot product of two vectors

~ ·B
A ~ = |A|.|B| cos α = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (4.9)
~ and α is the angle between the two vectors.

where |A| is the norm (length) of A,
9 ~
A vector V
~ = Vx~i + Vy~j + Vz ~k
V (4.10)
can be normalized
~n = Vx ~i + Vy ~j + Vz ~k = x2 − x1~i + y2 − y1~j + z2 − z1 ~k
V (4.11)
|V | |V | |V | L L L
p
where L = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 and hence to obtain the three direction cosines
~ we simply take the dot product of its normalized form with the three unit vectors
of vector V
forming the orthogonal coordinate system
~n · ~i = x2 − x1
V = lvx (4.12-a)
L
~n · ~j = y2 − y1
V = lvy (4.12-b)
L
~n · ~k = z 2 − z1
V = lvz (4.12-c)
L
Note that since both vectors are normalized, the dot product is equal to the direction cosine.
10The problem confronting us is the general transformation of a vector V from (X, Y, Z)
coordinate system to (x, y, z), Fig. 4.1: where:
    

 Vx 
 lxX lxY lxZ   VX 

 
Vy =  lyX lyY lyZ  VY (4.13)

 V   
z lzX lzY lzZ  VZ 
| {z }
[γ ]
where lij is the direction cosine of axis i with respect to axis j, and thus the rows of the
matrix correspond to the rotated vectors with respect to the original ones corresponding to the
columns.
11 With respect to Fig. 4.2, lxX = cos α; lxY = cos β, and lxZ = cos γ or
Vx = VX lxX + VY lxY + VZ lxZ (4.14-a)

= VX cos α + VY cos β + VZ cos γ (4.14-b)

Draft
4.1 Preliminaries 4–3
Y
y
VY
Vy x
Vx
X
VX
Vz
VZ
Z
z
Figure 4.1: Arbitrary 3D Vector Transformation
Y
y
VY β x
α
X
VZ VX
Z γ
z
Figure 4.2: 3D Vector Transformation

Draft
4–4
12
Direction cosines are unit orthogonal vectors satisfying the following relations:
X
3
lij lij = 1 i = 1, 2, 3 (4.15)
j=1
i.e:
2 2 2
l11 + l12 + l13 = 1 or cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1 = δ11 (4.16)
and

X
3 
 i = 1, 2, 3
lij lkj = 0 k = 1, 2, 3 (4.17-a)

 i 6= k
j=1
l11 l21 + l12 l22 + l13 l23 = 0 = δ12 (4.17-b)
13 By direct multiplication of [γ]T and [γ] it can be shown that: [γ]T [γ] = [I] ⇒ [γ]T =
[γ]−1 ⇒ [γ] is an orthogonal matrix.
14 The reverse transformation (from local to global) would be
{V} = [γ]T {v} (4.18)
or     

 VX 
 lxX lyX lzX   Vx 

 
Y V =  lxY lyY lxY  Vy (4.19)

 V 
  
Z lxZ lyZ lzZ  Vz 
| {z }
[γ ]−1 =[γ ]T
4.2 Transformation Matrices For Framework Elements
15The rotation matrix, [Γ], will obviously vary with the element type. In the most general case
(3D element, 6 d.o.f. per node), we would have to define:
    

 Fx1 
 
 FX1 


 
   


 Fy1 
  [γ]  FY 1 


 
   


 Fz1 
   FZ1 


 
   


 
   


 Mx1 
   MX1 


 
   


 My1 
  [γ]  MY 1 


 
   

Mz1   MZ1
=  (4.20)

 Fx2 
   FX2 


 
   

 Fy2 
  [γ] 
 FY 2 



 
   

 Fz2 
  
 FZ2




 
   

 
  





 Mx2 
   MX2 

 
  





 My2 
  [γ]  MY 2 


 
 
 

Mz2 MZ2
| {z }
[Γ]
and should distinguish between the vector transformation [γ] and the element transformation
matrix [Γ].
16 In the next sections, we will examine the transformation matrix of each type of element.

Draft
4.2.1 2 D cases
4–5
4.2.1.1 2D Frame
17 For the 2D frame element, Fig. 4.3 and from Eq. 4.13 the vector rotation matrix is defined
Y
5 6 x
4
y
β
2 3 α
X
1
Figure 4.3: 2D Frame Element Rotation with respect to Z (or z)
in terms of 9 direction cosines of 9 different angles. However for the 2D case, we will note that
four angles are interrelated (lxX , lxY , lyX , lyY ) and can all be expressed in terms of a single one
α, where α is the direction of the local x axis (along the member from the first to the second
node) with respect to the global X axis.
18 The remaining 5 terms are related to the angle between Z and z, which is zero, and the Z
x − y plane, which is π/2. Thus the rotation matrix can be written as:
     
lxX lxY 0 cos α cos( π2 − α) 0 cos α sin α 0
     
[γ] =  lyX lyY π
0  =  cos( 2 + α) cos α 0  =  − sin α cos α 0  (4.21)
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
and we observe that the angles are defined from the second subscript to the first, and that
counterclockwise angles are positive.
19 The element rotation matrix [Γ] will then be given by
    

 p1 
 cos α sin α 0 0 0 0 
 P1 


   

 p2 



 − sin α cos α 0 0 0 0 
 P2 



 p    

3  0 0 1 0 0 0  P3
=  (4.22)

 p 
  0 0 0 cos α sin α 0  P4 


4 
   


 p 
5   0 0 0 − sin α cos α 0 
 P5 



 
 
 

p6 0 0 0 0 0 1 P6
| {z }
[Γ]
4.2.1.2 Grid
20 The transformation matrix for the grid element, Fig. 4.4 is very analogous to the one of the
frame element except that rotation is with respect to the y axis instead of the z axis.
21 From Eq. 4.13 the vector rotation matrix is defined in terms of 9 direction cosines of 9
different angles. However, we will note that four angles are interrelated (lxX , lxZ , lzX , lzZ ) and
can all be expressed in terms of a single one α, where α is the direction of the local x axis
(along the member from the first to the second node) with respect to the global X axis.

Draft
4–6
Y y
5
4
6
2
1 α
X
3
α
Z
z
Figure 4.4: Grid Element Rotation
22The remaining 5 terms are related to the angle between Y and y, which is zero, and the Y
x − z plane, which is π/2. Thus the rotation matrix can be written as:
     
lxX 0 lxZ cos α 0 cos( π2 − α) cos α 0 sin α
     
[γ] =  0 1 0 = 0 1 0 = 0 1 0  (4.23)
lzX 0 lzZ π
cos( 2 + α) 0 cos α − sin α 0 cos α
and we observe that the angles are defined from the second subscript to the first, and that
counterclockwise angles are positive.
23 The element rotation matrix [Γ] will then be given by
    

 
p1  cos α 0 sin α 0 0 0 
 P1 


   

 p2 



 0 1 0 0 0 0 

 P2 



 p    

3  − sin α 0 cos α 0 0 0  P3
=  (4.24)

 p 
4   0 0 0 cos α 0 sin α  P4 

 
  





 p5   0 0 0 0 1 0  P5 


 
 
 

p6 0 0 0 − sin α 0 cos α P6
| {z }
[Γ]
4.2.1.3 2D Truss
24 For the 2D truss element, the global coordinate system is two dimensional, whereas the local
one is only one dimensional, hence the vector transformation matrix is, Fig. 4.5.
2
Y
00
11
11
00
00
11
α
0
1
1
0
1 0
1 X
Figure 4.5: 2D Truss Rotation

Draft
[γ] =
h
lxX lxY
i
=
h
cos α cos( π2 − α)
i
=
h
cos α sin α
i
4–7
(4.25)
25 The element rotation matrix [Γ] will then be assembled from the vector rotation matrix [γ].
 
( ) " # " #


P1 

p1 [γ] 0 cos α sin α 0 0  P 
2
= = (4.26)
p2 0 [γ] 0 0 cos α sin α 
 P3 

| {z }
 

P4
[Γ]
4.2.2 3D Frame
26 Given that rod elements, are defined in such a way to have their local x axis aligned with
their major axis, and that the element is defined by the two end nodes (of known coordinates),
then recalling the definition of the direction cosines it should be apparent that the evaluation
of the first row, only, is quite simple. However evaluation of the other two is more complex.
27This generalized transformation from X, Y, Z to x, y, z was accomplished in one step in the
two dimensional case, but intermediary ones will have to be defined in the 3D case.
28Starting with reference (X1 , Y1 , Z1 ) coordinate system which corresponds to the global co-
ordinate system, we seek to transform an element originally along the X1 axis into its new
position along the X2 axis.
29 In the 2D case this was accomplished through one single rotation α, and all other angles
where defined in terms of it.

30 In the 3D case, it will take a minimum of two rotations β and γ, and possibly a third one
α (different than the one in 2D) to achieve this transformation, Table 4.1. Those three angles
are also called the Eulerian angles.
From To With respect to Angle

X1 , Y1 , Z1 Xβ , Yβ , Zβ Y1 ≡ Yβ β
Xβ , Yβ , Zβ Xγ , Yγ , Zγ Zβ ≡ Zγ γ
Optional
Xγ , Yγ , Zγ Xα , Yα , Zα Xγ ≡ X α α
Table 4.1: 3D Transformations of Linear Elements
31 We can start with the first row of the transformation matrix which corresponds to the
direction cosines of the reference axis (X1 , Y1 , Z1 ) with respect to X2 . This will define the
first row of the vector rotation matrix [γ]:
 
CX CY CZ
 
[γ] =  l21 l22 l23  (4.27)
l31 l32 l33
q
xj −xi yj −yi zj −zi
where CX = L , CY = L , CZ = L , L= (xj − xi )2 + (yj − yi )2 + (zj − zi )2 .

Draft
4–8
32 Note that this does not uniquely define the new coordinate system. This will be achieved in
two ways: a reduced and a generalized one.

33 In the simple rotation, Fig. 4.6, the vertical axis of the member remains vertical, and the
Y
Y1 , Y β 1 Y
Y β
Y2
γ γ
X2
β
γ
X
j γ
CX
L CY = +
i 1
γ X1 Z
β β β
β L CZ
1 C XZ β
X
1
γ CY
Z2 , Z β L CX
1
Z
1
CZ γ C XZ
Z1 Z Z
X β γ X
Xβ β β
Figure 4.6: Reduced 3D Rotation
last two rows of Eq. 4.27 can be determined through two successive rotations (assuming that
(X1 , Y1 , Z1 and X2 , Y2 , Z2 are originally coincident):
1. Rotation by β about the Y1 axis, this will place the X1 axis along Xβ . This rotation [Rβ ]
is made of the direction cosines of the β axis (Xβ , Yβ , Zβ ) with respect to (X1 , Y1 , Z1 ):
 
cos β 0 sin β
 
[Rβ ] =  0 1 0  (4.28)
− sin β 0 cos β
q
CX CZ 2 + C2 .
we note that: cos β = CXZ , sin β = CXZ , and CXZ = CX Z
2. Rotation by γ about the Z2 axis

 
cos γ sin γ 0
 
[Rγ ] =  − sin γ cos γ 0  (4.29)
0 0 1
where cos γ = CXZ , and sin γ = CY .
34 Combining Eq. 4.28 and 4.29 yields:

 
CX CY CZ
 −CX CY −CY CZ 
[γ] = [Rγ ][Rβ ] =  CXZ CXZ CXZ  (4.30)
−CZ CX
CXZ 0 CXZ
35For vertical member the preceding matrix is no longer valid as CXZ is undefined. However
we can obtain the matrix by simple inspection, Fig. 4.7 as we note that either:
1. X2 axis is aligned with Y1
2. Y2 axis is aligned with -X1

Draft
Y1 X2 Y1
4–9
Z2
j
o o
γ=90 Y2 γ=270
Y2
X1 X1
i i
j
Z1 Z2 Z1
X2
Figure 4.7: Special Case of 3D Transformation for Vertical Members
3. Z2 axis is aligned with Z1

or
1. X2 axis is aligned with -Y1
2. Y2 axis is aligned with -X1
3. Z2 axis is aligned with -Z1

hence the rotation matrix with respect to the y axis, is similar to the one previously derived
for rotation with respect to the z axis, except for the reordering of terms:
 
0 CY 0
 
[γ] =  −CY 0 0  (4.31)
0 0 1
which is valid for both cases (CY = 1 for γ = 90 deg, and CY = −1 for γ = 270 deg).
36 In the generalized case, we need to define an additional rotation to the preceding transfor-
mation of an angle α about the Xγ axis, Fig. 4.8.

This rotation is defined such that:
1. Xα is aligned with X2 and normal to both Y2 and Z2
2. Yα makes an angle 0, α and β = π

2 − α, with respect to X2 , Y2 and Z2 respectively
π
3. Zα makes an angle 0, 2 + α and α, with respect to X2 , Y2 and Z2 respectively
37 Noting that cos( π2 + α) = − sin α and cos β = sin α, the direction cosines of this transforma-
tion are given by:  
1 0 0
 
[Rα ] =  0 cos α sin α  (4.32)
0 − sin α cos α
causing the Y2 − Z2 axis to coincide with the principal axes of the cross section. This will yield:

Draft
Y Y Y Y
γ 1 β 1 Y
Y β
Y X X γ γ
2 α γ 2
β
X
γ
Z Z γ X
β γ β 1 Z
β β β
β
X
1
γ
Z α Z γ
1 1
X Z
β
Z
γ
β X X
Z β β
2
Y
Yβ γ
Y
2
Yα α
α Xγ Xα
α
Zβ Z
γ
α
α
Z
Zα 2
Figure 4.8: Complex 3D Rotation

Draft
[γ] = [Rα ][Rγ ][Rβ ] (4.33)

4–11
 
CX CY CZ
 −CX CY cos α−CZ sin α −CY CZ cos α+CX sin α 
=  CXZ CXZ cos α CXZ  (4.34)
CX CY sin α−CZ cos α
CXZ −CXZ sin α CY CZ sin α+CX cos α
CXZ
38 As for the simpler case, the preceding equation is undefined for vertical members, and a
counterpart to Eq. 4.31 must be derived. This will be achieved in two steps:
1. Rotate the member so that:
(a) X2 axis aligned with Y1

(b) Y2 axis aligned with -X1
(c) Z2 axis aligned with Z1
this was previously done and resulted in Eq. 4.31

 
0 CY 0
 
[Rγ ] =  −CY 0 0  (4.35)
0 0 1
2. The second step consists in performing a rotation of angle α with respect to the new X2
as defined in Eq. 4.32.
3. Finally, we multiply the two transformation matrices [Rγ ][Rα ] given by Eq. 4.35 and 4.32
to obtain:  
0 CY 0
 
[Γ] = [Rγ ][Rα ] =  −CY cos α 0 sin α  (4.36)
CY sin α 0 cos α
Note with α = 0, we recover Eq. 4.31.
4.2.3 3D Truss
39 With reference to the first part of the derivation of the transformation of 3D frame element,
the transformation matrix of 3D truss elements is
" #
3D T CX CY CZ 0 0 0
[Γ ]= (4.37)
0 0 0 CX CY CZ

Draft

Draft
Chapter 5
STIFFNESS METHOD; Part II
5.1 Direct Stiffness Method

5.1.1 Global Stiffness Matrix
1 The physical interpretation of the global stiffness matrix K is analogous to the one of the
element, i.e. If all degrees of freedom are restrained, then Kij corresponds to the force along
global degree of freedom i due to a unit positive displacement (or rotation) along global degree
of freedom j.
2 For instance, with reference to Fig. 5.1, we have three global degrees of freedom, ∆1 , ∆2 , and
P ∆2 θ3 P
11
00 A
M
P/2 11
00 A 1
0
0
1A
00
11 EI
B 00
11 B
∆1 0
1 B
w H
w
L/211
00 111
000
C C
00
11 000
111
L/2 C
11
00
K22 K32 K23 K 33
1 K12 K13
0110 A B
K21 K31 11
00
00
11
A
B 1 1
0
0
1
A B 1
K11
C C
11
00 11
00 111
000
C
Figure 5.1: Frame Example

Draft
5–2 STIFFNESS METHOD; Part II
θ3 . and the global (restrained or structure’s) stiffness matrix is

 
K11 K12 K13
 
K =  K21 K22 K23  (5.1)
K31 K32 K33
and the first column corresponds to all the internal forces in the unrestrained d.o.f. when a
unit displacement along global d.o.f. 1 is applied.
5.1.1.1 Structural Stiffness Matrix
3 The structural stiffness matrix is assembled only for those active degrees of freedom which
are active (i.e unrestrained). It is the one which will be inverted (or rather decomposed) to
determine the nodal displacements.
5.1.1.2 Augmented Stiffness Matrix
4 The augmented stiffness matrix is expressed in terms of all the dof. However, it is parti-
tioned into two groups with respective subscript ‘u’ where the displacements are known (zero
otherwise), and t where the loads are known.
( √ ) " #( )
Pt Ktt Ktu ∆t ?
= √ (5.2)
Ru ? Kut Kuu ∆u
We note that Ktt corresponds to the structural stiffness matrix.

5 We will see later that the two types of loads (or displacements) will correspond to essential
and natural boundary conditions.
6 The first equation enables the calculation of the unknown displacements.
∆t = K−1
tt (Pt − Ktu ∆u ) (5.3)
7 The second equation enables the calculation of the reactions
Ru = Kut ∆t + Kuu ∆u (5.4)
8 For internal book-keeping purpose, since we are assembling the augmented stiffness matrix,
we proceed in two stages:
1. First number all the global unrestrained degrees of freedom
2. Then number separately all the global restrained degrees of freedom (i.e. those with
known displacements, zero or otherwise), multiplied by -1, this will enable us later on to
distinguish the restrained from unrestrained dof.

Draft
5.2 Logistics
9 The element internal forces (axial and shear forces, and moment at each end of the member)
5–3
are determined from

(e)
pint = k(e) δ (e) (5.5)
(e)
at the element level where pint is the six by six array of internal forces, k(e) the element
stiffness matrix in local coordinate systems, and δ (e) is the vector of nodal displacements in local
coordinate system. Note that this last array is obtained by first identifying the displacements
in global coordinate system, and then premultiplying it by the transformation matrix to obtain
the displacements in local coordinate system.
5.2 Logistics
5.2.1 Boundary Conditions, [ID] Matrix
10 Because of the boundary condition restraints, the total structure number of active degrees of
freedom (i.e unconstrained) will be less than the number of nodes times the number of degrees
of freedom per node.
11 To obtain the global degree of freedom for a given node, we need to define an [ID] matrix
such that:
ID has dimensions l × k where l is the number of degree of freedom per node, and k is the
number of nodes).
ID matrix is initialized to zero.
1. At input stage read ID(idof,inod) of each degree of freedom for every node such that:
(
0 if unrestrained d.o.f.
ID(idof, inod) = (5.6)
1 if restrained d.o.f.
2. After all the node boundary conditions have been read, assign incrementally equation
numbers
(a) First to all the active dof

(b) Then to the other (restrained) dof, starting with -1.
Note that the total number of dof will be equal to the number of nodes times the number
of dof/node NEQA.
3. The largest positive global degree of freedom number will be equal to NEQ (Number Of
Equations), which is the size of the square matrix which will have to be decomposed.
12 For example, for the frame shown in Fig. 5.2:
1. The input data file may contain:

Draft
5–4
4
6
6 7
5 5
1 −11
3 4
−10
2
[k] [K]
Figure 5.2: Example for [ID] Matrix Determination
Node No. [ID]T

1 000
2 110
3 000
4 100
2. At this stage, the [ID] matrix is equal to:

 
0 1 0 1
 
ID =  0 1 0 0  (5.7)
0 0 0 0
3. After we determined the equation numbers, we would have:

 
1 −10 5 −12
 
ID =  2 −11 6 8  (5.8)
3 4 7 9
5.2.2 LM Vector
13 The LM vector of a given element gives the global degree of freedom of each one of the element
degree of freedom’s. For the structure shown in Fig. 5.2, we would have:
bLMc = b −10 −11 4 5 6 7 c element 1 (2 → 3)

bLMc = b 5 6 7 1 2 3 c element 2 (3 → 1)
bLMc = b 1 2 3 −12 8 9 c element 3 (1 → 4)
5.2.3 Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix
14 As for the element stiffness matrix, the global stiffness matrix [K] is such that Kij is the
force in degree of freedom i caused by a unit displacement at degree of freedom j.

Draft
5.2 Logistics 5–5
15 Whereas this relationship was derived from basic analysis at the element level, at the struc-
ture level, this term can be obtained from the contribution of the element stiffness matrices
[K(e) ] (written in global coordinate system).
16 For each Kij term, we shall add the contribution of all the elements which can connect degree
of freedom i to degree of freedom j, assuming that those forces are readily available from the
individual element stiffness matrices written in global coordinate system.
17 Kij is non-zero if degree of freedom i and degree of freedom j
1. Are connected by an element.
2. Share a node.
3. Are connected by an element and the corresponding value in the element stiffness matrix
in the global coordinate system is zero.
18 There are usually more than one element connected to a dof. Hence, individual element
stiffness matrices terms must be added up.

19 Because each term of all the element stiffness matrices must find its position inside the global
stiffness matrix [K], it is found computationally most effective to initialize the global stiffness
matrix [KS ](N EQA×N EQA ) to zero, and then loop through all the elements, and then through
(e)
each entry of the respective element stiffness matrix Kij .
(e)
20 The assignment of the element stiffness matrix term Kij (note that e, i, and j are all known
since we are looping on e from 1 to the number of elements, and then looping on the rows and
S is made through
columns of the element stiffness matrix i, j) into the global stiffness matrix Kkl
the LM vector (note that it is k and l which must be determined).
21 Since the global stiffness matrix is also symmetric, we would need to only assemble one side
of it, usually the upper one.

22 Contrarily to the previous method, we will assemble the full augmented stiffness matrix.
Example 5-1: Assembly of the Global Stiffness Matrix
As an example, let us consider the frame shown in Fig. 5.3.

50kN
4 kN/m
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
2 2 3
8m
3m
1
111
000
000
111
000
111
0001
111
000
111 7.416 m 8m
Figure 5.3: Simple Frame Analyzed with the MATLAB Code

Draft
5–6
The ID matrix is initially set to:

 
1 0 1
 
[ID] =  1 0 1  (5.9)
1 0 1
We then modify it to generate the global degrees of freedom of each node:
 
−4 1 −7
 
[ID] =  −5 2 −8  (5.10)
−6 3 −9
Finally the LM vectors for the two elements (assuming that Element 1 is defined from node 1
to node 2, and element 2 from node 2 to node 3):
" #
−4 −5 −6 1 2 3
[LM ] = (5.11)
1 2 3 −7 −8 −9
Let us simplify the operation by designating the element stiffness matrices in global coordinates
as follows:
−4 −5 −6 1 2 3
 
−4 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16
−5
 A21 A22 A23 A24 A25 A26 

−6
 A31 A32 A33 A34 A35 A36 

K (1) =   (5.12-a)
1  A41 A42 A43 A44 A45 A46 
 
2  A51 A52 A53 A54 A55 A56 
3 A61 A62 A63 A64 A65 A66
1 2 3 −7 −8 −9
 
1 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16
2 
 B21 B22 B23 B24 B25 B26 

3 
 B31 B32 B33 B34 B35 B36 

K (2) =   (5.12-b)
−7 B41 B42 B43 B44 B45 B46 
 
−8 B51 B52 B53 B54 B55 B56 
−9 B61 B62 B63 B64 B65 B66
We note that for each element we have shown the corresponding LM vector.
Now, we assemble the global stiffness matrix
 
A44 + B11 A45 + B12 A46 + B13 A41 A42 A43 B14 B15 B16
 A54 + B21 A55 + B22 A56 + B23 A51 A52 A53 B24 B25 B26 
 
 
 A64 + B31 A65 + B32 A66 + B33 A61 A62 A63 B34 B35 B36 
 
 A14 A15 A16 A11 A12 A13 0 0 0 
 
K=
 A24 A25 A26 A21 A22 A23 0 0 0 
 (5.13)
 
 A34 A35 A36 A31 A32 A33 0 0 0 
 
 B41 B42 B43 0 0 0 B44 B45 B46 
 
 B51 B52 B53 0 0 0 B54 B55 B56 
B61 B62 B63 0 0 0 B64 B65 B66
We note that some terms are equal to zero because we do not have a connection between
the corresponding degrees of freedom (i.e. node 1 is not connected to node 3).

Draft
5.2 Logistics
5.2.4 Algorithm
5–7
23 The direct stiffness method can be summarized as follows:
Preliminaries: First we shall
1. Identify type of structure (beam, truss, grid or frame) and determine the
(a) Number of spatial coordinates (1D, 2D, or 3D)
(b) Number of degree of freedom per node (local and global)
(c) Number of cross-sectional and material properties
2. Determine the global unrestrained and restrained degree of freedom equation num-
bers for each node, Update the [ID] matrix (which included only 0’s and 1’s in the
input data file).
Analysis :
1. For each element, determine

(a) Vector LM relating local to global degree of freedoms.
(b) Element stiffness matrix [k(e) ]
(c) Angle α between the local and global x axes (3D analysis).
(d) Rotation matrix [Γ(e) ]
(e) Element stiffness matrix in global coordinates [K(e) ] = [Γ(e) ]T [k(e) ][Γ(e) ]
2. Assemble the augmented stiffness matrix [K(S) ] of unconstrained and constrained
degree of freedom’s.
3. Extract [Ktt ] from [K(S) ] and invert (or decompose into into [Ktt ] = [L][L]T where
[L] is a lower triangle matrix.
4. Assemble load vector {P} in terms of nodal load and fixed end actions.
5. Backsubstitute and obtain nodal displacements in global coordinate system.
6. Solve for the reactions, Eq. 5.3.
7. For each element, transform its nodal displacement from global to local coordinates
{δ} = [Γ(e) ]{∆}, and determine the internal forces [p] = [k]{δ}.
24 Some of the prescribed steps are further discussed in the next sections.
Example 5-2: Direct Stiffness Analysis of a Truss
Using the direct stiffness method, analyze the truss shown in Fig. 5.4.
Solution:
1. Determine the structure ID matrix
Node # Bound. Cond.

X Y
1 0 1
2 0 0
3 1 1
4 0 0
5 0 0
Draft
5–8
4 4
50k
5
5
6
1 8
3 12’
1 2 2 7 3
100k
16’ 16’
Figure 5.4:
" #
0 0 1 0 0
ID = (5.14-a)
1 0 1 0 0
N ode" 1 2 3 4 5#
1 2 −9 4 6
= (5.14-b)
−8 3 −10 5 7
2. The LM vector of each element is evaluated next
bLM c1 = b 1 −8 4 5 c (5.15-a)
bLM c2 = b 1 −8 2 3 c (5.15-b)
bLM c3 = b 2 3 4 5 c (5.15-c)
bLM c4 = b 4 5 6 7 c (5.15-d)
bLM c5 = b −9 −10 4 5 c (5.15-e)
bLM c6 = b 2 3 6 7 c (5.15-f)
bLM c7 = b 2 3 −9 −10 c (5.15-g)
bLM c8 = b −9 −10 6 7 c (5.15-h)
3. Determine the element stiffness matrix of each element in the global coordinate system noting
that for a 2D truss element we have
[K (e) ] = [Γ(e) ]T [k(e) ][Γ(e) ] (5.16-a)

 2 
c cs −c2 −cs
EA   cs s2 −cs −s2 

=   (5.16-b)
L  −c −cs c2
2 cs 
−cs −s2 cs s2
x2 −x1 Y2 −Y1
where c = cos α = L ; s = sin α = L

Draft
5.2 Logistics
0 16−0 12−0 EA (30,000 ksi)(10 in2 )

5–9
Element 1 L = 20 , c = 20 = 0.8, s = 20 = 0.6, L = 20

0 = 15, 000 k/ft.
1 −8 4 5
 
1 9, 600 7200 −9, 600 −7, 200
−8
 7, 200 5, 400 −7, 200 −5, 400 
[K1 ] =   (5.17)
4  −9, 600 −7, 200 9, 600 7, 200 
5 −7, 200 −5, 400 7, 200 5, 400
0 EA
Element 2 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 , L = 18, 750 k/ft.
1 −8 2 3
 
1 18, 750 0 −18, 750 0
−8
 0 0 0 0
[K2 ] =   (5.18)
2  −18, 750 0 18, 750 0 
3 0 0 0 0
0 EA
Element 3 L = 12 , c = 0 , s = 1 , L = 25, 000 k/ft.
2 3 4 5
 
2 0 0 0 0
3
0 25, 000 0 −25, 000 

[K3 ] =   (5.19)
4 0 0 0 0 
5 0 −25, 000 0 25, 000
0 EA
Element 4 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 , L = 18, 750 k/ft.
4 5 6 7
 
4 18, 750 0 −18, 750 0
5
 0 0 0 0
[K4 ] =   (5.20)
6 −18, 750 0 18, 750 0 
7 0 0 0 0
0 −16−0
Element 5 L = 20 , c = 20 = − 0.8 , s = 0.6 , EA
L = 15, 000 k/ft.
−9 −10 4 5
 
−9 9, 600 −7, 200 −9, 600 7, 200
−10
 −7, 200 5, 400 7, 200 −5, 400 

[K5 ] =   (5.21)
4  −9, 600 7, 200 9, 600 −7, 200 
5 7, 200 −5, 400 −7, 200 5, 400
0 EA
Element 6 L = 20 , c = 0.8 , s = 0.6 , L = 15, 000 k/ft.
2 3 6 7
 
2 9, 600 7, 200 −9, 600 −7, 200
3
 7, 200 5, 400 −7, 200 −5, 400 

[K6 ] =   (5.22)
6 −9, 600 −7, 200 9, 600 7, 200 
7 −7, 200 −5, 400 7, 200 5, 400

Draft
5–10
0
Element 7 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 , EA
= 18, 750 k/ft.
2 3 −9 −10
 
2 18, 750 0 −18, 750 0
3  0 0 0 0 
[K7 ] =   (5.23)
−9  −18, 750 0 18, 750 0 
−10 0 0 0 0
0 EA
Element 8 L = 12 , c = 0 , s = 1 , L = 25, 000 k/ft.
−9 −10 6 7
 
−9 0 0 0 0
−10
 0 25, 000 0 −25, 000 

[K8 ] =   (5.24)
6  0 0 0 0 
7 0 −25, 000 0 25, 000
4. Assemble the global stiffness matrix in k/ft Note that we are not assembling the augmented
stiffness matrix, but rather its submatrix [Ktt ].
   −18, 750 −9, 600 −7, 200



0


9, 600 + 18, 750 0 0 0


u1
 0
−100k
  9, 600 + (2) 18, 750 7, 200
5, 400 + 25, 000
0
0
0
−25, 000
−9, 600
−7, 200
−7, 200
−5, 400 
u2
v3
= 7, 200 − 7, 200 −18, 750 
 
0 18, 750 + (2)9, 600 0 u4

 0 
 SYMMETRIC 25, 000 + 5, 400(2) 0 0
 v5
 50k  18, 750 + 9, 600 7, 200  u6
0 25, 000 + 5, 400 v7
(5.25)
5. Convert to k/in and simplify

    

 0 
 2, 362.5 −1, 562.5 0 −800 −600 0 0 
 U1 


 
   


 0 
  3, 925.0 600 0 0 −800 −600  U2 


 
   


 −100 
  2, 533.33 0 −2, 083.33 −600 −450  V3 

    
0 =
 3, 162.5 0 −1, 562.5 0 
 U4

 
  SYMMETRIC  


 0 
  2, 983.33 0 0  V5 


 
   


 50 
  2, 362.5 600  U6 


 
 
 

 0  2, 533.33  V7 
| {z } | {z }| {z }
Pt Ktt ut
(5.26)
6. Invert stiffness matrix and solve for displacements
   

 U 
 
 −0.0223 in 


1 
 
 


 U 
2 

 0.00433 in 


 
 
 


   
 V3   −0.116 in 
 
U4 = −0.0102 in (5.27)

   


 V5 





 −0.0856 in  



 
 
 


 U 6 
 
 −0.00919 in 

 V   −0.0174 in 
   
7
7. Solve for member internal forces (in this case axial forces) in local coordinate systems
 
( ) " #


U1 


u1 c s −c −s  V1 
= (5.28)
u2 −c −s c s  
 U2 

 

V2

Draft
5.2 Logistics
Element 1
5–11
 
( )1 " #
 −0.0223 

 
p1 1 ft 0.8 0.6 −0.8 −0.6  0 
= (15, 000 k/ft)( ) (5.29-a)
p2 12 in −0.8 −0.6 0.8 0.6 
 −0.0102 


 

−0.0856
( )
52.1 k
= Compression (5.29-b)
−52.1 k
Element 2
 
( )2 " #
 −0.0233 

 
p1 1 ft 1 0 −1 0  0 
= 18, 750 k/ft( ) (5.30-a)
p2 12 in −1 0 1 0  
 0.00433 

 

−0.116
( )
−43.2 k
= Tension (5.30-b)
43.2 k
Element 3
 
( )3 " #


0.00433 


p1 1 ft 0 1 0 −1  −0.116 
= 25, 000 k/ft( ) (5.31-a)
p2 12 in 0 −1 0  −0.0102 
1  

 

−0.0856
( )
−63.3 k
= Tension (5.31-b)
63.3 k
Element 4
 
( )4 " #
 −0.0102 


 

p1 1 ft 1 0 −1 0 −0.0856
= 18, 750 k/ft( ) (5.32-a)
p2 12 in −1 0 1 0  −0.00919 


 

−0.0174
( )
−1.58 k
= Tension (5.32-b)
1.58 k
Element 5
 
( )5 " #
 −0.0102 
 
p1 1 ft −0.8 0.6 0.8 −0.6  −0.0856 
= 15, 000 k/ft( ) (5.33-a)
p2 12 in 0.8 −0.6 −0.8 0.6 
 0 


 

0
( )
54.0 k
−54.0 k
Draft
Element 6
 
( )6 " #


0.00433 


p1 1 ft 0.8 0.6 −0.8 −0.6  −0.116 
= 15, 000 k/ft( ) (5.34-a)
p2 12 in −0.8 −0.6 0.8 0.6 
 −0.00919 


 

−0.0174
( )
−60.43 k
= Tension (5.34-b)
60.43 k
Element 7
 
( )7 " 

# 0.00433 


p1 1 ft 1 0 −1 0  −0.116 
= 18, 750 k/ft( ) (5.35-a)
p2 12 in −1 0 1 0 
 0 


 

0
( )
6.72 k
−6.72 k
Element 8
 
( )8 " #


0 


p1 1 ft 0 1 0 −1  0 
= 25, 000 k/ft( ) (5.36-a)
p2 12 in 0 −1 0 1 
 −0.00919 


 

−0.0174
( )
36.3 k
−36.3 k
8. Determine the structure’s MAXA vector

   
1 3 9 14 
 1 

  
 

 2 5 8 13 19 25  
 2 

  
 

 4 7 12 18 24  
 4 

   

[K] =  6 11 17 23  MAXA = 6 (5.37)
  
  
 

 10 16 22  
 10 

  
 

 15 21  
 15 


 20 

20
Thus, 25 terms would have to be stored.
Example 5-3: Analysis of a Frame with MATLAB

Draft
5.2 Logistics 5–13
The simple frame shown in Fig. 5.5 is to be analyzed by the direct stiffness method. Assume:
E = 200, 000 MPa, A = 6, 000 mm2 , and I = 200 × 106 mm4 . The complete MATLAB solution
is shown below along with the results.
50kN
4 kN/m
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
2 2 3
8m
3m
1
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
0001
111 7.416 m 8m
Figure 5.5: Simple Frame Analyzed with the MATLAB Code
% zero the matrices

k=zeros(6,6,2); K=zeros(6,6,2); Gamma=zeros(6,6,2);
% Structural properties units: mm^2, mm^4, and MPa(10^6 N/m)
A=6000;II=200*10^6;EE=200000;
% Convert units to meter and kN
A=A/10^6;II=II/10^12;EE=EE*1000;
% Element 1
i=[0,0];j=[7.416,3]; [k(:,:,1),K(:,:,1),Gamma(:,:,1)]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j);
% Element 2
i=j;j=[15.416,3]; [k(:,:,2),K(:,:,2),Gamma(:,:,2)]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j);
% Define ID matrix
ID=[
-4 1 -7;
-5 2 -8;
-6 3 -9];
% Determine the LM matrix
LM=[
-4 -5 -6 1 2 3;
1 2 3 -7 -8 -9];
% Assemble augmented stiffness matrix
Kaug=zeros(9); for elem=1:2
for r=1:6
lr=abs(LM(elem,r));
for c=1:6
lc=abs(LM(elem,c));
Kaug(lr,lc)=Kaug(lr,lc)+K(r,c,elem);
end
end
end
% Extract the structures Stiffness Matrix
Ktt=Kaug(1:3,1:3);
% Determine the fixed end actions in local coordinate system
fea(1:6,1)=0; fea(1:6,2)=[0,8*4/2,4*8^2/12,0,8*4/2,-4*8^2/12]’;
% Determine the fixed end actions in global coordinate system

Draft
FEA(1:6,1)=Gamma(:,:,1)’*fea(1:6,1); FEA(1:6,2)=Gamma(:,:,2)’*fea(1:6,2);
% FEA_Rest for all the restrained nodes
FEA_Rest=[0,0,0,FEA(4:6,2)’];
% Assemble the load vector for the unrestrained node
P(1)=50*3/8;P(2)=-50*7.416/8-FEA(2,2);P(3)=-FEA(3,2);
% Solve for the Displacements in meters and radians
Displacements=inv(Ktt)*P’
% Extract Kut
Kut=Kaug(4:9,1:3);
% Compute the Reactions and do not forget to add fixed end actions
Reactions=Kut*Displacements+FEA_Rest’
% Solve for the internal forces and do not forget to include the fixed end actions
dis_global(:,:,1)=[0,0,0,Displacements(1:3)’];
dis_global(:,:,2)=[Displacements(1:3)’,0,0,0]; for elem=1:2
dis_local=Gamma(:,:,elem)*dis_global(:,:,elem)’;
int_forces=k(:,:,elem)*dis_local+fea(1:6,elem)
end
function [k,K,Gamma]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j)
% Determine the length
L=sqrt((j(2)-i(2))^2+(j(1)-i(1))^2);
% Compute the angle theta (careful with vertical members!)
if(j(1)-i(1))~=0
alpha=atan((j(2)-i(2))/(j(1)-i(1)));
else
alpha=-pi/2;
end
% form rotation matrix Gamma
Gamma=[ cos(alpha) sin(alpha) 0 0 0 0; -sin(alpha)
cos(alpha) 0 0 0 0; 0 0 1 0 0
0; 0 0 0 cos(alpha) sin(alpha) 0; 0 0
0 -sin(alpha) cos(alpha) 0; 0 0 0 0 0
1];
% form element stiffness matrix in local coordinate system
EI=EE*II; EA=EE*A; k=[EA/L, 0, 0, -EA/L, 0, 0;
0, 12*EI/L^3, 6*EI/L^2, 0, -12*EI/L^3, 6*EI/L^2;
0, 6*EI/L^2, 4*EI/L, 0, -6*EI/L^2, 2*EI/L;
-EA/L, 0, 0, EA/L, 0, 0;
0, -12*EI/L^3, -6*EI/L^2, 0, 12*EI/L^3, -6*EI/L^2;
0, 6*EI/L^2, 2*EI/L, 0, -6*EI/L^2, 4*EI/L];
% Element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system
K=Gamma’*k*Gamma;
This simple proigram will produce the following results:

Displacements =
0.0010
-0.0050

Draft
5.2 Logistics
-0.0005
5–15
Reactions =
130.4973
55.6766
13.3742
-149.2473
22.6734
-45.3557
int_forces = int_forces =
141.8530 149.2473
2.6758 9.3266
13.3742 -8.0315
-141.8530 -149.2473
-2.6758 22.6734
8.0315 -45.3557
We note that the internal forces are consistent with the reactions (specially for the second node
of element 2), and amongst themselves, i.e. the moment at node 2 is the same for both elements
(8.0315).
Example 5-4: Analysis of a simple Beam with Initial Displacements
The full stiffness matrix of a beam element is given by
v1 θ1 v2 θ2
 
V1 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 6EI/L2

M1 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2 2EI/L 
4EI/L 
[ke ] =   (5.38)
V2  −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 
M2 6EI/L2 2EI/L −6EI/L2 4EI/L
This matrix is singular, it has a rank 2 and order 4 (as it embodies also 2 rigid body motions).
25 We shall consider 3 different cases, Fig. 5.6
Cantilivered Beam/Point Load

1. The element stiffness matrix is
−3 −4 1 2
 
−3 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 6EI/L2
−4 6EI/L2 4EI/L −6EI/L2 2EI/L 
1  −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 
k= (5.39)
−6EI/L2 12EI/L3
2 6EI/L2 2EI/L −6EI/L2 4EI/L

Draft
5–16
-3
P
-3
-4 1 1 -4
2 2
01 M
1010
10
-2 -3
01 -4
1
1010 ∆
10
Figure 5.6: Stiffness Analysis of one Element Structure
2. The structure stiffness matrix is assembled

1 2 −3 −4
 
1 12EI/L2 −6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2
2  −6EI/L2 4EI/L 6EI/L2 2EI/L 
−3 −12EI/L3 6EI/L2 
K= (5.40)
6EI/L2 12EI/L3
−4 −6EI/L2 2EI/L 6EI/L2 4EI/L
3. The global matrix can be rewritten as

 √    
 −P 12EI/L2 −6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2
 √   
∆ ?
  1 
0  −6EI/L2 4EI/L 6EI/L2 2EI/L  θ2 ?
√
=  (5.41)

 R3 ? 
 −12EI/L3 6EI/L2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2  ∆
 3√ 

R4 ? −6EI/L2 2EI/L 6EI/L2 4EI/L θ4
4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix
 
L3 /3EI L2 /2EI −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2
 
 L2 /2EI 6EI/L2 
 L/EI 2EI/L  (5.42)
 −12EI/L3 6EI/L2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 
−6EI/L2 2EI/L 6EI/L2 4EI/L
5. Next we compute the equivalent load, P0t = Pt − Ktu ∆u , and overwrite Pt by P0t
    
L3 /3EI L2 /2EI −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2



−P 

   −P 
 
 L2 /2EI  0 
Pt − Ktu ∆u = 0 − L/EI 6EI/L2 2EI/L 

 

0  −12EI/L3  0 

   
2
6EI/L 12EI/L3 6EI/L2
0 −6EI/L2 2EI/L 6EI/L2 4EI/L 0
 

 −P 

 
= 0

 0 

 
0

Draft
5.2 Logistics
6. Now we solve for the displacement ∆t = K−1 0

5–17
tt Pt , and overwrite Pt by ∆t
    
 ∆1  L3 /3EI L2 /2EI −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2  −P 

 
   

θ2  L2 /2EI 6EI/L2  0
=  L/EI 2EI/L 

 
  −12EI/L3  
 0   0 
2
6EI/L 12EI/L3 6EI/L2
0 0
 −6EI/L
2
2EI/L
 6EI/L2 4EI/L

 −P L3 /3EI 


 

= −P L2 /2EI

 


 0 

0
7. Finally, we solve for the reactions, Ru = Kut ∆tt + Kuu ∆u , and overwrite ∆u by Ru
    
L3 /3EI L2 /2EI −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 
 

 −P L /3EI
3
 −P L3 /3EI  

 −P L2 /2EI 
  L2 /2EI L/EI 6EI/L2 2EI/L   

  −P L2 /2EI
=  −12EI/L3 6EI/L2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 


R3 
   

  
 0 

R4 −6EI/L2 2EI/L 6EI/L2 4EI/L  
  0

 −P L3 /3EI 

 −P L2 /2EI 
=

 P 

 
PL
Simply Supported Beam/End Moment

−3 1 −4 2
 
−3 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 6EI/L2
1  6EI/L2 4EI/L −6EI/L2 2EI/L 
−4 −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 
k= (5.43)
−6EI/L2 12EI/L3

1 2 −3 −4
 
1 4EI/L 2EI/L 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2
2  2EI/L 4EI/L 6EI/L2 −6EI/L 
2
−3 6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 

K= (5.44)
6EI/L2 12EI/L3
−4 −6EI/L2 −6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 12EI/L3
3. The global stiffness matrix can be rewritten as

 √ 
   
√ 
0

 
 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2 
 1 
4EI/L 2EI/L θ ?
 M  
 2EI/L 4EI/L 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2  θ2 ?
√
=  (5.45)
 −12EI/L3
R3 ?  
 ∆3 √ 
  6EI/L2 6EI/L2 12EI/L3 

 
 −6EI/L2 −6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 12EI/L3 ∆4
R4 ?
4. Ktt is inverted
 
L3 /3EI −L/6EI 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2
 
 −L/6EI L/3EI 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2 
  (5.46)
 6EI/L2 6EI/L2 12EI/L3 −12EI/L3 
−6EI/L2 −6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 12EI/L3

Draft
5. We compute the equivalent load, P0t = Pt − Ktu ∆u , and overwrite Pt by P0t

    
  L3 /3EI −L/6EI 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2  
0 


0 
  
 M 
 
Pt − Ktu ∆u = M −  −L/6EI L/3EI 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2 

 0 
  6EI/L2 −12EI/L3  0 

  6EI/L2 12EI/L3  
0 −6EI/L2 −6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 12EI/L3 0
 

 0 

 
= M

 0 

 
0
6. Solve for the displacements, ∆t = K−1 0

    

 θ1 
 L3 /3EI −L/6EI 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2 
 0 

    
θ2  −L/6EI L/3EI 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2  M
=  
 0 
   6EI/L2 6EI/L2 12EI/L3 −12EI/L3  
 
0 
   
0 −6EI/L 2
−6EI/L 2
−12EI/L3 12EI/L3 0
 

 −M L/6EI 

 

= M L/3EI

 



0 

0
7. Solve for the reactions, Rt = Kut ∆tt + Kuu ∆u , and overwrite ∆u by Ru

    
L3 /3EI −L/6EI 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2  


−M L/6EI 
  −M L/6EI 
 M L/3EI   −L/6EI L/3EI 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2  

  M L/3EI
=  6EI/L2 6EI/L2 12EI/L3 −12EI/L3 


R1 
   

  

0 

R2 −6EI/L 2
−6EI/L 2
−12EI/L 3
12EI/L 3
0
 

 −M L/6EI 


 M L/3EI 

= M/L

 


 

−M/L
Cantilivered Beam/Initial Displacement and Known Displacements

−2 −3 −4 1
 
−2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 6EI/L2
−3 6EI/L2 4EI/L −6EI/L2 2EI/L 
−4 −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 
k= (5.47)
−6EI/L2 12EI/L3

1 −2 −3 −4
 
1 4EI/L 6EI/L2 2EI/L −6EI/L2
−2 6EI/L2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 
−3 2EI/L −6EI/L2 
K= (5.48)
6EI/L2 4EI/L
−4 −6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 12EI/L3
3. The global matrix can be rewritten as

 √    
  6EI/L2 −6EI/L2 
 1√ 
M 4EI/L 2EI/L θ ?
  
R2 ?  6EI/L2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 −12EI/L3  ∆2
√
=
−6EI/L2  
(5.49)

 R3 ? 
 2EI/L 6EI/L2 4EI/L  θ3 √ 

R4 ? −6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 12EI/L3 ∆4

Draft
5.3 ‡ Skyline Storage of Global Stiffness Matrix, MAXA Vector
4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix
5–19
 
L/4EI 6EI/L2 2EI/L −6EI/L2
 
 6EI/L2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 −12EI/L3  (5.50)
 2EI/L 6EI/L2 4EI/L −6EI/L2 
−6EI/L 2
−12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 12EI/L3
5. Next we compute the equivalent load, P0t = Pt − Ktu ∆u , and overwrite Pt by P0t
    
 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2  θ1 
 M 
 
L/4EI 2EI/L


0


Pt − Ktu ∆u = 0 −

6EI/L2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 


 0 
 2EI/L 6EI/L2 4EI/L −6EI/L2  0 

 
0 −6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 12EI/L3 ∆0
 


0 2 

 M + 6EI∆ /L 
= 0

 0 

 
0
6. Now we solve for the displacements, ∆t = K−1 0

    

 θ1 
 L/4EI 6EI/L2 2EI/L −6EI/L2 

0 2 

   3 
 M + 6EI∆ /L 
0 =  6EI/L2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 −12EI/L  0
 0 
  2EI/L 6EI/L2 −6EI/L2   

 0  4EI/L 
 0 

∆ −6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 12EI/L3 0
∆
 


0 

 M L/4EI + 3∆ /2L 
= 0

 0 

 
∆0
7. Finally, we solve for the reactions, Rt = Kut ∆tt + Kuu ∆u , and overwrite ∆u by Ru
   
L/4EI 6EI/L2 2EI/L −6EI/L2

 M L/4EI + 3∆0 /2L 


 
  6EI/L2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 
R2  
=  
 R3   2EI/L 6EI/L2 4EI/L −6EI/L2 

 
  
 R4 
−6EI/L2 −12EI/L3 −6EI/L2 12EI/L3
 

 M L/4EI + 3∆0 /2L 


 

0

 0 


 

0
 ∆ 
 M L/4EI + 3∆0 /2L 

 


 3M/2L − 3EI∆0 /L3 

=

 M/2 − 3EI∆0 /L2 


 

 −3M/2L + 3EI∆0 /L3 
5.3 ‡ Skyline Storage of Global Stiffness Matrix, MAXA Vector
25 The stiffness matrix of a structure will be a square matrix of dimension NEQxNEQ.

Draft
Figure 5.7: Example of Bandwidth
26We first observe that the matrix is symmetric, thus only the upper half needs to be stored.
Furthermore, we observe that this matrix has a certain “bandwidth”, BW, defined as | Kij −
Kii |max , when Kij 6= 0, Fig. 5.7.
27 Thus, we could as a first space saving solution store the global stiffness matrix inside a
rectangular matrix of length NEQ and width BW, which can be obtained from the LM vector
(largest difference of terms of LM for all the elements).
28 It is evident that numbering of nodes is extremely important as it controls the size of the
bandwidth, and hence the storage requirement, Fig. 5.8. In this context, we observe that the
stiffness matrix really has a variable bandwidth, or variable “skyline”. Hence if we want to
store only those entries below the “skyline” inside a vector rather than a matrix for maximum
storage efficiency, then we shall define a vector MAXA which provides the address of the diagonal
terms.
29 In the following global stiffness matrix, the individual entries which must be stored in the
global stiffness matrix are replaced by their address in the vector representation of this same

Draft
5.3 ‡ Skyline Storage of Global Stiffness Matrix, MAXA Vector 5–21
Figure 5.8: Numbering Schemes for Simple Structure
matrix. Also shown is the corresponding MAXA vector.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 
1 x x x x x x x x
2  x x x x x x x x
3  x x x x x x x
4  x x x x x x 
5 
 x x x x x 

6  x x x x 
K = 7  x x x 
8  x x x
9  x x
10 x x 
11
 x 

12 x
   
1 3 11 17 24 32 41 68 
 1 

  
 

 2 5 10 16 23 31 40 67  
 2 

  
 

 4 9 15 22 30 39 66  
 4 

  
 

  
 

 6 8 14 21 29 38 48 56 65  
 6 

  
 

 7 13 20 28 37 47 55 64  
 7 

  
 

 12 19 27 36 46 54 63  12
K =   MAXA =
 18 26 35 45 53 62  
 18 

  
 

 25 34 44 52 61  
 25 

  
 

 33 43 51 60  
 33 

  
 

  
 

 42 50 59  
 42 

  
 

 49 58  
 49 


 

57 57

Draft
Thus, to locate an element within the stiffness matrix, we use the following formula:
Kij = MAXA(j) + (j − i) (5.51)
if i ≤ j (since we are storing only the upper half).

30 Using this formula, we will have:
K58 = MAXA(8) + (8 − 5) = 18 + 3 = 21 (5.52)

K42 = MAXA(4) + (4 − 2) = 6 + 2 = 8 (5.53)
31 We should note that the total number of non-zero entries inside the global stiffness matrix
is always the same, irrespective of our numbering scheme. However by properly numbering
the nodes, we can minimize the number of zero terms1 which would fall below the skyline and
which storage would be ineffective.
5.4 Computer Program Organization
32 The main program should,
1. Read
(a) title card

(b) control card which should include:
i. Number of nodes
ii. Number of elements
iii. Type of structure: beam, grid, truss, or frame; (2D or 3D)
iv. Number of different element properties
v. Number of load cases
2. Determine:
(a) Number of spatial coordinates for the structure

(b) Number of local and global degrees of freedom per node
3. For each node read:
(a) Node number

(b) Boundary conditions of each global degree of freedom [ID]
(c) Spatial coordinates
Note that all the above are usually written on the same “data card”
4. For each element, read:

1
As we shall see later, all the terms below the skyline (including the zeros) must be stored. Following matrix
decomposition, all zero terms outside the skyline terms remain zero, and all others are altered.

Draft
5.4 Computer Program Organization
(a) Element number

5–23
(b) First and second node

(c) Element Property number
5. For each element property group read the associated elastic and cross sectional charac-
teristics. Note these variables will depend on the structure type.
6. Determine the vector ∆u which stores the initial displacements.
7. Loop over all the elements and for each one:
(a) Retrieve its properties

(b) Determine the length
(c) Call the appropriate subroutines which will determine:
i. The stiffness matrix in local coordinate systems [k(e) ].
ii. The angle α and the transformation matrix [Γ(e) ].
8. Assembly of the global stiffness matrix
(a) Initialize the global stiffness matrix to zero

(b) Loop through each element, e, and for each element:
i. Retrieve its stiffness matrix (in local coordinates) [k(e) ] and transformation ma-
trix [Γ(e) ].
ii. Compute the element stiffness matrix in global coordinates from [K(e) ] = [Γ(e) ]T [k(e) ][Γ(e) ].
iii. Define the {LM} array of the element
iv. Loop through each row i and column j of the element stiffness matrix, and for
those degree of freedom not equal to zero, add the contributions of the element
to the structure’s stiffness matrix K S [LM (i), LM (j)] = K S [LM (i), LM (j)] +
K (e) [i, j]
9. Extract the structure’s stiffness matrix [Ktt ] from the augmented stiffness matrix.
10. Invert the structure’s stiffness matrix (or decompose it).
11. For each load case:
(a) Determine the nodal equivalent loads (fixed end actions), if any.
(b) Assemble the load vector
(c) Load assembly (once for each load cae) once the stiffness matrix has been decom-
posed, than the main program should loop through each load case and,
i. Initialize the load vector (of length NEQ) to zero.
ii. Read number of loaded nodes. For each loaded node store the non-zero values
inside the load vector (using the [ID] matrix for determining storage location).
iii. Loop on all loaded elements:
A. Read element number, and load value
B. Compute the fixed end actions and rotate them from local to global coordi-
nates.

Draft
C. Using the LM vector, add the fixed end actions to the nodal load vector
(unless the corresponding equation number is zero, ie. restrained degree of
freedom).
D. Store the fixed end actions for future use.
(d) Apply Eq. 5.3 to determine the nodal displacements ∆t = K−1
tt (Pt − Ktu ∆u )
(e) Apply Eq. 5.4 to determine the nodal reactions Rt = Kut ∆t + Kuu ∆u
(f) Determine the internal forces (axial, shear and moment)
i. For each element retrieve:
A. nodal coordinates
B. rotation matrix [Γ(e) ].
C. element stiffness matrix [k(e) ].
n o
ii. Compute nodal displacements in local coordinate system from δ (e) = [Γ(e) ] {∆}
n o
iii. Compute element internal forces from {p} = [k(e) ] δ (e)
iv. If the element is loaded, add corresponding fixed end actions
v. print the interior forces
5.5 ‡ Computer Program Flow Charts (FORTRAN)

Section must be edited
33 The main program should, Fig. 5.9:
1. Read
(a) TITLE CARD

(b) CONTROL CARD which should include:
i. Number of nodes
ii. Number of elements
iii. Type of structure: beam, grid, truss, or frame; (2D or 3D)
iv. Number of different element properties
v. Number of load cases
2. Determine:
(a) Number of spatial coordinates for the structure

(b) Number of local and global degrees of freedom per node
3. Set up the pointers of the dynamic memory allocation (if using f77) for:
(a) Nodal coordinates

(b) Equation number matrix (ID)
(c) Element connectivity
(d) Element properties
(e) Element stiffness matrices

Draft
(f) Element rotation matrices

5–25
4. Loop over all the elements and determine the element stiffness matrices (in local coordi-
nates), and rotation angles.
5. Determine the column heights, and initialize the global stiffness vector to zero.
6. Loop through all the elements, and for each one
(a) Determine the element stiffness matrices in global coordinates

(b) Determine the LM vector
(c) Assemble the structure’s global stiffness matrix.
7. Decompose the global stiffness matrix using a Cholesky’s decomposition).
8. For each load case:
(a) Determine the nodal equivalent loads (fixed end actions), if any.
(b) Assemble the load vector
(c) Backsubstitute and obtain the nodal displacements
(d) Loop through each element and:
i. Determine the nodal displacements in local coordinates
ii. Determine the internal forces (include effects of fixed end actions).
34 The tree structure of the program is illustrated in Fig. 5.10
5.5.1 Input
35 The input subroutine should:
1. For each node read:
(a) Node number

(b) Boundary conditions of each global degree of freedom [ID]
(c) Spatial coordinates
Note that all the above are usually written on the same “data card”
2. Determine equation numbers associated with each degree of freedom, and the total number
of equations (NEQ).
3. For each element, read:
(a) Element number

(b) First and second node
(c) Element Property number
4. For each element property group read the associated elastic and cross sectional charac-
teristics. Note these variables will depend on the structure type.

Draft
Figure 5.9: Program Flowchart

Draft
5.5 ‡ Computer Program Flow Charts (FORTRAN) 5–27
Figure 5.10: Program’s Tree Structure

Draft
5–28
5.5.2 Element Stiffness Matrices

For each element:
1. Retrieve its properties
2. Determine the length
3. Call the appropriate subroutines which will determine:
(a) The stiffness matrix in local coordinate systems [ke ].

(b) The direction cosines.
5.5.3 Assembly
Since a skyline solver will be used, we first need to determine the appropriate pointers which
will enable us to efficiently store the global stiffness matrix ({MAXA}). This is accomplished
as follows, Fig. 5.11:
1. Determine the maximum height of the skyline for each column of the global stiffness
matrix by first assigning a very large number to each row of {MAXA}, and then looping
through each element, and for each one:
(a) Determine the lowest associated global degree of freedom number (from the {LM}
vectors)
(b) Compare this “height” with the one currently associated with those degree of freedom
stored in the element {LM}; if lower overwrite
2. Determine the total height of each skyline (i.e. each column) by determining the differ-
ence between MAXA (IEQ) (Skyline elevation), and IEQ (“BottomLine”). Overwrite
MAXA with this height.
3. Determine the total length of the vector storing the compacted structure global stiffness
matrix by summing up the height of each skyline
4. Assign to MAXA(NEQ+1) this total length +1.
5. Loop backward from the last column to the first, and for each one determine the address
of the diagonal term from MAXA(IEQ) = MAXA(IEQ + 1) − MAXA(IEQ)
36 Once the MAXA vector has been determine, then term K(i, j) in the square matrix, would
be stored in KK(MAXA(j)+j-i) (assuming j > i) in the compacted form of {K}.

37 The assembly of the global stiffness matrix is next described, Fig. 5.12:
1. Initialize the vector storing the compacted stiffness matrix to zero.
2. Loop through each element, e, and for each element:
(a) Retrieve its stiffness matrix (in local coordinates) [ke ], and direction cosines.
(b) Determine the rotation matrix [Γ] of the element.
(c) Compute the element stiffness matrix in global coordinates from [bK e ] = [Γ]T [ke ][Γ].

Draft
Figure 5.11: Flowchart for the Skyline Height Determination

Draft
Figure 5.12: Flowchart for the Global Stiffness Matrix Assembly

Draft
(d) Define the {LM} array of the element

5–31
(e) Loop through each row and column of the element stiffness matrix, and for those
degree of freedom not equal to zero, add the contributions of the element to the
structure’s stiffness matrix (note that we assemble only the upper half).
K S [LM (i), LM (j)] = K S [LM (i), LM (j)] + K e [i, j] (5.54)
5.5.4 Decomposition
38 Decompose the global stiffness matrix. Since the matrix is both symmetric and positive
definite, the matrix can be decomposed using Cholesky’s method into: [K] = [L][L]T . Should a
division by zero occur, or an attempt to extract the square root of a negative number happen,
then this would be an indication that either the global stiffness matrix is not properly assembled,
or that there are not enough restraint to prevent rigid body translation or rotation of the
structure.
5.5.5 Load
39 Once the stiffness matrix has been decomposed, than the main program should loop through
each load case and, Fig. 5.13
1. Initialize the load vector (of length NEQ) to zero.
2. Read number of loaded nodes. For each loaded node store the non-zero values inside the
load vector (using the [ID] matrix for determining storage location).
3. Loop on all loaded elements:
(a) Read element number, and load value

(b) Compute the fixed end actions and rotate them from local to global coordinates.
(c) Using the LM vector, add the fixed end actions to the nodal load vector (unless the
corresponding equation number is zero, ie. restrained degree of freedom).
(d) Store the fixed end actions for future use.
5.5.6 Backsubstitution
40 Backsubstitution is achieved by multiplying the decomposed stiffness matrix with the load
vector. The resulting vector stores the nodal displacements, in global coordinate system, cor-
responding to the unrestrained degree of freedom.
5.5.7 Internal Forces and Reactions
41The internal forces for each element, and reactions at each restrained degree of freedom, are
determined by, Fig. 5.15
1. Initialize reactions to zero

Draft
Figure 5.13: Flowchart for the Load Vector Assembly

Draft
Figure 5.14: Flowchart for the Internal Forces

Draft
Figure 5.15: Flowchart for the Reactions

Draft
5.6 Computer Implementation with MATLAB
2. For each element retrieve:

5–35
(a) nodal coordinates

(b) rotation matrix
(c) element stiffness matrix
3. Compute nodal displacements in local coordinate system from δ e = [Γ]∆(LM)
4. Compute element internal forces from p = [ke ]δ e
5. If the element is loaded, add corresponding fixed end actions
6. print the interior forces
7. check if any of its degree of freedom is restrained, if so:
(a) rotate element forces to global coordinates

(b) update appropriate reaction
42 You will be required, as part of your term project, to write a simple MATLAB (or whatever
other language you choose) program for the analysis of two dimensional frames with nodal load
and initial displacement, as well as element load.
5.6.1 Program Input
43 It is essential that the structure be idealized such that it can be discretized. This discretiza-
tion should define each node and element uniquely. In order to decrease the required amount
of computer storage and computation it is best to number the nodes in a manner that mini-
mizes the numerical separation of the node numbers on each element. For instance, an element
connecting nodes 1 and 4, could be better defined by nodes 1 and 2, and so on. As it was
noted previously, the user is required to have a decent understanding of structural analysis and
structural mechanics. As such, it will be necessary for the user to generate or modify an input
file input.m using the following directions. Open the file called input.m and set the existing
variables in the file to the appropriate values. The input file has additional helpful directions
given as comments for each variable. After setting the variables to the correct values, be sure
to save the file. Please note that the program is case-sensitive.
44 In order for the program to be run, the user must supply the required data by setting certain
variables in the file called indat.m equal to the appropriate values. All the user has to do
is open the text file called indat.txt, fill in the required values and save the file as indat.m
in a directory within MATAB’s path. There are helpful hints within this file. It is especially
important that the user keep track of units for all of the variables in the input data file. All
of the units MUST be consistent. It is suggested that one always use the same units for all
problems. For example, always use kips and inches, or kilo- newtons and millimeters.

Draft
5–36
5.6.1.1 Input Variable Descriptions

45 A brief description of each of the variables to be used in the input file is given below:
npoin This variable should be set equal to the number of nodes that comprise the structure.
A node is defined as any point where two or more elements are joined.
nelem This variable should be set equal to the number of elements in the structure. Elements
are the members which span between nodes.
istrtp This variable should be set equal to the type of structure. There are six types of
structures which this program will analyze: beams, 2-D trusses, 2-D frames, grids, 3-D trusses,
and 3-D frames. Set this to 1 for beams, 2 for 2D-trusses, 3 for 2D- frames, 4 for grids, 5 for
3D-trusses, and 6 for 3D-frames. An error will occur if it is not set to a number between 1 and
6. Note only istrp=3 was kept.
nload This variable should be set equal to the number of different load cases to be analyzed.
A load case is a specific manner in which the structure is loaded.
ID (matrix) The ID matrix contains information concerning the boundary conditions for
each node. The number of rows in the matrix correspond with the number of nodes in the
structure and the number of columns corresponds with the number of degrees of freedom for
each node for that type of structure type. The matrix is composed of ones and zeros. A one
indicates that the degree of freedom is restrained and a zero means it is unrestrained.
nodecoor (matrix) This matrix contains the coordinates (in the global coordinate system)
of the nodes in the structure. The rows correspond with the node number and the columns
correspond with the global coordinates x, y, and z, respectively. It is important to always
include all three coordinates for each node even if the structure is only two- dimensional. In
the case of a two-dimensional structure, the z-coordinate would be equal to zero.
lnods (matrix) This matrix contains the nodal connectivity information. The rows corre-
spond with the element number and the columns correspond with the node numbers which the
element is connected from and to, respectively.
E,A,Iy (arrays) These are the material and cross-sectional properties for the elements. They
are arrays with the number of terms equal to the number of elements in the structure. The
index number of each term corresponds with the element number. For example, the value of
A(3) is the area of element 3, and so on. E is the modulus of elasticity, A is the cross-sectional
area, Iy is the moment of inertia about the y axes
Pnods This is an array of nodal loads in global degrees of freedom. Only put in the loads
in the global degrees of freedom and if there is no load in a particular degree of freedom, then
put a zero in its place. The index number corresponds with the global degree of freedom.
Pelem This an array of element loads, or loads which are applied between nodes. Only
one load between elements can be analyzed. If there are more than one element loads on
the structure, the equivalent nodal load can be added to the nodal loads. The index number
corresponds with the element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero
in its place. These should be in local coordinates.
a This is an array of distances from the left end of an element to the element load. The index
number corresponds to the element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put
a zero in its place. This should be in local coordinates.
w This is an array of distributed loads on the structure. The index number corresponds
with the element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero in its place.
This should be in local coordinates
dispflag Set this variable to 1 if there are initial displacements and 0 if there are none.

Draft
5.6 Computer Implementation with MATLAB 5–37
initial displ This is an array of initial displacements in all structural degrees of freedom.
This means that you must enter in values for all structure degrees of freedom, not just those
restrained. For example, if the structure is a 2D truss with 3 members and 3 node, there would
be 6 structural degrees of freedom, etc. If there are no initial displacements, then set the values
equal to zero.
angle This is an array of angles which the x-axis has possibly been rotated. This angle
is taken as positive if the element has been rotated towards the z-axis. The index number
corresponds to the element number.
drawflag Set this variable equal to 1 if you want the program to draw the structure and 0
if you do not.
5.6.1.2 Sample Input Data File

The contents of the input.m file which the user is to fill out is given below:
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: indat.m (EXAMPLE 2D-FRAME INPUT DATA)
%
% Main Program: casap.m
%
% This is the main data input file for the computer aided
% structural analysis program CASAP. The user must supply
% the required numeric values for the variables found in
% this file (see user’s manual for instructions).
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% HELPFUL INSTRUCTION COMMENTS IN ALL CAPITALS
% SET NPOIN EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF NODES IN THE STRUCTURE
npoin=3;
% SET NELEM EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN THE STRUCTURE
nelem=2;
% SET NLOAD EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF LOAD CASES
nload=1;
% INPUT THE ID MATRIX CONTAINING THE NODAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (ROW # = NODE #)
ID=[1 1 1;
0 0 0;
1 1 1];
% INPUT THE NODE COORDINATE (X,Y) MATRIX, NODECOOR (ROW # = NODE #)
nodecoor=[
0 0;
7416 3000;
15416 3000
];
% INPUT THE ELEMENT CONNECTIVITY MATRIX, LNODS (ROW # = ELEMENT #)

Draft
5–38
lnods=[
1 2;
2 3
];
% INPUT THE MATERIAL PROPERTIES ASSOCIATED WITH THIS TYPE OF STRUCTURE

% PUT INTO ARRAYS WHERE THE INDEX NUMBER IS EQUAL TO THE CORRESPONDING ELEMENT NUMBER.
% COMMENT OUT VARIABLES THAT WILL NOT BE USED
E=[200 200];
A=[6000 6000];
Iz=[200000000 200000000];
% INPUT THE LOAD DATA. NODAL LOADS, PNODS SHOULD BE IN MATRIX FORM. THE COLUMNS CORRESPOND
% TO THE GLOBAL DEGREE OF FREEDOM IN WHICH THE LOAD IS ACTING AND THE THE ROW NUMBER CORRESPONDS
% WITH THE LOAD CASE NUMBER. PELEM IS THE ELEMENT LOAD, GIVEN IN A MATRIX, WITH COLUMNS
% CORRESPONDING TO THE ELEMENT NUMBER AND ROW THE LOAD CASE. ARRAY "A" IS THE DISTANCE FROM
% THE LEFT END OF THE ELEMENT TO THE LOAD, IN ARRAY FORM. THE DISTRIBUTED LOAD, W SHOULD BE
% IN MATRIX FORM ALSO WITH COLUMNS = ELEMENT NUMBER UPON WHICH W IS ACTING AND ROWS = LOAD CASE.
% ZEROS SHOULD BE USED IN THE MATRICES WHEN THERE IS NO LOAD PRESENT. NODAL LOADS SHOULD
% BE GIVEN IN GLOBAL COORDINATES, WHEREAS THE ELEMENT LOADS AND DISTRIBUTED LOADS SHOULD BE
% GIVEN IN LOCAL COORDINATES.
Pnods=[18.75 -46.35 0];

Pelem=[0 0];
a=[0 0];
w=[0 4/1000];
% IF YOU WANT THE PROGRAM TO DRAW THE STUCTURE SET DRAWFLAG=1, IF NOT SET IT EQUAL TO 0.
% THIS IS USEFUL FOR CHECKING THE INPUT DATA.
drawflag=1;
% END OF INPUT DATA FILE
5.6.1.3 Program Implementation

In order to ”run” the program, open a new MATLAB Notebook. On the first line, type the
name of the main program CASAP and evaluate that line by typing ctrl-enter. At this point, the
main program reads the input file you have just created and calls the appropriate subroutines
to analyze your structure. In doing so, your input data is echoed into your MATLAB notebook
and the program results are also displayed. As a note, the program can also be executed directly
from the MATAB workspace window, without Microsoft Word.
5.6.2 Program Listing

5.6.2.1 Main Program
%**********************************************************************************************
%Main Program: casap.m
%
% This is the main program, Computer Aided Structural Analysis Program
% CASAP. This program primarily contains logic for calling scriptfiles and does not
% perform calculations.
%
% All variables are global, but are defined in the scriptfiles in which they are used.
%

Draft
% Associated scriptfiles:
5–39
%
% (for all stuctures)
% indat.m (input data file)
% idrasmbl.m
% elmcoord.m
% draw.m
%
% (3 - for 2D-frames)
% length3.m
% stiffl3.m
% trans3.m
% assembl3.m
% loads3.m
% disp3.m
% react3.m
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% COMMENT CARDS ARE IN ALL CAPITALS
% SET NUMERIC FORMAT
format short e
% CLEAR MEMORY OF ALL VARIABLES
clear
% INITIALIZE OUTPUT FILE

fid = fopen(’casap.out’, ’wt’);
% SET ISTRTP EQUAL TO THE NUMBER CORRESPONDING TO THE TYPE OF STRUCTURE:

% 3 = 2DFRAME
istrtp=3;
% READ INPUT DATA SUPPLIED BY THE USER
indat
% REASSAMBLE THE ID MATRIX AND CALCULATE THE LM VECTORS

% CALL SCRIPTFILE IDRASMBL
idrasmbl
% ASSEMBLE THE ELEMENT COORDINATE MATRIX
elmcoord
% 2DFRAME CALCULATIONS
% CALCULATE THE LENGTH AND ORIENTATION ANGLE, ALPHA FOR EACH ELEMENT
% CALL SCRIPTFILE LENGTH3.M
length3
% CALCULATE THE 2DFRAME ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN LOCAL COORDINATES

Draft
5–40
% CALL SCRIPTFILE STIFFL3.M

stiffl3
% CALCULATE THE 2DFRAME ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES

% CALL SCRIPTFILE TRANS3.M
trans3
% ASSEMBLE THE GLOBAL STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX

% CALL SCRIPTFILE ASSEMBL3.M
assembl3
% PRINT STRUCTURAL INFO
print_general_info
% LOOP TO PERFORM ANALYSIS FOR EACH LOAD CASE

for iload=1:nload
print_loads
% DETERMINE THE LOAD VECTOR IN GLOBAL COORDINATES

% CALL SCRIPTFILE LOADS3.M
loads3
% CALCULATE THE DISPLACEMENTS

% CALL SCRIPTFILE DISP3.M
disp3
% CALCULATE THE REACTIONS AT THE RESTRAINED DEGREES OF FREEDOM

% CALL SCRIPTFILE REACT3.M
react3
% CALCULATE THE INTERNAL FORCES FOR EACH ELEMENT
intern3
% END LOOP FOR EACH LOAD CASE
end
% DRAW THE STRUCTURE, IF USER HAS REQUESTED (DRAWFLAG=1)

% CALL SCRIPTFILE DRAW.M
draw
st=fclose(’all’);
% END OF MAIN PROGRAM (CASAP.M)
disp(’Program completed! - See "casap.out" for complete output’);
5.6.2.2 Assembly of ID Matrix

%************************************************************************************************

Draft
%SCRIPTFILE NAME: IDRASMBL.M

5–41
%
%MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
%Description : This file re-assambles the ID matrix such that the restrained
% degrees of freedom are given negative values and the unrestrained
% degrees of freedom are given incremental values beginning with one
% and ending with the total number of unrestrained degrees of freedom.
%
%
%************************************************************************************************
% TAKE CARE OF SOME INITIAL BUSINESS: TRANSPOSE THE PNODS ARRAY
Pnods=Pnods.’;
% SET THE COUNTER TO ZERO
count=1;
negcount=-1;
% REASSEMBLE THE ID MATRIX
if istrtp==3
ndofpn=3;
nterm=6;
else
error(’Incorrect structure type specified’)
end
% SET THE ORIGINAL ID MATRIX TO TEMP MATRIX
orig_ID=ID;
% REASSEMBLE THE ID MATRIX, SUBSTITUTING RESTRAINED DEGREES OF FREEDOM WITH NEGATIVES,

% AND NUMBERING GLOBAL DEGREES OF FREEDOM
for inode=1:npoin
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
% END OF IDRASMBL.M SCRIPTFILE
5.6.2.3 Element Nodal Coordinates

%**********************************************************************************************
%SCRIPTFILE NAME: ELEMCOORD.M
%
%MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
%Description : This file assembles a matrix, elemcoor which contains the coordinates
% of the first and second nodes on each element, respectively.
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% ASSEMBLE THE ELEMENT COORDINATE MATRIX, ELEMCOOR FROM NODECOOR AND LNODS
for ielem=1:nelem

Draft
end
% END OF ELMCOORD.M SCRIPTFILE
5.6.2.4 Element Lengths

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : length3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the length of each element and the
% angle alpha between the local and global x-axes. This file can be used
% for 2-dimensional elements such as 2-D truss, 2-D frame, and grid elements.
% This information will be useful for transformation between local and global
% variables.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which they appear)
%
% nelem = number of elements in the structure
% ielem = counter for loop
% L(ielem) = length of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,4) = xj-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,1) = xi-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,5) = yj-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,2) = yi-coordinate of element ielem
% alpha(ielem) = angle between local and global x-axes
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% COMPUTE THE LENGTH AND ANGLE BETWEEN LOCAL AND GLOBAL X-AXES FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
L(ielem)=
alpha(ielem)=
% END OF LENGTH3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.6.2.5 Element Stiffness Matrices

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: stiffl3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program: casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the element stiffenss matrix
% of a 2-D frame element in local coordinates. The element stiffness
% matrix is calculated for each element in the structure.
%
% The matrices are stored in a single matrix of dimensions 6x6*i and
% can be recalled individually later in the program.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which the appear)
%

Draft

5–43
% nelem = number of element in the structure

% k(ielem,6,6)= element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
% E(ielem) = modulus of elasticity of element ielem
% A(ielem) = cross-sectional area of element ielem
% L(ielem) = lenght of element ielem
% Iz(ielem) = moment of inertia with respect to the local z-axis of element ielem
%
%**********************************************************************************************
for ielem=1:nelem
k(1:6,1:6,ielem)=...
end
% END OF STIFFL3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.6.2.6 Transformation Matrices

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : trans3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% This file calculates the rotation matrix and the element stiffness
% matrices for each element in a 2D frame.
%
%
% ielem = counter for the loop
% rotation = rotation matrix containing all elements info
% Rot = rotational matrix for 2d-frame element
% alpha(ielem) = angle between local and global x-axes
% K = element stiffness matrix in global coordinates
% k = element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES

% FOR EACH ELEMENT IN THE STRUCTURE
for ielem=1:nelem
% SET UP THE ROTATION MATRIX, ROTATAION
rotation(1:6,1:6,ielem)=...
ktemp=k(1:6,1:6,ielem);
% CALCULATE THE ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
K(1:6,1:6,ielem)=
end
% END OF TRANS3.M SCRIPTFILE

Draft
5–44
5.6.2.7 Assembly of the Augmented Stiffness Matrix

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : assembl3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% This file assembles the global structural stiffness matrix from the
% element stiffness matrices in global coordinates using the LM vectors.
% In addition, this file assembles the augmented stiffness matrix.
%
% Variable Descritpions (in order of appearance):
%
% ielem = Row counter for element number
% nelem = Number of elements in the structure
% iterm = Counter for term number in LM matrix
% LM(a,b) = LM matrix
% jterm = Column counter for element number
% temp1 = Temporary variable
% number_gdofs = Number of global dofs
% new_LM = LM matrix used in assembling the augmented stiffness matrix
% aug_total_dofs = Total number of structure dofs
% K_aug = Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Ktt = Structural Stiffness Matrix (Upper left part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix)
% Ktu = Upper right part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Kut = Lower left part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Kuu = Lower rigth part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% RENUMBER DOF INCLUDE ALL DOF, FREE DOF FIRST, RESTRAINED NEXT
new_LM=LM;
number_gdofs=max(LM(:));
new_LM(find(LM<0))=number_gdofs-LM(find(LM<0));
aug_total_dofs=max(new_LM(:));
% ASSEMBLE THE AUGMENTED STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX

K_aug=zeros(aug_total_dofs);
for ielem=1:nelem
Tough one!
end
% SET UP SUBMATRICES FROM THE AUGMENTED STIFFNESS MATRIX
Ktt=
Ktu=
Kut=
Kuu=

Draft
% END OF ASSEMBL3.M SCRIPTFILE

5–45
5.6.2.8 Print General Information

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : print_general_info.m
%
%
% Prints the general structure info to the output file
%**********************************************************************************************
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE and EDIT XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
fprintf(fid,’\n\nNumber of Nodes: %d\n’,npoin);

fprintf(fid,’Number of Elements: %d\n’,nelem);
fprintf(fid,’Number of Load Cases: %d\n’,nload);
fprintf(fid,’Number of Restrained dofs: %d\n’,abs(min(LM(:))));
fprintf(fid,’Number of Free dofs: %d\n’,max(LM(:)));
fprintf(fid,’\nNode Info:\n’);
for inode=1:npoin
fprintf(fid,’ Node %d (%d,%d)\n’,inode,nodecoor(inode,1),nodecoor(inode,2));
freedof=’ ’;
if(ID(inode,1))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof,’ X ’);
end
if(ID(inode,2))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof,’ Y ’);
end
if(ID(inode,3))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof,’ Rot’);
end
if freedof==’ ’
freedof=’ none; node is fixed’;
end
fprintf(fid,’ Free dofs:%s\n’,freedof);
end
fprintf(fid,’\nElement Info:\n’);
for ielem=1:nelem
fprintf(fid,’ Element %d (%d->%d)’,ielem,lnods(ielem,1),lnods(ielem,2));
fprintf(fid,’ E=%d A=%d Iz=%d \n’,E(ielem),A(ielem),Iz(ielem));
end
5.6.2.9 Print Load

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : print_loads.m
%
%
% Prints the current load case data to the output file
%**********************************************************************************************
Load_case=iload
if iload==1
fprintf(fid,’\n_________________________________________________________________________\n\n’);

Draft
5–46
end
fprintf(fid,’Load Case: %d\n\n’,iload);

fprintf(fid,’ Nodal Loads:\n’);
for k=1:max(LM(:));
%WORK BACKWARDS WITH LM MATRIX TO FIND NODE# AND DOF
LM_spot=find(LM’==k);
elem=fix(LM_spot(1)/(nterm+1))+1;
dof=mod(LM_spot(1)-1,nterm)+1;
node=lnods(elem,fix(dof/4)+1);
switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof=’Fx’;
case {2,5}, dof=’Fy’;
otherwise, dof=’ M’;
end
%PRINT THE DISPLACEMENTS
if Pnods(k)~=0
fprintf(fid,’ Node: %2d %s = %14d\n’,node, dof, Pnods(k));
end
end
fprintf(fid,’\n Elemental Loads:\n’);

for k=1:nelem
fprintf(fid,’ Element: %d Point load = %d at %d from left\n’,k,Pelem(k),a(k));
fprintf(fid,’ Distributed load = %d\n’,w(k));
end
fprintf(fid,’\n’);
5.6.2.10 Load Vector

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: loads3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program: casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the fixed end actions for elements which
% carry distributed loads for a 2-D frame.
%
%
% b(ielem) = distance from the right end of the element to the point load
% L(ielem) = length of the element
% a(ielem) = distance from the left end of the element to the point load
% Ffl = fixed end force (reaction) at the left end due to the point load
% w(ielem) = distributed load on element ielem
% L(ielem) = length of element ielem
% Pelem(ielem) = element point load on element ielem
% Mfl = fixed end moment (reaction) at the left end due to the point load
% Ffr = fixed end force (reaction) at the right end due to the point load
% Mfr = fixed end moment (reaction) at the right end due to the point load
% feamatrix_local = matrix containing resulting fixed end actions in local coordinates
% feamatrix_global = matrix containing resulting fixed end actions in global coordinates
% fea_vector = vector of fea’s in global dofs, used to calc displacements
% fea_vector_abs = vector of fea’s in every structure dof
% dispflag = flag indicating initial displacements

Draft
% Ffld = fea (vert force) on left end of element due to initial disp
5–47
% Mfld = fea (moment) on left end of element due to initial disp

% Ffrd = fea (vert force) on right end of element due to initial disp
% Mfrd = fea (moment) on right end of element due to initial disp
% fea_vector_disp = vector of fea’s due to initial disp, used to calc displacements
% fea_vector_react = vector of fea’s due to initial disp, used to calc reactions
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE FIXED END ACTIONS AND INSERT INTO A MATRIX IN WHICH THE ROWS CORRESPOND
% WITH THE ELEMENT NUMBER AND THE COLUMNS CORRESPOND WITH THE ELEMENT LOCAL DEGREES
% OF FREEDOM
for ielem=1:nelem
feamatrix_local(ielem,1:6)=[0 Ffl Mfl 0 Ffr Mfr];
% ROTATE THE LOCAL FEA MATRIX TO GLOBAL
feamatrix_global=...
end
% CREATE A LOAD VECTOR USING THE LM MATRIX
% INITIALIZE FEA VECTOR TO ALL ZEROS
for idofpn=1:ndofpn
fea_vector(idofpn,1)=0;
end
for ielem=1:nelem
end
% END OF LOADS3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.6.2.11 Nodal Displacements

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : disp3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% When this file is called, it computes the displacements in the global
% degrees of freedom.
%
%
% Ksinv = inverse of the structural stiffness matrix
% Ktt = structural stiffness matrix
% Delta = vector of displacements for the global degrees of freedom
% Pnods = vector of nodal loads in the global degrees of freedom
% fea_vector = vector of fixed end actions in the global degrees of freedom

Draft
5–48
%
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only

%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CREATE A TEMPORARY VARIABLE EQUAL TO THE INVERSE OF THE STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
Ksinv=inv(Ktt);
% CALCULATE THE DISPLACEMENTS IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
Delta=
% PRINT DISPLACEMENTS WITH NODE INFO
fprintf(fid,’ Displacements:\n’);
for k=1:size(Delta,1)
end
%PRINT THE DISPLACEMENTS
fprintf(fid,’ (Node: %2d %s) %14d\n’,node, dof, Delta(k));
end
% END OF DISP3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.6.2.12 Reactions
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : react3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% When this file is called, it calculates the reactions at the restrained degrees of
% freedom.
%
% Variable Descriptions:
%
% Reactions = Reactions at restrained degrees of freedom
% Kut = Upper left part of aug stiffness matrix, normal structure stiff matrix
% Delta = vector of displacements
% fea_vector_react = vector of fea’s in restrained dofs
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE REACTIONS FROM THE AUGMENTED STIFFNESS MATRIX
Reactions=
fprintf(fid,’ Reactions:\n’);
for k=1:size(Reactions,1)
%WORK BACKWARDS WITH LM MATRIX TO FIND NODE# AND DOF

Draft
LM_spot=find(LM’==-k);
5–49
elem=fix(LM_spot(1)/(nterm+1))+1;
dof=mod(LM_spot(1)-1,nterm)+1;
node=lnods(elem,fix(dof/4)+1);
switch(dof)
otherwise, dof=’M ’;
end
%PRINT THE REACTIONS
fprintf(fid,’ (Node: %2d %s) %14d\n’,node, dof, Reactions(k));
end
% END OF REACT3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.6.2.13 Internal Forces

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : intern3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% When this file is called, it calculates the internal forces in all elements
% freedom.
%
%**********************************************************************************************
Pglobe=zeros(6,nelem);
Plocal=Pglobe;
fprintf(fid,’ Internal Forces:’);

%LOOP FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
%FIND ALL 6 LOCAL DISPLACEMENTS
elem_delta=zeros(6,1);
for idof=1:6
gdof=LM(ielem,idof);
if gdof<0
elem_delta(idof)=
else
elem_delta(idof)=
end
end
%SOLVE FOR ELEMENT FORCES (GLOBAL)

Pglobe(:,ielem)=K(:,:,ielem)*elem_delta+feamatrix_global(:,ielem);
%ROTATE FORCES FROM GLOBAL TO LOCAL COORDINATES
%ROTATE FORCES TO LOCAL COORDINATES

Plocal(:,ielem)=
%PRINT RESULTS
fprintf(fid,’\n Element: %2d\n’,ielem);

Draft
5–50
for idof=1:6
if idof==1
fprintf(fid,’ At Node: %d\n’,lnods(ielem,1));
end
if idof==4
fprintf(fid,’ At Node: %d\n’,lnods(ielem,2));
end
switch(idof)
otherwise, dof=’M ’;
end
fprintf(fid,’ (Global : %s ) %14d’,dof, Pglobe(idof,ielem));
fprintf(fid,’ (Local : %s ) %14d\n’,dof, Plocal(idof,ielem));
end
end
fprintf(fid,’\n_________________________________________________________________________\n\n’);
5.6.2.14 Sample Output File

CASAP will display figure 5.16.
8000
6000
4000
2 2 3
2000 1
1
0
−2000
−4000
−6000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Figure 5.16: Structure Plotted with CASAP
Number of Nodes: 3
Number of Elements: 2
Number of Load Cases: 1
Number of Restrained dofs: 6
Number of Free dofs: 3
Node Info:
Node 1 (0,0)
Free dofs: none; node is fixed
Node 2 (7416,3000)
Free dofs: X Y Rot
Node 3 (15416,3000)
Free dofs: none; node is fixed

Draft
5.6 Computer Implementation with MATLAB 5–51
Element Info:
Element 1 (1->2) E=200 A=6000 Iz=200000000
Element 2 (2->3) E=200 A=6000 Iz=200000000
_________________________________________________________________________
Load Case: 1
Nodal Loads:
Node: 2 Fx = 1.875000e+001
Node: 2 Fy = -4.635000e+001
Elemental Loads:
Element: 1 Point load = 0 at 0 from left
Distributed load = 0
Element: 2 Point load = 0 at 0 from left
Distributed load = 4.000000e-003
Displacements:
(Node: 2 delta X) 9.949820e-001
(Node: 2 delta Y) -4.981310e+000
(Node: 2 rotate ) -5.342485e-004
Reactions:
(Node: 1 Fx) 1.304973e+002
(Node: 1 Fy) 5.567659e+001
(Node: 1 M ) 1.337416e+004
(Node: 3 Fx) -1.492473e+002
(Node: 3 Fy) 2.267341e+001
(Node: 3 M ) -4.535573e+004
Internal Forces:
Element: 1
At Node: 1
(Global : Fx ) 1.304973e+002 (Local : Fx ) 1.418530e+002
(Global : Fy ) 5.567659e+001 (Local : Fy ) 2.675775e+000
(Global : M ) 1.337416e+004 (Local : M ) 1.337416e+004
At Node: 2
(Global : Fx ) -1.304973e+002 (Local : Fx ) -1.418530e+002
(Global : Fy ) -5.567659e+001 (Local : Fy ) -2.675775e+000
(Global : M ) 8.031549e+003 (Local : M ) 8.031549e+003
Element: 2
At Node: 2
(Global : Fx ) 1.492473e+002 (Local : Fx ) 1.492473e+002
(Global : M ) -8.031549e+003 (Local : M ) -8.031549e+003
At Node: 3
(Global : Fx ) -1.492473e+002 (Local : Fx ) -1.492473e+002
(Global : M ) -4.535573e+004 (Local : M ) -4.535573e+004
_________________________________________________________________________

Draft
5–52
5.7 Homework
1. For the following structure
(a) Determine the structure ID matrix, the LM [k(e) ] and [Γ(e) ], and [K(e) ] for each
element.
(b) Assemble the augmented stiffness matrix.
(c) Determine the vector of nodal forces.
(d) Solve for the nodal displacements and reactions.
(e) Determine the internal forces in each element.
Assume
A mm2 Iz mm4 J mm4

1 4 × 103 50 × 106 100 × 103
2 6 × 103 200 × 106 300 × 103
E=200,000 MPa, ν=0.3

Members are orthogonal.
Z Y 1
0
0
1
3
5 kN
3 kN/m
m 2
1
0
8
0
1 1
X
1 2
5m
You are strongly encouraged to write a special code in MATLAB to solve this problem.
2. For the truss shown below
(a) Determine the Structure ID matrix.

(b) For each element, determine the LM vector, transformation matrix, and element
stiffness matrix in global coordinates.
(c) Assemble the global stiffness matrix, decompose it, and determine nodal displace-
ments.
(d) Determine the axial forces in each element.
(e) Determine the reactions.

Draft
5.7 Homework
(f) Determine the structure MAXA vector, and the number of terms which would have
5–53
to be stored in a vector should a variable skyline solver be used.

(g) Can you suggest an alternative numbering order for the node? What would be the
number of terms to be stored in the global stiffness matrix.
Assume A = 10in2 , E = 30, 000 ksi for all members.

Note that the transformed element stiffness matrix in global coordinates is given by:
 
cos2 α sin α cos α − cos2 α − sin α cos α
EA 
 sin α cos α 2
sin α − sin α cos α − sin2 α 

[Ke ] =   (5.55)
L  − cos2 α − sin α cos α cos2 α sin α cos α 
− sin α cos α − sin α2
sin α cos α sin2 α
3. For the non-prismatic element shown below,
(a) Write a computer program to derive its stiffness matrix, using E = 4, 000 ksi, t = 10
in. Neglect axial deformation.
4 4 5 50k
5
6
1 8
3 12’
1 2 2 7 3
100k
16’ 16’

Draft
12"
18"
6’ 12’ 6’

Draft
Chapter 6
EQUATIONS OF STATICS and

KINEMATICS
Note: This section is largely based on chapter 6 of Mc-Guire and Gallagher, Matrix Structural
Analysis, John Wiley
1 Having developed the stiffness method in great details, and prior to the introduction of energy
based methods (which will culminate with the finite element formulation), we ought to revisit
the flexibility method. This will be done by first introducing some basic statics and kinematics
relationship.
2 Those relations will eventually enable us not only to formulate the flexibility/stiffness relation,
but also other “by-products” such as algorithms for: 1) the extraction of a statically determinate
structure from a statically indeterminate one; 2) checking prior to analysis whether a structure
is kinematically unstable; 3) providing an alternative method of assembling the global stiffness
matrix.
6.1 Statics Matrix [B]

6.1.1 Statically Determinate
3 The statics matrix [B] relates the vector of all the structure’s {P} nodal forces in global
coordinates to all the unknown forces (element internal forces in their local coordinate system
and structure’s external reactions) {F}, through equilibrium relationships and is defined as:
{P} ≡ [B] {F} (6.1)
4 [B] would have as many rows as the total number of independent equations of equilibrium;
and as many columns as independent internal forces. This is reminiscent of the equilibrium
matrix obtained in analyzing trusses by the “method of joints”.
5 Depending on the type of structure, the internal element forces, and the equilibrium forces will
vary according to Table 6.1. As with the flexibility method, there is more than one combination
of independent element internal forces which can be selected.
Draft
6–2
Type Internal Forces

EQUATIONS OF STATICS and KINEMATICS
Equations of Equilibrium
Truss Axial force at one end ΣFX = 0, ΣFY = 0
Beam 1 Shear and moment at one end ΣFyA = 0, ΣMzA = 0
Beam 2 Shear at each end ΣFyA = 0, ΣFyB = 0
Beam 3 Moment at each end ΣMzA = 0, ΣMzB = 0
2D Frame 1 Axial, Shear, Moment at each end ΣFxA = 0, ΣFyA = 0, ΣMzA = 0
Table 6.1: Internal Element Force Definition for the Statics Matrix
6 Matrix [B] will be a square matrix for a statically determinate structure, and rectangular
(more columns than rows) otherwise.
Example 6-1: Statically Determinate Truss Statics Matrix
Considering the truss shown in Fig. 6.1, it has 8 unknown forces (4 internal member forces
and 4 external reactions), and 8 equations of equilibrium (2 at each of the 4 nodes). Assuming
all the element forces to be tensile, and the reactions as shown in the figure, the equilibrium
equations are:
Node ΣFX = 0 ΣFY = 0
Node 1 Px1 +F3 C − Rx1 = 0 Py1 +F1 + F3 S − Ry1 =0
|{z} |{z}
0 0
Node 2 Px2 + F2 = 0 Py2 − F1 = 0
Node 3 Px3 −F2 − F3 C = 0 Py3 −F4 − F3 S = 0
|{z} |{z}
0 0
Node 4 Px4 +Rx4 = 0 Py4 +F4 − Ry4 = 0
|{z} |{z}
0 0
where cos α = √ L = C and sin α = √ H = S Those equations of equilibrium can be

L2 +H 2 L2 +H 2
Y
Py2 Py3
Py2 Px2 f2 f2 Px3
Px2 2 2
2 3 3
f1 f3 f4
1 3 Py1 f1
H 4 f4 Py4
f3
Rx1 Px1 Rx4
1 Px4
1 X 4
4
L R y1 R y4
Figure 6.1: Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Determinate Truss

Draft
6.1 Statics Matrix [B]
cast in matrix form

6–3
    
ΣFx1 : 
 Px1 
 0 0 −C 0 1 0 0 0 
 F1 


 

  

ΣFy1 : 
 Py1 

 −1 0 −S 0 0 1 0 0  F2 


 

  

ΣFx2 : 
 Px2 

 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0  F3 


 

  

ΣFy2 :  Py2 
 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  F4 
=


 (6.2)
ΣFx3 : 
 Px3
  0 1 C 0 0 0 0 0  Rx1


 
   

ΣFy3 : 
 Py3
  0 0 S 1 0 0 0 0  Ry1


 
   

ΣFx4 : 
 Px4
  0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0  Rx4


 
 
 

   
ΣFy4 : Py4 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 1 Ry4
| {z } | {z }| {z }
{P} [B] {F}
the unknown forces and reactions can be determined through inversion of [B]:
      

 F1 
 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
 0 
 
 Py2 


 
  0 
 
 


 F2 
 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0  
 
 −Px2 


 
  
 
 


 F3 
 0 0 C1 0 C1 0 0 0  Px2 
 
 Px2 


 
  
 
 C 

 F4  0 0 −CS
0 −CS
1 0 0   Py2   −C
S
Px2 
=


 0 = (6.3)

 
Rx1   1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0  
 
 Px2 


 
   
 
 


 
Ry1   0 1 CS
1 CS
0 0 0  0 
 
 S 


 
   
 
 C Px2+ Py2 


 
Rx4   0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0  0 
 
 


 
 
 
 
 0 

     
Ry4 0 0 −CS
0 −CS
1 0 1 0 −C
S
Px2
| {z } | {z } | {z }
{F} [B]−1 {P}
We observe that the matrix [B] is totally independent of the external load, and once inverted
can be used for multiple load cases with minimal computational efforts.
Example 6-2: Beam Statics Matrix
Considering the beam shown in Fig. 6.2, we have 3 elements, each with 2 internalunknowns
(v and m) plus two unknown reactions, for a total of 8 unknowns. To solve for those unknowns
we have 2 equations of equilibrium at each of the 4 nodes. Note that in this problem we have
selected as primary unknowns the shear and moment at the right end of each element. The left
components can be recovered from equilibrium. From equilibrium we thus have:
    

 P1 
 −1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 
 v1 


  
  


 M1  
 −8 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0  m1 


  
  


 P2  
 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 1  v2 


  
  

 M2   0 1 −2 −1 0 0 0 0  m2 
=


 (6.4)

 P3 
  0 0 1 0 −1 0 0 0  v3 


 
   


 M3 
  0 0 0 1 −3 −1 0 0  m3 


 
   


 P4 
  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0  R1 


 
 
 

   
M4 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 R2
| {z } | {z }| {z }
{P} [B] {F}

Draft
6–4 EQUATIONS OF STATICS and KINEMATICS
Figure 6.2: Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Determinate Beam
Inverting this 8 by 8 matrix would yield

      

 v1 
 0 − 18 0 − 18 − 14 − 18 − 58 − 18 
 0  
 5 


 

  
 
 


 m1 

 0 0 0 1 2 1 5 1  0 
 
 −40 


 

  
   


 v2 

 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0  0  
 −20 


 

  
 
 

 m2 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 1   0   0 
=


  −20  =  0 (6.5)

 v3 
  0 0 0 0 0 1 0    


 
   
 
 


 m3 
  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1  0 
 
 0 


 
  
 
 
 


 R1 
  1 − 18 0 − 18 − 14 − 18 − 58 − 18  0 
 
 


 
 
 
  5 
      

R2 0 18 1 18 5 1 13 1
0 −25
| {z } | {z4 8 8 8
} | {z }
{F} [B]−1 {P}
6.1.2 Statically Indeterminate
7 For the case of a statically indeterminate structure, Eq. 6.1 can be generalized as:
( )
F0
{P}2n×1 = [ [B0 ]2n×2n [Bx ]2n×r ] (6.6)
Fx
(2n+r)×1
where [B0 ] is a square matrix, {F0 } the vector of unknown internal element forces or external
reactions, and {Fx } the vector of unknown redundant internal forces or reactions.
8 Hence, we can determine {F0 } from
{F0 } = [B0 ]−1 {P} − [B0 ]−1 [Bx ] {Fx } (6.7)

= [C1 ]2n×2n {P} − [C2 ]2n×r {Fx } (6.8)
9 Note the following definitions which will be used later:

Draft
6.1 Statics Matrix [B] 6–5
[B0 ]−1 ≡ [C1 ] (6.9)

−1
−[B0 ] [Bx ] ≡ [C2 ] (6.10)
Example 6-3: Statically Indeterminate Truss Statics Matrix
Revisiting the first example problem, but with an additional member which makes it stat-
ically indeterminate, Fig. 6.3, it now has 9 unknown forces (5 internal member forces and 4
Y
Py2 Py3
Py2 Px2 f2 f2 Px3
Px2 2 2 3
2 3
f1 f3 f4
f5
3
1 Py1 f1 f5 f
H 4 4 Py4
f3
5 Rx1 Px1 Rx4
Px4
1 4
1 4 X
L R y1 R y4
Figure 6.3: Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Indeterminate Truss
external reactions), and only 8 equations of equilibrium. Selecting the fifth element force as the
redundant force, and with r = 1, we write Eq. 6.6
( )
F0
{P}2n×1 = [ [B0 ]2n×2n [Bx ]2n×r ] (6.11-a)
Fx
(2n+r)×1
{P} = [B0 ] {F0 } + [Bx ] {Fx }
      

 Px1 
 0 0 −C 0 1 0 0 0 
 F1 
 0

  
   
 

 Py1  
 −1 0 −S 0 0 1 0 0  F2  
 0 

  
   
 

 Px2  
 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0  F3  
 −C 

  
   
 
 Py2   1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  F4   S 
= 


 +

 {F5 } (6.11-b)
 | {z }

 Px3
  0 1 S 0 0 0 0 0  Rx1 
  0 

 
   
   {Fx }

 Py3
  0 0 S 1 0 0 0 0  Ry1 
  0 

 
   
  

 Px4
  0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0  Rx4 
  C 

 
 
 

   
Py4 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 1 Ry4 −S
| {z } | {z }| {z } | {z }
{P} [B0 ]2nx2n {F0 }2nx1 [Bx ]nx1
We can solve for the internal forces in terms of the (still unknown) redundant force
{F0 } = [B0 ]−1 {P} − [B0 ]−1 [Bx ] {Fx } (6.12-a)

Draft
 
        
 F1  0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0  0   0  

 
     

 

   0 
 
 
0  

 F2 

 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0   
 
 
 

 

   
 
 
 

 F3 

 0 0 C1 0 C1 0 0 0   Px2 
 
 −C 
 

 

   
 

 S 
 
F4  0 0 −CS
0 −CS
1 0 0   Py2   
=   − {F5 } (6.12-b)
 Rx1   1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0   0   0  | {z }


 
      
    
 
 


 Ry1 



 0 1 CS
1 CS
0 0 0   0 
 
 0 

 {Fx } 


 
    
 
 
 

 Rx4 
  0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0   0 
 
 C  

 
  
 
 
 
Ry4 0 0 −CS
0 −CS
1 0 1  0  
−S  
| {z } | {z 
} | {z } | {z } 
{F0 } [B0 ]−1 ≡[C1 ] {P} [Bx ]
Or using the following relations [B0 ]−1 ≡ [C1 ] and −[B0 ]−1 [Bx ] ≡ [C2 ] we obtain
      

 F1 
 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
 0 
 
 −S 


 
  0 
 
 


 F2 
 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0  
 
 −C 


 
  
 
 


 F3 
 0 0 C1 0 C1 0 0 0  Px2 
 
 1 


 
  
 
 
 F4  0 0 −CS
0 −CS
1 0 0   Py2   −S 

=


 0 + {F }
5 (6.13)

 Rx1 
  1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0  
 
 C 
 | {z }

 
   
 
 


 Ry1 
  0 1 CS
1 CS
0 0 0  0 
 
 0 
 {Fx }

 
   
 
 


 Rx4 
  0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0  0 
 
 −C 


 
 
 
 
 

     
Ry4 0 0 −CS
0 −CS
1 0 1 0 0
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
{F0 } [C1 ] {P} [C2 ]
Note, that this equation is not sufficient to solve for the unknown forces, as {Fx } must be
obtained through force displacement relations ([D] or [K]).
10 ddagWhereas the identification of redundant forces was done by mere inspection of the
structure in hand based analysis of structure, this identification process can be automated.
11 Starting with
{P}2n×1 = [B]2n×(2n+r) {F}(2n+r)×1

[B]2n×(2n+r) {F}2n+r×1 − [I]2n×2n {P}2n×1 = {0}
( )
h i F
B −I = {0} (6.14-a)
2n×(4n+r) P
h i
where B −I corresponds to the augmented matrix.
12 If we apply a Gauss-Jordan elimination process to the augmented matrix, Eq. 6.14-a is then
transformed into:
 
h  F0 
i 
I2n×2n −C22n×r −C12n×2n x F = {0} (6.15)
 P 
 
4n+r×1
or:
{F0 }2n×1 = [C1 ]2n×2n {P}2n×1 + [C2 ]2n×r {Fx }r×1 (6.16)

Draft
6.1 Statics Matrix [B] 6–7
which is identical to Eq. 6.8; As before, Fx are the redundant forces and their solution obviously
would depend on the elastic element properties.
Example 6-4: Selection of Redundant Forces
Revisiting the statically determined truss of Example 1, but with the addition of a fifth
element, the truss would now be statically indeterminate to the first degree. The equation of
equilibrium 6.2 will then be written as:
 

 F1 

 
 
 F2 


ΣFx1 : A 0 0 −C 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 
 

 
  F3 

ΣFy1 : B  −1 0 −S 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0  

  F4 

ΣFx2 : C  0 −1 0 0 −C 0 0 0 0 −1 0  

  F5 

ΣFy2 : D  1 0 0 0 S 0 0 0 0 0 −1  
  Rx1 (6.17)
ΣFx3 : E  0 1 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  
  
  Ry1

ΣFy3 : F  0 0 S 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  

  Rx4

ΣFx4 : G  0 0 0 0 C 0 0 1 0 0 0 





 Ry4

ΣFy4 : H 0 0 0 −1 −S 0 0 0 1 0 0 
 

| {z }

 Px2



 
[ B −I ] Py2
| {z }
{F}
Note that since load is applied only on node 2, we have considered a subset of the identity
matrix [I].
1. We start with the following matrix
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Rx1 Ry1 Rx4 Ry4 Px2 Py2
 
A 0 0 −C 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
B
 −1 0 −S 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
 
C 0 −1 0 0 −C 0 0 0 0 −1 0 
 
D
 1 0 0 0 S 0 0 0 0 0 −1  (6.18)
E
 0 1 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
F
 0 0 S 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
G 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 1 0 0 0 
H 0 0 0 −1 −S 0 0 0 1 0 0
2. Interchange columns
Rx1 Ry1 F2 F1 F3 F4 F5 Rx4 Ry4 Px2 Py2
 
A 1 0 0 0 −C 0 0 0 0 0 0
B
 0 1 0 −1 −S 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
C 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −C 0 0 −1 0 
 
D
 0 0 0 1 0 0 S 0 0 0 −1  (6.19)
E
 0 0 1 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 
F
 0 0 0 0 S 1 0 0 0 0 0 
 
G 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 1 0 0 0 
H 0 0 0 0 0 −1 −S 0 1 0 0

Draft
6–8
3. Operate as indicates

 
A 1 0 0 0 −C 0 0 0 0 0 0
B 0 = B + DB
 0 1 0 0 −S 0 S 0 0 0 −1 
 
C  0 0 −1 0 0 0 −C 0 0 −1 0 
 
D  0 0 0 1 0 0 S 0 0 0 −1 
 
0
E = C E+C  0 0 1 0 1 0 −1 0 0 −1/C 0 
 

F  0 0 0 0 S 1 0 0 0 0 0 
 
G  0 0 0 0 0 0 C 1 0 0 0 
H 0 0 0 0 0 −1 −S 0 1 0 0
(6.20)
4. Operate as indicated
 
A0 =A+ CE 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 −C 0 0 −1 0
00 0
B = B + SE 0 
0 −S/C −1 
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
C 0 = −C  0 0 1 0 0 0 C 0 0 1 0 
 
D  0 0 0 1 0 0 S 0 0 0 −1 
  (6.21)
E 0  0 0 0 0 1 0 −1 0 0 −1/C 0 
 
F = F − SE 
0 0
 0 0 0 0 0 1 S 0 0 S/C 0 
 
G  0 0 0 0 0 0 C 1 0 0 0 
0
H =H +F 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 S/C 0
5. Interchange columns and observe that F5 is the selected redundant.

Rx1 Ry1 F2 F1 F3 F4 Rx4 Ry4 F5 Px2 Py2
 
A0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −C −1 0
B 00
 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −S/C −1 
0 
C 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 C 1 0 
 
D  0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 S 0 −1  (6.22)
E 0
 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −1 −1/C 0 
F0
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 S S/C 0 
 
G 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 C 0 0 
H0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 S/C 0
From Eq. 6.8 we have
     

 Rx1 
 1 0 
 C 


 
  
 


 Ry1 
 S/C 1  
 0 


 
  
 


 F2 
 −1 0 ( 
 −C 


 
  ) 
 

 F1  0 1  Px2  −S 
=


 + {F5 } (6.23)

 F3 
  1/C 0  Py2 
 1  | {z }

 
   | {z }   


 F4 
  −S/C 0  
 
−S  {Fx }

 
   {P} 
 


 Rx4 
  0 0  
 
−C 

 
 
 

  
Ry4 −S/C 0 0 
| {z } | {z } | {z }
{F0 } [C1 ] [C2 ]
which is identical to the results in Eq. 6.13 except for the order of the terms.

Draft
6.2 Kinematics Matrix [A]
6.1.3 Kinematic Instability

6–9
13 Kinematic instability results from a structure with inadequate restraint in which rigid body
motion can occur. Kinematic instability will result in a matrix which is singular, and decom-
position of this matrix will result in a division by zero causing a computer program to “crash”.
Hence, it is often desirable for “large” structures to determine a priori whether a structure is
kinematically instable before the analysis is performed.
14 Conditions for static determinacy and instability can be stated as a function of the rank
of [B]. If [B] has n rows (corresponding to the number of equilibrium equations), u columns
(corresponding to the number of internal forces and reactions), and is of rank r, then conditions
of kinematic instability are summarized in Table 6.2
n > u Kinematically Instable

n = u Statically Determinate
n = u = r Stable
n = u > r Instable with n − r modes of kinematic instability
n < r Statically Indeterminate (degree u − n)
n=r Stable
n>r Instable with n − r modes of kinematic instability
Table 6.2: Conditions for Static Determinacy, and Kinematic Instability
15 Note that kinematic instability is not always synonymous with structure collapse. In some
cases equilibrium will be recovered only after geometry would have been completely altered (such
as with a flexible cable structures) and equations of equilibrium would have to be completely
rewritten with the new geometry.
6.2 Kinematics Matrix [A]
16 The kinematics matrix [A] relates all the structure’s {∆} nodal total displacements in global
coordinates to the element relative displacements in their local coordinate system and the sup-
port displacement (which may not be zero if settlement occurs) {Υ}, through kinematic rela-
tionships and is defined as:
{Υ} ≡ [A] {∆} (6.24)
17 [A] is a rectangular matrix which number of rows is equal to the number of the element inter-
nal displacements, and the number of columns is equal to the number of nodal displacements.
Contrarily to the rotation matrix introduced earlier and which transforms the displacements
from global to local coordinate for one single element, the kinematics matrix applies to the
entire structure.
18 It can be easily shown that for trusses (which corresponds to shortening or elongation of the
member):
Υe = (u2 − u1 ) cos α + (v2 − v1 ) sin α (6.25)

Draft
where α is the angle between the element and the X axis. whereas for flexural members:
v21 = v2 − v1 − θz1 L (6.26-a)

θz21 = θz2 − θz1 (6.26-b)
Example 6-5: Kinematics Matrix of a Truss
Considering again the statically indeterminate truss of the previous example, the kinematic
matrix will be given by:
   
 ∆e1  0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0  

 
  u1 

 ∆e2 
  0 0 −1 0 1 0 0 
0 
 


 
  v1 

 
  





 ∆e3 
  −C −S 0 0 C S 0 0  

 
   u2 


 ∆e4 
  0 0 0 0 0 1 0 −1   
   v2 
∆e5 =
 0 
0 −C S 0 0 C −S  (6.27)

 
  
 u3 


 u1 

  1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 v 



 
   


 v1 
  0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 

3 



 
   u 


 
  0 
4 
v4 
 u4  0 0 0 0 0 0 1
 
v4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
| {z }
[A]
Applying the constraints: u1 = 0; v1 = 0; u4 = 0; and v4 = 0 we obtain:

   
 ∆e1  0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0  

 
  u1 

 
  −1 0 1 0 0 
0  


∆e2 
  0 0  v  

 
   


 ∆e3 
  −C −S 0 0 C S 0 0 

1 



 
   u 2 


 ∆e4 
  0 0 0 0 0 1 0 −1  
 

  v
∆e5 =
 0 0 −C S 0 0 C −S 
 u 
2
(6.28)
  





  0 

 3 
 
v3 
 0  1 0 0 0 0 0 0

 
  





 0 
  0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0  


 
   u 


 
  0 
4 
v4 
 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
| {z }
[A]
We should observe that [A] is indeed the transpose of the [B] matrix in Eq. 6.17
6.3 Statics-Kinematics Matrix Relationship
19 Having defined both the statics [B] and kinematics [A] matrices, it is intuitive that those
two matrices must be related. In this section we seek to determine this relationship for both
the statically determinate and statically indeterminate cases.

Draft
6.3 Statics-Kinematics Matrix Relationship
6.3.1 Statically Determinate

6–11
20 The external work being defined as

)
Wext = 12 bPc {∆} 1
Wext = bFc[B]T {∆} (6.29)
{P} = [B] {F} 2
21 Alternatively, the internal work is given by:

)
Wint = 12 bFc {Υ} 1
Wint = bFc[A] {∆} (6.30)
{Υ} = [A] {∆} 2
22 Equating the external to the internal work Wext = Wint we obtain:

1 1
bFc[B]T {∆} = bFc[A] {∆} (6.31)
2 2
[B]T = [A] (6.32)
23 This relationship is analogous to the duality which exists between statics and kinematics as
expressed through the curvature-area theorems.
6.3.2 ‡Statically Indeterminate
24 Whereas in the preceding case we used Eq. 6.1 for [B], for the most general case of statically
indeterminate structures we can start from Eq. 6.6 and write:

( )
F0
{P} = [ B0 Bx ] (6.33)
Fx
where Fx correspond to the redundant forces. The external work will then be
" #
1 [B0 ]t
Wext = b F0 Fx c {∆} (6.34)
2 [Bx ]t
25 Again, we can generalize Eq. 6.24 and write

( ) " #
Υ0 A0
= {∆} (6.35)
Υx Ax
where {Υ0 } and {Υx } are relative displacements corresponding to {F0 } and {Fx } respectively.
26 Consequently the internal work would be given by:
" #
1 [A0 ]
Wint = b F0 Fx c {∆} (6.36)
2 [Ax ]
27 As before, equating the external to the internal work Wext = Wint and simplifying, we obtain:
[B0 ]T = [A0 ] (6.37)

T
[Bx ] = [Ax ] (6.38)

Draft
6–12
6.4
Kinematic Relations through Inverse of Statics Matrix
28 We now seek to derive some additional relations between the displacements through the
inverse of the statics matrix. Those relations will be used later in the flexibility methods, and
have no immediate applications.
29 Rewriting Eq. 6.35 as
h i−1 h it
{∆} = [A0 ]−1 {Υ0 } = [B0 ]t {Υ0 } = [B0 ]−1 {Υ0 } (6.39)
we can solve for {F0 } from Eq. 6.8
{F0 } = [B0 ]−1 {P} − [B0 ]−1 [Bx ] {Fx } (6.40)

| {z } | {z }
[C1 ] [C2 ]
30 Combining this equation with [B0 ]−1 = [C1 ] from Eq. 6.40, and with Eq. 6.39 we obtain
{∆} = [C1 ]t {Υ0 } (6.41)
31 Similarly, we can revisit Eq. 6.35 and write
{Υx } = [Ax ] {∆} (6.42)
When the previous equation is combined with the rightmost side of Eq. 6.39 and 6.38 we obtain
h it
{Υx } = [Bx ]t [B0 ]−1 {Υ0 } (6.43)
32 Thus, with [B0 ]−1 [Bx ] = −[C2 ] from Eq. 6.40
{Υx } = −[C2 ]t {Υ0 } (6.44)
This equation relates the unknown relative displacements to the relative known ones.
6.5 ‡ Congruent Transformation Approach to [K]

Note: This section is largely based on section 3.3 of Gallagher, Finite Element Analysys, Pren-
tice Hall.
33 For an arbitrary structure composed of n elements, we can define the unconnected nodal load
and displacement vectors in global coordinate as
{Pe } = b bP1 c bP2 c ... bPn c cT (6.45-a)

{Υ } = b bΥ c bΥ c ... bΥ c c
e 1 2 n T
(6.45-b)
where {Pi } and {∆i } are the nodal load and displacements arrays of element i. The size of
each submatrix (or more precisely of each subarray) is equal to the total number of d.o.f. in
global coordinate for element i.

Draft
34 Similarly, we can define the unconnected (or unassembled) global stiffness matrix of the
6–13
structure as [Ke ]:
{F} = [Ke ] {Υ} (6.46-a)

 
[K1 ]
 [K2 ] 
 
 
[Ke ] =  [K3 ]  (6.46-b)
 
 .. 
 . 
[Kn ]
35 Note that all other terms of this matrix are equal to zero, and that there is no intersection
between the various submatrices. Hence, this matrix does not reflect the connectivity among
all the elements.
36 We recall the following relations (Eq. 6.1, 6.24, and 6.32 respectively)
{Υ} = [A]{∆} (6.47-a)

{P} = [B]{F} (6.47-b)
T
[B] = [A] (6.47-c)
We now combine those matrices with the definition of the stiffness matrix:
 
{P} = [B]{F} 
 [A] {F} = [K]{∆} 
T

{P} = [K]{∆} {F} = [Ke ]{Υ} [K] = [A]T [Ke ][A] (6.48)

 

[B] = [A]T
{Υ} = [A]{∆}
37 Thus, we have just defined a congruent transformation on the unconnected global stiffness
matrix written in terms of [Ke ] to obtain the structure stiffness matrix. We shall note that:
1. If [Ke ] is expressed in global coordinates, then [A] is a boolean matrix.
2. If [Ke ] is in local coordinates, then [A] must include transformation from element to global
coordinate systems, and is no longer boolean.
3. [K] accounts for the B.C. as those terms associated with the restrained d.o.f. are not
included.
X
4. Note the similarity between the direct stiffness method: [K] = [Γ]T [k][Γ] and the
congruent transformation approach: [K] = [A]T [Ke ][A].
Xn
5. If the structure is a frame with n elements, then we would have [K]neq×neq = [Γ]T6×6 [k]6×6 [Γ]6×6
1
and the congruent transformation approach: [K]neq×neq = [A]Tneq×6n [Ke ]6n×6n [A]6n×neq .
6. Congruent approach appears to be less efficient than the direct stiffness method as both
[Ke ] and [A] are larger than [K].
Example 6-6: Congruent Transformation

Draft
Figure 6.4: Example 1, Congruent Transfer
Assemble the global stiffness matrix of the grid shown in Fig. 6.4 using the direct stiffness
method and the congruent transformation method.
Solution:
The 2 element stiffness matrices in global coordinate system are given by:
 
7.692 0. 0. −7.692 0. 0.
 .4 × 105 −12. 0. .2 × 105 12. 
 
 −12. −.0048 
 .0048 0. 
[KAB ] =   (6.49-a)
 7.692 0. 0. 
 
 .4 × 105 12. 
.0048
 
1 × 105 0. 18.75 .5 × 105 0. −18.75
 14.423 0. 0. −14.423 0. 
 
 −.00469 
 .00469 18.75 0. 
[KBC ] =   (6.49-b)


1 × 105 0. −18.75 
 14.423 0. 
.00469
We shall determine the global stiffness matrix using the two approaches:
Direct Stiffness
 
0 1 0
 
[ID] =  0 2 0  (6.50-a)
0 3 0
{LM1 } = b 0 0 0 1 2 3 cT (6.50-b)
{LM } = b 1 2 3 0 0 0 c
2 T
(6.50-c)
 
(7.692 + 1 × 105 ) (0. + 0.) (18.75 + 0.)
 
[K] =  (0. + 0.) (.4 × 105 + 14.423) (12. + 0.)  (6.51-a)
(0. + 18.75) (12. + 0.) (.0048 + .00469)

Draft

1 × 105 0. 18.75

6–15
 
=  0. .4 × 105 12. 
18.75 12. .00949
Congruent Transformation
1. The unassembled stiffness matrix [Ke ], for node 2, is given by:

{F} = [Ke ] {Υ} (6.52-a)
 Mx1
  7.692 0 0
 Θ1x


 
 
 


 My1 
  .4 × 105 12. 0.  Θ1y 
 element 1
Fz1  sym .0048  Wz1
=  1 × 105 −18.75  (6.52-b)


Mx2 
  0. 
Θ2x 


 My2 
 0. 14.423 0. 
 Θ2y 
 element 2
Fz2 sym .00469 Wz2
Note that the B.C. are implicitely accounted for by ignoring the restrained d.o.f.
however the connectivity of the elements is not reflected by this matrix.
2. The kinematics matrix is given by:
{Υ} = [A] {∆} (6.53-a)

 1   

 θx 
 1 0 0

 
   

 θy1 
  0 1 0  θ

 1 
   x 

wz  0 0 1 
=   θy (6.53-b)

 θx2 
  1 0 0  

 
    wz 

 θ2 
  0 1 0 

 y2 

wz 0 0 1
As for the kinematics matrix, we are relating the local displacements of each
element to the global ones. Hence this matrix is analogous to the connectivity matrix.
Whereas the connectivity matrix defined earlier reflected the element connection, this
one reflects the connectivity among all the unrestrained degrees of freedom.
3. If we take the product: [A]T [Ke ][A] then we will recover [K] as shown above.
Example 6-7: Congruent Transformation of a Frame
Assemble the stiffness matrix of the frame shown in Fig. 6.5 using the direct stiffness
method, and the two congruent approaches.
Solution:
The stiffness matrices of elements AB and BC in local coordinate system are given by:
 
.75 0. 0. −.75 0. 0.
 .00469 18.75 0 −.0048 18.75 
 
 1 × 105 −18.75 .5 × 105 
 0 
[k]AB = [k]BC = 200   (6.54)
 .75 0. 0. 
 
 sym .00469 −18.75 
1 × 105
Draft
Figure 6.5: Example 2
while the rotation matrix is given by:

 
.9272 .375 0. 0. 0. 0.
 −.375 .927 0. 0. 0. 0. 
 
 
 0. 0. 1 0. 0. 0. 
[Γ]AB =   (6.55-a)
 0. 0. 0. .9272 .375 0. 
 
 0. 0. 0. −.375 .9272 0. 
0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 1
[Γ]BC = [I] (6.55-b)
The element stiffness matrices in global coordinates will then be given by:
[K]AB = [Γ]TAB [k]AB [Γ]AB (6.56-a)

 
.645 .259 −7.031 −.645 −.259 −7.031
 .109 17.381 −.259 −.109 17.381 
 
 1 × 10 7.031 −17.381 .5 × 105
5 
 
= 200   (6.56-b)
 .645 .259 7.031 
 
 sym .109 −17.381 
1 × 105
and [K]BC = [k]BC
Direct Stiffness: We can readily assemble the global stiffness matrix:
 
(.645 + .75) (.259 + 0.) (7.031 + 0.)
 
[K] = 200  (.109 + .00469) (−17.38 + 18.75)  (6.57-a)
sym (1 + 1) × 105
 
1.395 .259 7.031
 
= 200  .1137 1.37  (6.57-b)
sym 2 × 105
Congruent Transformation, global axis, Boolean [A]

Draft
1. We start with the unconnected global stiffness matrix in global coordinate system:
6–17
{F} = [Ke ] {Υ} (6.58-a)

 PX1   .645 .259 7.031
 UX1 

 
 
 


 PY1 
  .109 −17.381 0  VY1 

MZ1
200 
 sym 1 × 105  Θ1Z
=  (6.58-b)


PX2

  .75 0. 0. 
UX2



 PY2 
 0 .00469 18.75 
 VY2 

MZ2 sym 1 × 105 Θ2Z
2. Next we determine the kinematics matrix A:
{Υ} = [A] {∆} (6.59-a)

 1   

 u  1 0 0

 

 v1 


 0 1
 0  
 u 

 θ1 
  0 0  
 1 
=   v (6.59-b)

 u2 
  1 0 0  

    θ 


 v2 



 0 1 0 
 
θ2 0 0 1
3. Finally, if we take the product [A]T [Ke ] [A] we obtain the structure global stiffness
| {z } | {z } |{z}
3×6 6×6 6×3
matrix [K] in Eq. 6.57-b
Congruent Transformation (local axis):
1. Unconnected stiffness matrix in local coordinates:

{pe } = [ke ] {δe } (6.60-a)
 PX1   .75 0. 0.
 u1x


 
 
 


 PY1 
  .00469 −18.75  vy1 

MZ1 
200 
sym 1 × 105  θz1
=  (6.60-b)


PX2

  .75 0. 0. 
u2x 


 PY2 
 .00469 18.75 
 vy2 

MZ2 sym 1 × 105 θz2
2. The kinematics matrix [A] is now given by:
{δ e } = [A] {∆} (6.61-a)

   

 u1x 
 .9272 .375 0.

 

 vy1 


 −.375 .9272 0.  
  U


 
  0. 
θz1
 0. 1. 

 X 
=   V (6.61-b)

 u2x 
  1. 0. 0.   Y
 


   
vy2 
   0.
ΘZ

 
 1. 0. 
 
θz2 0. 0. 1.
3. When the product: [A]T [ke ][A] we recover the structure global stiffness matrix

Draft

Draft
Chapter 7
FLEXIBILITY METHOD
7.1 Introduction
1 Recall the definition of the flexibility matrix
{Υ} ≡ [d]{p} (7.1)
where {Υ}, [d], and {p} are the element relative displacements, element flexibility matrix, and
forces at the element degrees of freedom free to displace.
2 As with the congruent approach for the stiffness matrix, we define:
{F(e) } = b bF(1) c bF(2) c ... bF(n) c cT (7.2-a)
{Υ (e)
} = b bΥ(1) c bΥ(2) c ... bΥ(n) c c T
(7.2-b)
for n elements, and where {Fi } and {Υi } are the nodal load and displacements vectors for
element i. The size of these vectors is equal to the total number of global dof for element i.
3 Denoting by {R} the reaction vector, and by {ΥR } the corresponding displacements, we
define the unassembled structure flexibility matrix as:
( ) " h i #( )
Υ(e) d(e) F(e)
= (7.3)
ΥR [0] R
h i
where d(e) is the unassembled global flexibility matrix.
n o
4 In its present form, Eq. 7.3 is of no help as the element forces F(e) and reactions {R} are
not yet known.
7.2 Flexibility Matrix
5 We recall from Sect. 6.1.2 that we can automatically identify the redundant forces [Fx ] and
rewrite Eq. 7.3 as: ( ) " (e) #( )
Υ0 d00 [0] F0
= (e) (7.4)
Υx [0] dxx Fx
Draft
7–2
h
(e)
i h
(e)
i
where d00 and dxx correspond to the unassembled global flexibility matrix, and {F0 } and
FLEXIBILITY METHOD
{Fx } are the corresponding forces.

6 Next we must relate the redundant and nonredundant forces (which together constitute the
unknown element forces and reactions) to the externally applied load {P}. Hence we recall
from Eq. 6.16:
{F0 } = [C1 ] {P} + [C2 ] {Fx } (7.5)
which can be rewritten (for convenience:) as:
( ) " #( )
F0 C1 C2 P
= (7.6)
Fx 0 I Fx
7 From Eq. 6.41 we had: {∆} = [C1 ]t {Υ0 } and from Eq. 6.44: {Υx } = −[C2 ]t {Υ0 } which
lead to ( ) " #( )
∆p C1t 0 Υ0
= (7.7)
0 C2t I Υx
where the subscript p in {∆p } has been added to emphasize that we are referring only to the
global displacements corresponding to {P}.
8 Finally, we substitute Eq. 7.6 into Eq. 7.4 and the results into Eq. 7.7 to obtain:
( ) " #" (e)
#" #( )
∆p C1t 0 d00 0 C1 C2 P
= (7.8)
0 C2t I 0
(e)
dxx 0 I Fx
or: ( ) " #( )
√
∆√?p Dpp Dpx P
= (7.9)
0 Dxp Dxx F?x
where:
h i
(e)
[Dpp ] = [C1 ]t d00 [C1 ] (7.10-a)
h i
(e)
[Dpx ] = [Dxp ]t = [C1 ]t d00 [C2 ] (7.10-b)
h i
(e)
[Dxx ] = [C2 ]t d00 [C2 ] + [dxx
(e)
] (7.10-c)
9 This equation should be compared with Eq. 7.1 and will be referred to as the unsolved global
assembled flexibility equation.
10 Finally, this equation should also be contrasted with its counterpart in the stiffness method,
Eq. 5.2.
7.2.1 Solution of Redundant Forces
11 We can solve for the redundant forces (recall that in the flexibility method, redundant forces
are the primary unknowns as opposed to displacements in the stiffness method) by solving the
lower partition of Eq. 7.9:
{Fx } = − [Dxx ]−1 [Dxp ] {P} (7.11)
Again, this equation should be compared with Eq. 5.3.

Draft
7.2 Flexibility Matrix
7.2.2 Solution of Internal Forces and Reactions

7–3
12 The internal forces and reactions can in turn be obtained through Eq. 6.16:
{F0 } = [C1 ] {P} + [C2 ] {Fx } (7.12)
which is combined with Eq. 7.11 to yield:
h i
{F0 } = [C1 ] − [C2 ] [Dxx ]−1 [Dxp ] {P} (7.13)
7.2.3 Solution of Joint Displacements
13 Joint displacements are in turn obtained by considering the top partition of Eq. 7.9:
h i
{∆p } = [Dpp ] − [Dpx ] [Dxx ]−1 [Dxp ] {P} (7.14)
| {z }
[D]
This equation should again be compared with Eq. 5.4.
Example 7-1: Flexibility Method
Solve for the internal forces and displacements of joint 2 of the truss in example 6.1.2. Let
H = 0.75L and assign area A to members 3 and 5, and 0.5A to members 1, 2, and 4. Let f5 be
the redundant force, and use the [C1 ] and [C2 ] matrices previously derived.
Solution:
C = √L2L+H 2 = 0.8 and S = √L2H+H 2 = 0.6
From Eq. 7.4 we obtain
( ) " (e)
#( )
Υ0 d00 0 F0
= (e) (7.15-a)
Υx 0 dxx Fx
 
 u1    

 
 0  Rx1 

 
  

 v1 
   


 
  0  Ry1 



(e) 
   



∆2 
  2  f2 


 
   

 
(e)

 ∆1 
  1.5  f1 
L   
(e)
∆3 =  1.25  f3 (7.15-b)





 AE 


 



(e)

  1.5  f4 



∆4 
   


 
  0  Rx4 



u4 
   


 
  0 
 Ry4 



 v4 
 
 


 (e) 
 1.25 f5
∆5

Draft
7–4
From Example 6.1.2 we have

FLEXIBILITY METHOD
       
1 0 1 0 
 C 
 
 0.8 

    
 
 
 
 S/C 1   0.75 1  

 0 




 0 


    
 
 
 
 −1 0   −1 0  
 −C 
 
 −0.8 


    
 −S 
 
 −0.6 

 0 1   0 1 
[C1 ] = 

=
 

 [C2 ] = = (7.16)
 1/C 0   1.25 0  
 1 
 
 1  
    
 
 
 

 −S/C 0   −0.75 0  
 −S 
 
 −0.6 

    
 
 
 

 0 0   0 0  
 −C 
 
 −0.8 


 
 
 

   
−S/C 0 −0.75 0 0 0
From Eq. 7.10-a " #

h i L 4.797 0
t (e)
[Dpp ] = [C1 ] d00 [C1 ] = (7.17)
AE 0 1.50
From Eq. 7.10-b ( )
h i L 3.838
t (e)
[Dpx ] = [C1 ] d00 [C2 ] = (7.18)
AE −0.900
From Eq. 7.10-c
h L i
(e)
[Dxx ] = [C2 ]t d00 [C2 ] + [dxx
(e)
]=
(4.860) (7.19)
AE
We can now solve for the redundant force f5 from Eq. 7.11
( )
−1 1 Px2
{Fx } = − [Dxx ] [Dxp ] {P} = − b 3.8387 − 0.90 c (7.20-a)
4.860 Py2
f5 = −0.790Px2 + 0.185Py2 (7.20-b)
The nonredundant forces are now obtained from Eq. 7.13

h i
{F0 } = [C1 ] − [C2 ] [Dxx ]−1 [Dxp ] {P} (7.21-a)
 
 Rx1     

 
 1 0 0.632 −0.148

 Ry1 


 
    

 
  0.75 1   0 0 

 f2 
    

 
  −1 0   −0.632 0.148  ( )

 f1 
    
 0 1   −0.474 0.111   Px2
f3 = 

 −
 
 (7.21-b)

 
   1.25 0   0.790 −0.185 

 Py2

 f4 
    

 
   −0.75 0   −0.474 0.111 

 Rx4 
    

 
   0 0   −0.632 0.148 

 


 Ry4 

  −0.75 0 0 0
f5
 
0.368 0.148
 1.000 
 0.75 
 
 −0.368 −0.148  ( )
 
 0.474 0.889  P
= 

 x2
(7.21-c)
 0.460 0.185 
 Py2
 
 −0.276 −0.111 
 
 0.632 −0.148 
−0.750 0

Draft
7.3 Stiffness Flexibility Relations
Y
7–5
1 2
Figure 7.1: Stable and Statically Determinate Element
Finally, the displacements are obtained from Eq. 7.14

h i
{∆p } = [Dpp ] − [Dpx ] [Dxx ]−1 [Dxp ] {P} (7.22-a)
| {z }
[D]
( ) "" # " ## ( )
u2 L 4.797 0 1 14.730 −3.454 Px2
= − (7.22-b)
v2 AE 0 1.500 4.860 −3.454 0.810 Py2
" #( )
L 1.766 0.711 Px2
= (7.22-c)
AE 0.711 1.333 Py2
It should be noted that whereas we have used the flexibility method in its algorithmic
implementation (as it would lead itself to computer implementation) to analyse this simple
problem, the solution requires a formidable amount of matrix operations in comparaison with
the “classical” (hand based) flexibility method.
14 Having introduced both the stiffness and flexibility methods, we shall rigorously consider the
relationship among the two matrices [k] and [d] at the structure level.
15Let us generalize the stiffness relation by partitioning it into two groups: 1) subscript ‘s’ for
those d.o.f.’s which are supported, and 2) subscript ‘f ’ for those dof which are free.
( ) " #( )
pf kf f kf s δf
= (7.23)
ps ksf kss δs
16We note that this is the same as equation 5.2, however it is expressed at the element level
and in the local coordinate system.
7.3.1 From Stiffness to Flexibility
17 To obtain [d] the structure must be supported in a stable and statically determinate way, as
for the beam in Fig. 7.1. for which we would have:

Draft
7–6
(
θ1
) (
v1
FLEXIBILITY METHOD
)
{δ f } = and {δ s } = (7.24-a)
θ2 v2
( )
M1
{pf } = (7.24-b)
M2
( )
V1
{ps } = (7.24-c)
V2
18 Since {δ s } = {0} the above equation reduces to:

( ) " #
pf kf f
= {δ f } (7.25)
ps ksf
and we would have:

{pf } = [kf f ] {δ f } (7.26)
[d] = [kf f ]−1 (7.27)
Example 7-2: Flexibility Matrix
From Fig. 7.1 ( ) " #( )

M1 EI 4 2 θ1
= (7.28)
M2 L 2 4 θ2
| {z }
[kf f ]
" # " #
−1 L 1 4 −2 L 2 −1
[kf f ] = [d] = = (7.29)
EI 12 −2 4 6EI −1 2
7.3.2 From Flexibility to Stiffness
19[kf f ]: From Eq. 7.23, [k] was subdivided into free and supported d.o.f.’s, and we have shown
that [kf f ] = [d]−1 , or {pf } = [kf f ] {δ f } but we still have to determine [kf s ], [ksf ], and [kss ].
20 [ksf ]: Since [d] is obtained for a stable statically determinate structure, we have:
{ps } = [B] {pf } (7.30-a)

{ps } = [B] [kf f ]{δ f } (7.30-b)
| {z }
[ksf ]
[ksf ] = [B] [d]−1 (7.30-c)
21 [kf s ]: Equating the external to the internal work:

Draft
1. External work: Wext = 12 bδ f c{pf }

7–7
2. Internal work: Wint = 12 bps c{δ s }

Equating Wext to Wint and combining with
bps c = bδ f c [ksf ]T (7.31)
from Eq. 7.23 with {δ s } = {0} (zero support displacements) we obtain:
[kf s ] = [ksf ]T = [d]−1 [B]T (7.32)
22 [kss ]: This last term is obtained from
{ps } = [B] {pf } (7.33-a)

{pf } = [kf s ] {δ s } (7.33-b)
−1 T
[kf s ] = [d] [B] (7.33-c)
Combining Eqns. 7.33-b, 7.33-a, and 7.33-c we obtain:
{ps } = [B][d]−1 [B]T {δ s } (7.34)

| {z }
[kss ]
23 In summary we have:
" #
[d]−1 [d]−1 [B]T
[k] = −1 (7.35)
[B][d] [B][d]−1 [B]T
24 A very important observation, is that the stiffness matrix is obviously singular, since the
second “row” is linearly dependent on the first one (through [B]) and thus, its determinent is
equal to zero.
Example 7-3: Flexibility to Stiffness
With reference to Fig. 7.1, and with both M1 and M2 assumed to be positive (ccw):
1. The flexibility matrix is given by:
( ) " #( )
θ1 L 2 −1 M1
= (7.36)
θ2 6EI −1 2 M2
| {z }
[d]
2. The statics matrix [B] relating external to internal forces is given by:
( ) " #( )
V1 1 1 1 M1
= (7.37)
V2 L −1 −1 M2
| {z }
[B]

Draft
7–8
3. [kf f ]: would simply be given by:

FLEXIBILITY METHOD
" #
−1 EI 4 2
[kf f ] = [d] = (7.38)
L 2 4
4. [kf s ]: The upper off-diagonal

" # " # " #
−1 T EI 4 2 1 1 −1 EI 6 −6
[kf s ] = [d] [B] = = 2 (7.39)
L 2 4 L 1 −1 L 6 −6
5. [ksf ]: Lower off-diagonal term

" # " # " #
−1 1 1 1 EI 4 2 EI 6 6
[ksf ] = [B][d] = = 2 (7.40)
L −1 −1 L 2 4 L −6 −6
6. [kss ]:
[kss ] = [B] [d]−1 [B]T = [ksf ] [B]T (7.41-a)

" #" # " #
EI 1 6 6 1 −1 EI 12 −12
= = (7.41-b)
L2 L −6 −6 1 −1 L3 −12 12
Let us observe that we can rewrite:

    

 M1 
 4L2 2L2 6l −6l 
 θ1 


 M    θ 
 
2 EI  2L2 4L2 6l −6l  2
=   (7.42)



V1 

 L3  6l 6l 12 −12 

v1 


   
V2 −6l −6l −12 12 v2
If we rearrange the stiffness matrix we would get:

   12 6 −12

6


 V1 
 
 v1 


 M 
  L2 L L2 L
 θ 
1 EI 
6
4 −6
2 
 1

=  L
−12 −6
L 
−6   (7.43)

 V2 
  12
 v 

 

L L2 L L L  2 
M2 6
L 2 −6
L 4  θ2 
| {z }
[k]
and is the same stiffness matrix earlier derived.

25 Alternatively, if we begin with Equation 7.43 we observe that it can be expressed as
 r +k r +k r +k r
k11 r +k r
k11 r +k r +k r +k r
k11 r +k r
k22 
12
2
21 22
L
21
− 12
2
21 22
L
12
 r L
k11 r
+k21 r L
k22 +k12r 
 r
k11 − L r
k12 
[k] = 

L
kr +kr +kr +kr r +k r
k12 r +k r +k r +k r
k11 r +k r
k22

 (7.44)
 − 11 12L2 21 22 − L 22 12
2
21 22
− L 12 
r +k r
k12 rL+k r
k22
L
22 r
k21 − L 12 r
k22
where k r corresponds to kf f

Draft
7.4 Stiffness Matrix of a Curved Element
7.4 Stiffness Matrix of a Curved Element

7–9
25 We seek to determine the stiffness matrix of a circular arc of radius R and sustaining an
angle θ.
26 First, we determine the flexibility matrix of a cantilevered arc from
Z Z θ
M R
δU = δM dx = δM M dφ (7.45)
s EI EI 0
where M is the real moment at arbitrary point A caused by loads and δM is the virtual moment
at A caused by unit load
27 The flexibility matrix will thus be given by:
    

 u 
 f11 f12 f13   N 

 
v =  f21 f22 f23  V (7.46)

 θ 
 
 

f31 f32 f33 M
and
M = M3 + N (R − R cos φ) + V (R2 sin φ) (7.47-a)

δM + 13 = R(1 − cos1 φ) + R sin2 φ (7.47-b)
fij = Disp. in DOF i caused by unit load in DOF j (7.47-c)
Z
R θ
f11 = δMp1 · MD1 dφ (7.47-d)
EI o
Z
R θ 2
= R (1 − cos φ)2 dφ (7.47-e)
EI o
Z
R3 θ
= (1 − 2 cos φ + cos2 φ)dφ (7.47-f)
EI o
R3
= [φ − 2 sin φ + φ/2 = 1/4 sin 2φ]θo (7.47-g)
EI
h i
R3
= EI
3
2θ − 2 sin θ + 14 sin 2θ (7.47-h)
Z θ
R
f12 = f21 = R2 sin φ(1 − cos φ)dφ (7.47-i)
EI o
Z
R3 θ
= (sin φ − cosφsinφ)dφ (7.47-j)
EI o
· θ ¸
R3 1
= − cos φ − sin2 φ (7.47-k)
EI 2 o
· ¸
R3 1
= (− cos θ − sin2 θ) − (−1 − 0) (7.47-l)
EI 2
h i
R3
= f21 = EI 1 − cos θ − 12 sin2 θ (7.47-m)
Z θ
R
f13 = f31 = R(1 − cos φ)dφ (7.47-n)
EI o
R2
= [φ − sin φ]θo (7.47-o)
EI
Draft
7–10
R2
FLEXIBILITY METHOD
= EI [θ − sin θ] (7.47-p)
Z
R θ 2 2
f22 = R sin φdφ (7.47-q)
EI o
· ¸θ
R3 φ 1
= − sin 2θ (7.47-r)
EI ∂ 4 o
3
h i
= R
f22 EI θ
∂ − 14 sin 2θ (7.47-s)
Z θ
R
f23 = f32 = R sin φdφ (7.47-t)
EI o
R2
= [− cos φ]θo (7.47-u)
EI
R2
= EI [− cos θ + 1] (7.47-v)
Z θ
R
f33 = dθ (7.47-w)
EI o
Rθ
= EI (7.47-x)
7.5 Duality between the Flexibility and the Stiffness Methods
FLEXIBILITY STIFFNESS
Indeterminancy Static Kinematic
Gov. Equat. Kinematic Equilibrium
Primary Unknows Nodal Forces Nodal Displacements
Variational Principle Virtual Force Virtual Displacement
{p} = [B0 ] {p} {δ} = [Γ] {∆}
[d] [k]
T T
( ) [D]" = [B] [d][B]# ( √ ) ( √ ) [k]"= Σ[Γ] [k][Γ] #( )
? ?
∆√
P D11 D12 p p kf f Df r ∆√f
= =
∆R D21 D22 R? R? Drf Drr ∆r
{R} = [D22 ]−1 ({∆R } − [D21 ] {p}) −1
{∆f } = [Kf f ] ({p} − [kf r ] {∆r })
{∆P } = [D11 ]−1 ({p} + [D12 ] {R}) {R} = [Krf ] {∆f } + [krr ] {∆r }
{p} = [B] {p} {p} = [k][Γ] {∆}

Draft
7.6 Homework
7.6 Homework
7–11
Derive the statics matrix for the following semi-circular box-girder of radius R.
Using the, previously derived, flexibility matrix, derive the element stiffness matrix in terms
of R and α
11
00 y x
00
11
z
R
Y Y
α θ
O O
Z X Z X

Draft
7–12 FLEXIBILITY METHOD

Draft
Chapter 8
SPECIAL ANALYSIS
PROCEDURES
To be edited
8.1 Semi-Rigid Beams
1 Often times, a beam does not have either a flexible or rigid connection, but rather a semi-rigid
one (such as in type II stell connection), Fig. 8.1
2 The stiffness relationship for the beam element (with shear deformation) was previously de-
rived in Eq. 2.45
(4 + Φy )EIz (2 − Φy )EIz
M1 = φ1 + φ2 (8.1-a)
(1 + Φy )L L(1 + Φy )
(2 − Φy )EIz (4 + Φy )EIz
M2 = φ1 + φ2 (8.1-b)
L(1 + Φy ) L(1 + Φy )
3 If we now account for the springs at both ends, Fig. 8.2, with stiffnesses k1s and k2s , then
M1 = k1s (θ1 − φ1 ) and M2 = k2s (θ2 − φ2 ) (8.2)
The stiffness relationship between M1 and M2 and the joint rotations θ1 and θ2 is obtained by
Flexible
1
0 11
00
0
1 00
11 Rigid
0
1 00
11
1
0 1
0
0
1 0
1 Semi-Rigid
0
1 0
1
Figure 8.1: Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Rigid Beams

Draft
8–2
θ1
SPECIAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
θ2
M1 11
00
00
11
φ2 11
00
00
11 M2
y 00
11 φ1 00
11
M1 θ 1 M1 φ 1 M2 θ 2 M2 φ 2
Figure 8.2: Deformations of a Semi-Rigid Beams

w
1
0 1
0
M1 0
1 0
1 M2
0
1 0
1
R1 R2
L
Figure 8.3: Fixed End Forces in a Semi-Rigid Beams
eliminating φ1 and φ2 from above, yielding
EI EI
M1 = (S11 θ1 + S12 θ2 ) and M2 = (S21 θ1 + S22 θ2 ) (8.3)
L L
where
4 + Φy + 12θ2
S11 = (8.4-a)
D
4 + Φy + 12θ1
S22 = (8.4-b)
D
2 − Φy
S12 = (8.4-c)
D
D = 1 + Φy + (4 + Φy )(α1 + α2 ) + 12α1 α2 (8.4-d)
EI
α1 = (8.4-e)
k1s L
EI
α2 = (8.4-f)
k2s L
4 For the fixed end actions, we have a net rotation at the end of the beam of φ1 and φ2 . From
beam theory, the rotation of a simply supported uniformly loaded beam is wL3 /24EI, and from
Eq. 2.6, Fig. 8.3,
wL3 M1 L M2 L
φ1 = − − (8.5-a)
24EI 3EI 6EI
wL3 M2 L M1 L
φ2 = − − (8.5-b)
24EI 3EI 6EI

Draft
8.2 Nonuniform Torsion
Yet, for the two springs, the moment rotation relationship is given by
8–3
M1 = k1 φ1 and M2 = k2 φ2 (8.6)
As before, we eliminate φ1 and φ2 from the above equations, and solve for M1 , M2 , and the
reactions (from Statics), yielding
· ¸
wL2 3(1 + 6α2 )
M1 = (8.7)
12 D1
· ¸
wL2 3(1 + 6α1 )
M2 = (8.8)
12 D1
M1 − M2
R1 = 0.5wL + (8.9)
L
M1 − M2
R2 = 0.5wL − (8.10)
L
where D1 = (2 + 6α1 )(2 + 6α2 ) − 1
5 Similarly for concentrated midspan load, it can be shown that
· ¸
P L 6(1 + 6α2 )
M1 = (8.11)
8 D1
· ¸
P L 6(1 + 6α1 )
M2 = (8.12)
8 D1
M 1 − M2
R1 = 0.5P + (8.13)
L
M 1 − M2
R2 = 0.5P − (8.14)
L
8.2 Nonuniform Torsion
8.3 Inclined Supports
8.4 Condensation
8.5 Substructuring
8.6 Reanalysis
8.7 Constraints

Draft
8–4 SPECIAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

Draft
Part II
Introduction to Finite Elements

Draft
Draft
Chapter 9
REVIEW OF ELASTICITY
9.1 Stress
1 A stress, Fig 9.1 is a second order cartesian tensor, σij where the 1st subscript (i) refers to
X3
σ33
σ
32
σ31
σ23 ∆X3
σ13 σ σ22
21 X2
σ
12
σ 11 ∆X1
∆X2
X1
Figure 9.1: Stress Components on an Infinitesimal Element
the direction of outward facing normal, and the second one (j) to the direction of component
force.    
σ11 σ12 σ13 
 t1 

 
σ = σij =  σ21 σ22 σ23  = t2 (9.1)

 t 

σ31 σ32 σ33 3
2 In fact the nine rectangular components σij of σ turn out to be the three sets of three vector
components (σ11 , σ12 , σ13 ), (σ21 , σ22 , σ23 ), (σ31 , σ32 , σ33 ) which correspond to the three tractions
t1 , t2 and t3 which are acting on the x1 , x2 and x3 faces (It should be noted that those tractions
are not necesarily normal to the faces, and they can be decomposed into a normal and shear
traction if need be). In other words, stresses are nothing else than the components of tractions
(stress vector), Fig. 9.2.
Draft
9–2
X3
X3
V3
σ33
σ32
t3 V
σ23
σ31
V2
X2
t2
σ13 σ22 V1
σ X1
21
X2
σ (Components of a vector are scalars)
12
t1
σ 11
X1 Stresses as components of a traction vector
(Components of a tensor of order 2 are vectors)
Figure 9.2: Stresses as Tensor Components
3 The state of stress at a point cannot be specified entirely by a single vector with three
components; it requires the second-order tensor with all nine components.
9.1.1 Stress Traction Relation
4 The relation between stress tensor σij at a point and the stress vector ti (or traction) on a
plane of arbitrary orientation, can be established through the following, Fig. 9.3.
ti = nj σij (9.2)
 
σ11 σ12 σ13
 
b t1 t2 t3 c = b n1 n2 n3 c  σ21 σ22 σ23  (9.3)
| {z }
σ σ32 σ33
direction cosines | 31 {z }
stress tensor
where n is a unit outward vector normal to the plane.
5 Note that the stress is defined at a point, and a traction is defined at a point and with respect
to a given plane orientation.
6 When expanded in cartesian coordinates,, the previous equation yields
tx = σxx nx + σxy ny + σxz nz
ty = σyx nx + σyy ny + σyz nz (9.4)
tz = σzx nx + σzy ny + σzz nz
Example 9-1: Stress Vectors

Draft
9.1 Stress
X2
9–3
B S3
-t * ∆
1 ∆
*
-t 3
S
1 t*n ∆ S
n
h N A
O X1
-t 2 ∆ S2
*
X3
∆V
*
*
ρb
Figure 9.3: Stress Traction Relations
if the stress tensor at point P is given by

   
7 −5 0 
 t1 

 
σ =  −5 3 1  = t2 (9.5)

 t 

0 1 2 3
We seek to determine the traction (or stress vector) t passing through P and parallel to the
plane ABC where A(4, 0, 0), B(0, 2, 0) and C(0, 0, 6). Solution:
The vector normal to the plane can be found by taking the cross products of vectors AB and
AC:
¯ ¯
¯ e ¯
¯ 1 e2 e3 ¯
¯ ¯
N = AB×AC = ¯ −4 2 0 ¯ (9.6-a)
¯ ¯
¯ −4 0 6 ¯
= 12e1 + 24e2 + 8e3 (9.6-b)
The unit normal of N is given by

3 6 2
n = e1 + e2 + e3 (9.7)
7 7 7
Hence the stress vector (traction) will be
 
7 −5 0
 
b 3
7
6
7
2
7 c  −5 3 1  = b − 97 5
7
10
7 c (9.8)
0 1 2
and thus t = − 97 e1 + 57 e2 + 10
7 e3

Draft
9–4
9.2 Strain
7 Given the displacement ui of a point, the strain εij is defined as
1
εij = (ui,j + uj,i ) (9.9)
2
or Ã !
1 ∂ui ∂uj
εij = + (9.10)
2 ∂xj ∂xi
8 When expanded in 2D, this equation yields:

µ ¶
1 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1
ε11 = + = (9.11-a)
2 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1
µ ¶
1 ∂u1 ∂u2 γ12
ε12 = + = (9.11-b)
2 ∂x2 ∂x1 2
µ ¶
1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u2
ε22 = + = (9.11-c)
2 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2
µ ¶
1 ∂u2 ∂u1 γ21
ε21 = + = (9.11-d)
2 ∂x1 ∂x2 2
9 Initial (or thermal strain)

   

 α∆T 
 
 α∆T 

εij = α∆T = (1 + ν) α∆T (9.12)

  
 0 
0  
| {z } | {z }
Plane Stress Plane Strain
note there is no shear strains caused by thermal expansion.
10 The strain may also be expressed as
ε = Lu (9.13)
or  
  ∂
 εxx  0 0

 
  0
∂x


 εyy 

 
∂
∂y 0 
 

 ε 
   u 

 0 0 ∂  x
zz
=
 ∂
∂z  u (9.14)

 εxy 
  ∂y
∂
0 
y
 u  

 
  ∂ ∂x


 εxz 
  ∂z 0 ∂

z

 
 ∂x
εyz ∂ ∂
0 ∂z ∂y

Draft
9.3 Fundamental Relations in Elasticity
9.3 Fundamental Relations in Elasticity

9–5
9.3.1 Equation of Equilibrium
11Starting with the set of forces acting on an infinitesimal element of dimensions dx1 ×dx2 ×dx3 ,
Fig. 9.4 and writing the summation of forces, will yield
σij,j + ρbi = 0 (9.15)
where ρ is the density, bi is the body force (including inertia).

σyy y
σyy+ d
y
τ yx y
τyx+ y
d
σxx
σxx+ dx
σ xx x
dy
τ xy x
τ xy τxy+ d
x
τ yx
σyy
dx
Figure 9.4: Equilibrium of Stresses, Cartesian Coordinates
12 When expanded in 3D, this equation yields:

∂σ11 ∂σ12 ∂σ13
+ + + ρb1 = 0
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂σ21 ∂σ22 ∂σ23
+ + + ρb2 = 0 (9.16-a)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂σ31 ∂σ32 ∂σ33
+ + + ρb3 = 0
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
13 Alternatively, the equation of equilibrium can be written as
LT σ + b = 0 (9.17)

Draft
9–6
or
 

 σxx 

 
 σyy


  
∂ ∂ ∂ 
 
 
∂x 0 0 ∂y ∂z 0    bx 

 ∂ ∂ ∂  σzz
 0 0 0  + by =0 (9.18)
∂y ∂x ∂z 
 σxy 
 
 b 
0 0 ∂
0 ∂ ∂ 
 

∂z ∂x ∂y 
 σxz 

z

 

σyz
14 Expanding
∂σxx ∂σ
∂x + ∂yxy + ∂σ∂zxz + bx = 0
∂σyx ∂σ ∂σ
∂x + ∂yyy + ∂zyz + by = 0 (9.19)
∂σzx ∂σ
∂x + ∂yzy + ∂σ∂zzz + bz = 0
Example 9-2: Equilibrium Equation
In the absence of body forces, does the following stress distribution

 
x22 + ν(x21 − x2x ) −2νx1 x2 0
 
 −2νx1 x2 x1 + ν(x2 − x1 )
2 2 2 0  (9.20)
0 0 ν(x21 + x22 )
where ν is a constant, satisfy equilibrium?

Solution:
∂T1j ∂T11 ∂T12 ∂T13 √

= + + = 2νx1 − 2νx1 = 0 (9.21-a)
∂xj ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂T2j ∂T21 ∂T22 ∂T23 √
= + + = −2νx2 + 2νx2 = 0 (9.21-b)
∂xj ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂T3j ∂T31 ∂T32 ∂T33 √
= + + =0 (9.21-c)
∂xj ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Therefore, equilibrium is satisfied.
9.3.2 Compatibility Equation
15 If εij = 12 (ui,j + uj,i ) then we have six differential equations (in 3D the strain tensor has a
total of 9 terms, but due to symmetry, there are 6 independent ones) for determining (upon
integration) three unknowns displacements ui . Hence the system is overdetermined, and there
must be some linear relations between the strains.
16 It can be shown (through appropriate successive differentiation of Eq. ??) that the compat-
ibility relation for strain reduces to:
∂ 2 εik ∂ 2 εjj ∂ 2 εjk ∂ 2 εij

+ − − = 0. (9.22)
∂xj ∂xj ∂xi ∂xk ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xk
Draft
9.4 Stress-Strain Relations in Elasticity 9–7
17 In 3D, this would yield 9 equations in total, however only six are distinct. In 2D, this results
in (by setting i = 2, j = 1 and l = 2):
∂ 2 ε11 ∂ 2 ε22 ∂ 2 γ12

+ = (9.23)
∂x22 ∂x21 ∂x1 ∂x2
(recall that 2ε12 = γ12 .

18 When he compatibility equation is written in term of the stresses, it yields:
∂ 2 σ11 ∂σ22 2 ∂ 2 σ22 ∂ 2 σ11 ∂ 2 σ21

− ν + − ν = 2 (1 + ν) (9.24)
∂x22 ∂x22 ∂x21 ∂x21 ∂x1 ∂x2
9.4 Stress-Strain Relations in Elasticity
19 The Generalized Hooke’s Law can be written as:
σij = Dijkl εkl i, j, k, l = 1, 2, 3 (9.25)
20 The (fourth order) tensor of elastic constants Cijkl³has 81´(34 ) components however, due to
the symmetry of both σ and ε, there are at most 36 9(9−1) 2 distinct elastic terms.
21 For the purpose of writing Hooke’s Law, the double indexed system is often replaced by a
simple indexed system with a range of six:
62 =36
z }| {
σk = Dkm εm k, m = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (9.26)
22 For isotropic bodies (elastic properties independent of reference system used to describe it),
it can be shown that the number of independent elastic constants is two. The stress strain
relations can be written in terms of E and ν as:
1+ν ν
εij = σij − δij σkk (9.27)
E µ E ¶
E ν
σij = εij + δij εkk (9.28)
1+ν 1 − 2ν
where δij is the kroneker delta and is equal to 1 if i = j and to 0 if i 6= j. When the strain
equation is expanded in 3D cartesian coordinates it would yield:
E [σxx − ν(σyy + σzz )]

1
εxy =
E [σyy − ν(σzz + σxx )]
1
εyy =
E [σzz − ν(σxx + σyy )]
1
εzz =
1+ν (9.29)
εxy = E σxy
1+ν
εyz = E σyz
1+ν
εzx = E σzx

Draft
9–8
23
When the stress equation is expanded in 3D cartesian coordinates, it will yield:
σxx E
= (1−2ν)(1+ν) [(1 − ν)εxx + ν(εyy + εzz )]
σyy = (1−2ν)(1+ν) [(1 − ν)εyy + ν(εzz + εxx )]
E
σzz E
= (1−2ν)(1+ν) [(1 − ν)εzz + ν(εxx + εyy )]
(9.30)
σxy = µγxy
σyz = µγyz
σzx = µγzx
where µ is the shear modulus and γxy = 2εxy .

24 In terms of Lamé constant we would have
σij = λεii δij + 2µεij (9.31)
µ ¶
1 σkk
εij = σij − λδij (9.32)
2µ 3λ + 2µ
where
νE
λ = (9.33)
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν)
E
µ = (9.34)
2(1 + ν)
25 In terms of initial stresses and strains
σij = Dijkl (εkl − ε0kl ) + σij

0 (9.35)
9.5 Strain Energy Density
26Any elastically deforming body possesses a uniquely defined strain energy1 density which
can be expressed as:
Z ε 1 1
U0 = σij dεij = σij εij = Dijkl εij εkl (9.36)
0 2 2
9.6 Summary
27 Fig. 9.5 illustrates the fundamental equations in solid mechanics.
1
Used in the evaluation of Energy release rate later on.

Draft
9.6 Summary 9–9
Essential B.C.
ui : Γ u
?
Body Forces Displacements
bi ui
? ?
Equilibrium Kinematics
³ ´
1 ∂ui ∂uj
σij,j + ρbi = 0 εij = 2 ∂xj
+ ∂xi
? ?
Stresses Constitutive Rel. Strain
- ¾
σij σij = Dijkl εkl εij
Natural B.C.
ti : Γt
Figure 9.5: Fundamental Equations in Solid Mechanics

Draft
9–10 REVIEW OF ELASTICITY

Draft
Chapter 10
VARIATIONAL AND ENERGY

METHODS
10.1 Work, Energy & Potentials; Definitions

10.1.1 Introduction
1 Work is defined as the product of a force and displacement

Z b
def
W = F.ds (10.1-a)
a
dW = Fx dx + Fy dy (10.1-b)
2 Energy is a quantity representing the ability or capacity to perform work.

3 The change in energy is proportional to the amount of work performed. Since only the change
of energy is involved, any datum can be used as a basis for measure of energy. Hence energy is
neither created nor consumed.
4 The first law of thermodynamics states
The time-rate of change of the total energy (i.e., sum of the kinetic energy and the
internal energy) is equal to the sum of the rate of work done by the external forces
and the change of heat content per unit time:
d
dt (K + U ) = We + H (10.2)
where K is the kinetic energy, U the internal strain energy, W the external work, and H the
heat input to the system.
5 For an adiabatic system (no heat exchange) and if loads are applied in a quasi static manner
(no kinetic energy), the above relation simplifies to:
We = U (10.3)
Draft
10–2
σ
VARIATIONAL AND ENERGY METHODS
* *
U U 0
d σ 1111111111
0000000000
0
U0 0000000000
1111111111
1111111111 U
0000000000
d σ 11111
00000 0000000000
1111111111
0
00000
11111 0000000000
1111111111
11111
00000
00000
11111 0000000000
1111111111
00000
11111 0000000000
1111111111
00000
11111 0000000000
1111111111 ε
dε
ε 0000000000
1111111111
dε
Nonlinear Linear
Figure 10.1: Strain Energy and Complementary Strain Energy
10.1.2 Internal Strain Energy
6 The strain energy density of an arbitrary material is defined as, Fig. 10.1
Z ε
def
U0 = σdε (10.4)
0
7 The complementary strain energy density is defined

Z σ
U0∗ =
def
εdσ (10.5)
0
8 The strain energy and the complementary strain energy are equal to
Z
def
U = U0 dΩ (10.6)
ZΩ
U∗ U0∗ dΩ
def
= (10.7)
Ω
where Ω is the volume of the system.

9 To obtain a general form of the internal strain energy, we first define a stress-strain relationship
accounting for both initial strains and stresses

σ = D(² − ²0 ) + σ 0 (10.8)
where D is the constitutive matrix; ² is the strain vector due to the displacements u; ²0 is the
initial strain vector; σ 0 is the initial stress vector; and σ is the stress vector.
10 The initial strains and stresses are the result of conditions such as heating or cooling of a
system or the presence of pore pressures in a system.

11 The strain energy U for a linear elastic system is obtained by substituting
σ = Dε (10.9)
with Eq. 10.4 and 10.8
Z Z Z
1
U= ² D²dΩ −
T
² D²0 dΩ +
T
²T σ 0 dΩ (10.10)
2 Ω Ω Ω

Draft
where Ω is the volume of the system.

10–3
12 Considering uniaxial stresses, in the absence of initial strains and stresses, and for linear
elastic systems, Eq. 10.10 reduces to
Z
1
U= ε |{z}
Eε dΩ (10.11)
2 Ω
σ
13 When this relation is applied to various one dimensional structural elements it leads to
Axial Members:
Z 
εσ 
U = dΩ 

Ω 2 
 Z
σ = PA 1
L P2
U= dx (10.12)
P 

2
0 AE
ε = AE 


dΩ = Adx
Torsional Members:
Z 
U = 1
ε |{z}
Eε dΩ 

2 

Ω 

Z σ 



U = 1
γ Gτ dΩ 

2 xy
| {z
xy
} 

Ω 
 Z
γxy 1
L T2
τxy U= dx (10.13)
γxy = G 

2
0 GJ
Tr 

τxy = 

J 

dΩ = rdθdrdx 

Z rZ 

2π 

J = r2 dθdr 

o 0
Flexural Members:
Z 
U = 1
Eε 
ε |{z} 

2 

Ω
σ 

Mz y 
 Z
σx = Iz  L M2
1
ε = Mz y U= dx (10.14)
EIz 

2
0 EIz


Z dΩ = dAdx 





y 2 dA = Iz
A
10.1.2.1 Internal Work versus Strain Energy
14 During strain increment, the work done by internal forces in a differential element will be
the negative of that performed by the stresses acting upon it.
Z
Wi = − σd²dΩ (10.15)
Ω

Draft
10–4
σx
σx
C,D C D
111
000
000
111
11
00 000
111
000
111
11
00 00
11
00
11 000
111
00
11 00
11 000
111
000
111
00
11
00
11σx dεx 00
11σx dεx
000
111
00
11 00
11
00
11 000
111
00
11 00
11 000
111
000
111
00
11 00
11 000
111
00
11
00
11 00
11 000
111
A B 00
11 εx A,B 00
11
00
11 000
111 εx
000
111
ε0 εx ε0
εx ( εx) F
( εx) F
(a) (b)
Figure 10.2: Effects of Load Histories on U and Wi
15 If the strained elastic solid were permitted to slowly return to their unstrained state, then
the solid would return the work performed by the external forces. This is due to the release of
strain energy stored in the solid.
16 Thus, in the absence of initial strains,
U = −Wi (10.16)
17 The internal work depends on the load history, this is illustrated by considering an axial
member subjected to two load cases, Fig. 10.2: a) Initial thermal strains (with no corresponding
stress increase), followed by an external force; and b) External force, followed by thermal strain.
In both cases the internal work is equal to the area under the curve ABCD.
Z ÃZ !
L (εx )F
Ui = σxx dεx Adx (10.17-a)
0 0
Wia = −Ui (10.17-b)
Z Ã !
L Z ε0
Wib = −Ui − σxx dεx Adx (10.17-c)
0 0
Hence, Wi is not always equal to −Ui .
10.1.3 External Work
18 External work W performed by the applied loads on an arbitrary system is defined as
Z Z
def
We = uT bdΩ + uT t̂dΓ (10.18)
Ω Γt
where b is the body force vector; t̂ is the applied surface traction vector; and Γt is that portion
of the boundary where t̂ is applied, and u is the displacement.

Draft
19 For point loads and moments, the external work is

10–5
Z ∆f Z θf
We = P d∆ + M dθ (10.19)
0 0
20 For linear elastic systems, we have for point loads


P = K∆  Z ∆f
Z 1
∆f We = K ∆d∆ = K∆2f (10.20)
We = P d∆  0 2
0
When this last equation is combined with Pf = K∆f we obtain
1
We = Pf ∆f (10.21)
2
where K is the stiffness of the structure.

21 Similarly for an applied moment we have
1
We = Mf θf (10.22)
2
10.1.3.1 † Path Independence of External Work
22 In this section we seek to prove that the total work performed in going from state A to B is
independent of the path.

23 In 2D the differential expression of the work is given by
dW = Fx dx + Fy dy (10.23)
24 From calculus, a necessary and sufficient condition for dW to be an exact differential is that
∂Fx ∂Fy
= (10.24)
∂y ∂x
25 If the force were to move along a closed contour (or from A to B and then back to A along
any arbitrary path), corresponding to Γ, then from Green’s theorem (Eq. 4.3) we have
I Z µ ¶
∂S ∂R
(Rdx + Sdy) = − dxdy (10.25)
Γ ∂x ∂y
If we let R = Fx and S = Fy , then
I Z µ ¶
∂Fy ∂Fx
W = (Fx dx + Fy dy) = − dxdy (10.26)
Γ ∂x ∂y
| {z }
0
26 Thus, from Eq. 10.24 the work is equal to zero,

Draft
10–6
27 If we decompose the path

I Z B Z A Z B Z A
W = = + =0⇒ =− (10.27)
A B A B
then, the integration for the work leads to

Z B
W = (Fx dx + Fy dy) (10.28)
A
which is path independent.

28 Note that if no net work is done in moving around a closed path, the system is said to be
conservative. This is the case for purely elastic systems.

29When friction or plastic (or damped) deformations occur, then we would have a noncon-
servative system.
10.1.4 Virtual Work
30 We define the virtual work done by the load on a body during a small, admissible (continuous
and satisfying the boundary conditions) change in displacements.

Z
def
Internal Virtual Work δWi = − σδεdΩ (10.29)
Ω
Z Z
def
External Virtual Work δWe = t̂δudΓ + bδudΩ (10.30)
Γt Ω
where all the terms have been previously defined and b is the body force vector.
10.1.5 Complementary Virtual Work

10.1.5.1 Internal Virtual Work
31 Next we shall derive a displacement based expression of δU for each type of one dimensional
structural member. It should be noted that the Virtual Force method would yield analogous
ones but based on forces rather than displacements.
32 Two sets of solutions will be given, the first one is independent of the material stress strain
relations, and the other assumes a linear elastic stress strain relation.
10.1.5.1.1 Elastic Systems
33 In this set of formulation, we derive expressions of the virtual strain energies which are
independent of the material constitutive laws. Thus δU will be left in terms of forces and
displacements.
Axial Members: Z 
L
 Z L
δU = σδεdΩ
δU = A σδεdx (10.31)
0  0
dΩ = Adx

Draft
10.1 Work, Energy & Potentials; Definitions 10–7
Figure 10.3: Torsion Rotation Relations

b
τ
h/2 M M+dM
h O z
y1
h/2 y
11111
00000 11111111
00000000
00000
11111
00000
11111 00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000
11111
00000
11111 00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111 dA
00000
11111
00000
11111 00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
σx
dx
τ
max
y
Figure 10.4: Flexural Member
Torsional Members: With reference to Fig. 10.3
Z 
δU = τxy δγxy dΩ 



Z Ω 
 Z Z Z
 L L
T = τxy rdA δU = ( τxy rdA) δθdx ⇒ δU = T δθdx (10.32)
A 

δγxy = rδθ 

0
| A
{z } 0


 T
dΩ = dAdx
Shear Members:
Z 
δU = τxy δγxy dΩ 


 Z Z Z
Z Ω  L L
V = τxy dA δU = ( τxy dA) δγxy dx ⇒ δU = V δγxy dx (10.33)


A 

0
| A
{z } 0
dΩ = dAdx  V
Flexural Members: With reference to Fig. 10.4.

Z 
δU = σx δεx dΩ 



Z Z 

M 
 Z
M = σxx ydA ⇒ = σxx dA  L
A y A δU = M δφdx (10.34)


y ⇒ δφy = δε
δε
δφ = 

0
Z LZ 



dΩ = dAdx 
0 A

Draft
10–8
10.1.5.1.2 Linear Elastic Systems

34 Should we have a linear elastic material (σ = Eε) then:
Axial Members:
Z 
δU = σδεdΩ 




 Z L
σx = Eεx = E du
dx δU = E
du d(δu)
Adx (10.35)
 | {z }
δε = d(δu) 
 0 dx} | dx
| {z {z } dΩ
dx 

 ”σ” ”δε”
dΩ = Adx

Z Z
δU = τxy δγxy dΩ = τr δβdΩ (10.36)
Ω Ω
For an infinitesimal element:

)
Tr
τ = J dδθx
T dx τ = Gr (10.37)
dδθ = GJ
dx
since the rate of change of rotation is the strain.


dΩ = rdθdrdx 

Z L Z r Z 2π · ¸· 
 ¸
dθx d(δθx ) 
δU = Gr rdθdrdx 

 Z L
0 0 0 dx dx dθx d(δθx )
| {z } | {z } δU = GJ dx


Z r Z 2π real virtual 

0 | {zdx} | dx
{z }


J = 2
r dθdr 

”σ” ”δε”
o 0
(10.38)

Z 
δU = σx δεx dΩ 



) 

σx = My
d2 v 

Iz 
 Z LZ
d2 v σx = Ey d2 v d2 (δv)
M = dx2
dx2 EIz |{z} 

δU =
A dx
2
Ey
dx2
ydAdx
κ 

0
d2 (δv) 

δεx = = δσx 
E dx 2 y 


dΩ = dAdx
(10.39)
or: 
Eq.  Z
Z 10.39 L d2 v d2 (δv)
2 δU = EIz dx (10.40)
y dA = Iz  0
2
| {zdx } | dx
2
{z }
A
”σ” ”δε”

Draft
10.1.5.2 External Virtual Work δW

10–9
35 For concentrated forces (and moments):

Z X X
δW = δ∆qdx + (δ∆i )Pi + (δθi )Mi (10.41)
i i
where: δ∆i = virtual displacement.
10.1.6 Complementary Virtual Work
36 We define the complementary virtual work done by the load on a body during a small,
admissible (continuous and satisfying the boundary conditions) change in displacements.

Z
δWi∗
def
Complementary Internal Virtual Work = − εδσdΩ (10.42)
Ω
Z
Complementary External Virtual Work δWe∗
def
= ûδtdΓ (10.43)
Γu
10.1.6.1 Internal Complementary Virtual Strain Energy δU ∗
37 Again we shall consider two separate cases.
10.1.6.1.1 Arbitrary System
38 In this set of formulation, we derive expressions of the complemetary virtual strain energies
which are independent of the material constitutive laws. Thus δU ∗ will be left in terms of forces
and displacements.
L
 Z
δU ∗ = δσεdΩ L
δU ∗ =A δσεdx (10.44)
0  0
dΩ = Adx
Z 
δU ∗ = δτxy γxy dΩ 



Z Ω 
 Z Z Z
 L L
δT = δτxy rdA δU ∗ = ( δτxy rdA) θdx ⇒ δU ∗ = δT θdx (10.45)
A 

γxy = rθ 

0
| A
{z } 0


 δT
dΩ = dAdx
Shear Members:
Z 
δU ∗ = δτxy γxy dΩ 


 Z Z Z
Z Ω  L L
δV = δτxy dA δU ∗ = ( δτxy dA) γxy dx ⇒ δU ∗ = δV γxy dx


A 

0
| A
{z } 0
dΩ = dAdx 
δV
(10.46)

Draft
10–10

Z 
δU ∗ = δσx εx dΩ 



Z Z 

δM 
 Z
δM = δσxx ydA ⇒ = δσxx dA  L
A y A δU ∗ = δM φdx (10.47)
φ = ε
⇒ φy = ε 



0
Zy LZ 



dΩ = dAdx 
0 A
10.1.6.1.2 Linear Elastic Systems
39 Should we have a linear elastic material (σ = Eε) then:

δU ∗ = εδσdΩ 


Ω 
 Z L
δσ = δP P
A δU ∗ = δP
|{z} dx (10.48)
P 
 AE
ε = AE 

0
“δσ 00 |{z}
 “ε00
dΩ = Adx
Torsional Members:
Z 
δU ∗ = ε Eδε 

|{z} dvol



Z
Ω 

δσ 


δU ∗ = δτxy Gτxy dvol 


| {z } 
 Z
Ω
γ
 L T
δU ∗ =
xy
Tr δT
|{z} dx (10.49)
τxy = 
 GJ
J
τxy 

0 00 |{z}
γxy = 

“δσ
“ε00
G 

dΩ = rdθdrdx 

Z rZ 

2π 

J = r2 dθdr 

o 0
Flexural Members:
Z 
δU ∗ 

= |{z} 
ε Eδε 

Ω
δσ 



σx = Mz y 
 Z L
I M
δU ∗ =
z
ε = M zy δM
|{z} dx (10.50)
EIz 
 EIz


0 00 | {z }
Z dΩ = dAdx 

“δσ

 “ε00
2 

y dA = Iz 
A
10.1.6.2 External Complementary Virtual Work δW ∗
40 For concentrated forces (and moments):

X
δW ∗ = (∆i )δPi (10.51)
i
where: ∆i = actual displacement. Or:

X
δW ∗ = (θi )δMi (10.52)
i

Draft
10.2 Principle of Virtual Work and Complementary Virtual Work
41 For distributed load:

10–11
Z Xn Xn
δW ∗ = ∆δqdx + (∆i )δPi + (θi )δMi (10.53)
i=1 i=1
10.1.7 Potential Energy

10.1.7.1 Potential Functions
42If during loading and unloading, U and U ∗ are independent of the path of deformation (i.e.
no intial strains), but depend only on the initial and final states, then the differential dU0 and
dU0∗ are exact differentials and U0 and U0∗ are then potential functions.
10.1.7.2 Potential of External Work
43 The potential of external work W in an arbitrary system is defined as
Z Z
def
We = uT bdΩ + uT t̂dΓ + uP (10.54)
Ω Γt
where u are the displacements, b is the body force vector; t̂ is the applied surface traction
vector; Γt is that portion of the boundary where t̂ is applied, and P are the applied nodal
forces.
44Note that the potential of the external work is different from the external work itself (usually
by a factor of 1/2)
10.1.7.3 Potential Energy
45 The potential energy of a system is defined as
def
Π = U − We (10.55)
Z µZ Z ¶
= U0 dΩ − ubdΩ + ut̂dΓ + uP (10.56)
Ω Ω Γt
46 Note that in the potential the full load is always acting, and through the displacements of
its points of application it does work but loses an equivalent amount of potential, this explains
the negative sign.
10.2 Principle of Virtual Work and Complementary Virtual

Work
47 The principles of Virtual Work and Complementary Virtual Work relate force systems which
satisfy the requirements of equilibrium, and deformation systems which satisfy the requirement
of compatibility:

Draft
10–12 VARIATIONAL AND ENERGY METHODS
1. In any application the force system could either be the actual set of external loads dp or
some virtual force system which happens to satisfy the condition of equilibrium δp. This
set of external forces will induce internal actual forces dσ or internal hypothetical forces
δσ compatible with the externally applied load.
2. Similarly the deformation could consist of either the actual joint deflections du and com-
patible internal deformations dε of the structure, or some hypothetical external and inter-
nal deformation δu and δε which satisfy the conditions of compatibility.
48 Thus we may have 4 possible combinations, Table 10.1: where: d corresponds to the actual,
Force Deformation IVW Formulation

External Internal External Internal
1 dp dσ du dε
2 δp δσ du dε δU ∗ CVW/Flexibility
3 dp dσ δu δε δU VW/Stiffness
4 δp δσ δu δε
Table 10.1: Possible Combinations of Real and Hypothetical Formulations
and δ (with an overbar) to the hypothetical values.

This table calls for the following observations
1. The second approach is the same one on which the method of virtual or unit load is based.
It is simpler to use than the third as a internal force distribution compatible with the
assumed virtual force can be easily obtained for statically determinate structures. This
approach will yield exact solutions for staticaally determinate structures.
2. The third approach is favoured for kinematically indeterminate problems or in conjunction

with approximate solution. It requires a proper “guess” of a displacement shape and is
the basis of the stifness method.
10.2.1 Principle of Virtual Work

10.2.1.1 Derivation
49 Derivation of the principle of virtual work starts with the assumption of that forces are in
equilibrium and satisfaction of the static boundary conditions.

50 The Equation of equilibrium (Eq. 9.15) which is rewritten as
∂σxx ∂τxy
+ + bx = 0 (10.57-a)
∂x ∂y
∂σyy ∂τxy
+ + by = 0 (10.57-b)
∂y ∂x
where b representing the body force. In matrix form, this can be rewritten as
 
" # σ  ( )
∂
0 ∂  xx  bx
∂x ∂y
σ yy + =0 (10.58)
0 ∂
∂y
∂
∂x

 τ 
 by
xy
Draft
or
10–13
LT σ + b = 0 (10.59)
Note that this equation can be generalized to 3D.

51 The surface Γ of the solid can be decomposed into two parts Γt and Γu where tractions and
displacements are respectively specified.
Γ = Γt ∪ Γu (10.60-a)
t = t̂ on Γt Natural B.C. (10.60-b)
u = û on Γu Essential B.C. (10.60-c)
Equations 10.59 and 10.60-b constitute a statically admissible stress field.

52 We now express the local condition of equilibrium Eq. 10.59 and the static boundary condi-
tion Eq, 10.60-b in global (or integral) form. This is accomplished by multiplying both equations
by a virtual displacement δu and integrating the first equation over Ω and the second one over
Γt , and we then take the sum of these two integrals (each of which must be equal to zero)
Z ³ ´ Z
− δu T
L σ + b dΩ +
T
δuT (t − t̂) dΓ = 0 (10.61)
Ω | {z } Γt | {z }
Equil. B.C.
Note that since each term is equal to zero, the negative sign is introduced to maintain later
on consistency with previous results. Furthermore, according to the fundamental lemma of the
calculus of variation (Eq. 10.198), this equation is still equivalent to Eq. 10.59 and 10.59
R
53 Next, we will focus our attention on Γt δuT tdΓ which will be replaced (from Eq. 10.60-a)
by Z Z Z
δuT tdΓ = δuT tdΓ − δuT tdΓ (10.62)
Γt Γ Γu
and which we seek to convert into a volume integral through Gauss Theorem, Eq. 4.6 and 4.7.
54 But first let us recall the definition of the traction vector
t = σ.n or ti = σij nj (10.63-a)
applying Gauss theorem we obtain

Z Z Z
T
δu tdΓ = (δu σ)ndΓ =
T
div(δuT σ)dΩ (10.64-a)
Γ Γ
Z ΩZ
= divδuT σdΩ + δuT divσdΩ (10.64-b)

Ω Ω
However, from Eq. 10.59 we have divσ = LT σ thus

Z Z Z
δuT tdΓ = divδuT σdΩ + δuT LT σdΩ (10.65)
Γ Ω Ω
55 Combining Eq. 10.62 with the previous equation, leads to

Z Z Z Z
δuT tdΓ = divδuT σdΩ + δuT LT σdΩ − δuT tdΓ (10.66)
Γt Ω Ω Γu

Draft
10–14
56 We next substitute this last equation into Eq. 10.61 and reduce
Z Z Z Z
− δu L σdΩ −
T T T
δu bdΩ + divδu σdΩ + T
δuT LT σdΩ
Ω Ω Ω Ω
Z Z
− δu tdΓ −
T
δuT t̂dΓ = 0 (10.67-a)
Γu Γt
Z Z Z Z
− δuT bdΩ + divδuT σdΩ − δuT tdΓ − δuT t̂dΓ = 0 (10.67-b)
Ω Ω Γu Γt
57 The strain displacement relation can be written as
divδu = δε (10.68)
Substituting in the previous equation, we get

Z Z Z Z
− T
δu bdΩ + δε σdΩ −
T
δu tdΓ −
T
δuT t̂dΓ = 0 (10.69)
Ω Ω Γu Γt
58 Virtual displacement must be kinematically admissible, i.e. δu must satisfy the essential
boundary conditions u = 0 on Γu , (note that the exact solution had to satisfy the natural B.C.
instead), hence the previous equation reduces to
Z Z Z
δε σdΩ −
T
δu bdΩ −
T
δuT t̂dΓ = 0 (10.70)
Ω Ω Γt
| {z }| {z }
−δWi =δUi −δWe
Each of the preceding equations is a work expression, (Eq. 10.30). The first one corresponds to
the internal virtual work, and the last two are expressions of the work done by the body forces
and the surface tractions through the corresponding virtual displacement δu, hence
− δWi = δWe (10.71)
or
δUi = δWe (10.72)
which is the expression of the principle of virtual work (or more specifically of virtual
displacement) which can be stated as
A deformable system is in equilibrium if the sum of the external virtual work and
the internal virtual work is zero for virtual displacements δu which are kinematically
admissible.
The major governing equations are summarized
Z Z Z
δε σdΩ −
T
δu bdΩ −T
δuT t̂dΓ = 0 (10.73)
|Ω {z }| Ω
{z
Γt
}
−δWi −δWe
δε = Lδu in Ω (10.74)
δu = 0 on Γu (10.75)

Draft
P2
10–15
I=I1(1-x/2L)
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
x,u
00
11
00
11
00
11
11
00
L
y,v
Figure 10.5: Tapered Cantilivered Beam Analysed by the Vitual Displacement Method
59 Note that the principle is independent of material properties, and that the primary unknowns
are the displacements.

60 For one dimensional elements, with no initial strains (U = −Wi )
Z
σδεdΩ = P δv
|{z} (10.76)
| {z } δW
δU
Example 10-1: Tapered Cantiliver Beam, Virtual Displacement
Analyse the problem shown in Fig. 10.5, by the virtual displacement method.
Solution:
For this flexural problem, we must apply the expression of the virtual internal strain energy
as derived for beams in Eq. 10.40. And the solutions must be expressed in terms of the
displacements which in turn must satisfy the essential boundary conditions.
The approximate solutions proposed to this problem are
µ ¶
πx
v = 1 − cos v2 (10.77-a)
2L
" µ ¶ µ ¶3 #
x 2 x
v = 3 −2 v2 (10.77-b)
L L
Note that these equations do indeed satisfy the essential B.C.

Using the virtual displacement method we evaluate the displacements v2 from three different
combination of virtual and actual displacement:
Solution Total Virtual

1 Eqn. 10.77-a Eqn. 10.77-b
2 Eqn. 10.77-a Eqn. 10.77-a
3 Eqn. 10.77-b Eqn. 10.77-b
Where actual and virtual values for the two assumed displacement fields are given below.

Draft
10–16
Trigonometric (Eqn. 10.77-a)

Polynomial
¡ ¢ h ¡ ¢ (Eqn. 10.77-b)
¡ x ¢3 i
x 2
v 1 − cos 2L
πx
v2 3 L −2 L v2
¡ ¢ h ¡ ¢ ¡ x ¢3 i
x 2
δv 1 − cos 2L
πx
δv2 3 L −2 L δv2
³ ´
v 00 π2
4L2
πx
cos 2L v2 6
L2
− 12x v
L3 i 2
h
δv 00 π2
4L2
πx
cos 2L δv2 6
L2
− L3 δv2
12x
Note that both Eqn. 10.77-a and Eqn. 10.77-b satisfy the essential (geometric) B.C.
Z L
δU = δv 00 EIz v 00 dx (10.78-a)
0
δW = P2 δv2 (10.78-b)
Solution 1:
Z µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
L π2 πx 6 12x x
δU = cos v2 − 3 δv2 EI1 1 − dx
0 4L2 2L L2 L 2L
| {z }| {z }| {z }
· ¸
3πEI1 10 16
= 3
1− + 2 v2 δv2
2L π π
= P2 δv2 (10.79-a)
which yields:
P2 L3
v2 = 2.648EI1 (10.80)
Solution 2:
Z µ ¶ µ ¶
L π4 πx x
δU = cos2 v2 δv2 EI1 1 − dx
0 16L4 2L 2L
| {z }| {z }
µ ¶
π 4 EI1 3 1
= + v2 δv2
32L3 4 π2
= P2 δv2 (10.81-a)
which yields:
P2 L3
v2 = 2.57EI1 (10.82)
Solution 3:
Z Lµ 6 12x
¶2 µ
x
¶
δU = 2
− 3 1− EI1 δv2 v2 dx
0 L L 2L
9EI
= v2 δv2
L3
= P2 δv2 (10.83-a)
which yields:
P2 L3
v2 = 9EI (10.84)

Draft
10.2.2 Principle of Complementary Virtual Work

10–17
10.2.2.1 † Derivation
61 Derivation of the principle of complementary virtual work starts from the assumption of a
kinematicaly admissible displacements and satisfaction of the essential boundary conditions.

62 Whereas we have previously used the vector notation for the principle of virtual work, we
will now use the indicial notation for this derivation.

63 The kinematic condition (strain-displacement) was given in Eq. 9.9.
1
εij = (ui,j + uj,i ) (10.85)
2
64 The essential boundary conditions are expressed as

ui = û on Γu (10.86)
Those two equations are rewritten as
εij − ui,j = 0 (10.87-a)
ui − û = 0 (10.87-b)
We premultiply the first equation by a virtual stress field ∂σij and integrate over the volume;
and we premultiply the second by corresponding virtual tractions δti and integrate over the
corresponding surface
Z Z
(εij − ui,j ) δσij dΩ − (ui − û) δti dΓ = 0 (10.88)
Ω Γu
Note that since each term is equal to zero, the negative sign is introduced to maintain later
on consistency with previous results. Furthermore, according to the fundamental lemma of the
calculus of variation (Eq. 10.198), this equation is still equivalent to the kinematic conditions
10.85 and 10.86.
65 Since the arbitrary stresses must be statically admissible, it follows that they must satisfy
the equation of equilibrium

R
66 Next, we will focus our attention on Γu ui δti dΓ which will be replaced (from Eq. 10.60-a)
by Z Z Z
ui δti dΓ = ui δti dΓ − ui δti dΓ (10.89)
Γu Γ Γt
and note that the second term on the right hand side is zero since
δti = 0 on Γt (10.90)
in order to satisfy the boundary conditions.
67 We now seek seek to convert the previous expression into a volume integral through Gauss
Theorem, Eq. 4.6 and 4.7.

Z Z Z
ui δti dΓ = ui δti dΓ = ui δ(σij nj )dΓ (10.91-a)
Γu Γ Γ
Z Z
= ui δσij,j dΩ + ui,j δσij dΩ (10.91-b)
Ω Ω

Draft
However,the virtual stresses must be in equilibrium within Ω, thus from Eq. 9.15, and in the
absence of body forces
δσij,j = 0 in Ω (10.92)
thus Z Z
ui δti dΓ = ui,j δσij dΩ (10.93)
Γu Ω
68 Combinig this last equation with Eq. 10.88 leads to

Z Z Z Z
εij δσij dΩ − ui,j δσij dΩ − ûδti dΓ + ui,j δσij dΩ = 0 (10.94)
Ω Ω Γu Ω
which simplifies into Z Z

εij δσij dΩ − ûδti dΓ = 0 (10.95)
Ω Γu
69 We note that each of the preceding term is a work expression, and that the first one corre-
sponds to the internal complementary virtualwork, and the scond to the external complementary
virtual work, Eq. 10.43
− δWi∗ − δWe∗ = 0 (10.96)
which is the expression of the principle of virtual complementary work (or more specifically of
virtual force) which can be stated as
A deformable system satisfies all kinematical requirements if the sum of the external
complementary virtual work and the internal complementary virtual work is zero
for all statically admissible virtual stresses δσij .
The major governing equations are summarized

Z Z
εij δσij dΩ − ûi δti dΓ = 0 (10.97)
Ω Γu
| {z } | {z }
−δWi∗ δWe∗
δσij,j = 0 in Ω (10.98)
δti = 0 on Γt (10.99)
70 Note that the principle is independent of material properties, and that the primary unknowns
are the stresses.
71 The principle of virtual forces leads to the flexibility matrix.
Example 10-2: Tapered Cantilivered Beam; Virtual Force
“Exact” solution of previous problem using principle of virtual work with virtual force.
Z L M
δM dx = |δP
{z∆} (10.100)
0 EIz
| {z } External
Internal
Draft
10.2 Principle of Virtual Work and Complementary Virtual Work 10–19
P2
I=I1(1-x/2L)
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11 x,u
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
L
y,v
Figure 10.6: Tapered Cantilevered Beam Analysed by the Virtual Force Method
Note: This represents the internal virtual strain energy and external virtual work written
in terms of forces and should be compared with the similar expression derived in Eq. 10.40
written in terms of displacements:
Z
∗
L d2 v d2 (δv)
δU = EIz 2 2
dx (10.101)
0 | {zdx } | dx
{z }
σ δε
M
Here: δM and δP are the virtual forces, and EI z
and ∆ are the actual displacements. See
Fig. 10.6 If δP = 1, then δM = x and M = P2 x or:
Z L P2 x
(1)∆ = x dx
0 EI1 (.5 + Lx )
Z
P2 L x2
= L+x
dx
EI1 0 2L
Z
P22L L x2
= dx (10.102-a)
EI1 0 L+x
From Mathematica we note that:
Z · ¸
0 x2 1 1
= 3 (a + bx)2 − 2a(a + bx) + a2 ln(a + bx) (10.103)
0 a + bx b 2
Thus substituting a = L and b = 1 into Eqn. 10.103, we obtain:
· ¸
2P2 L 1
∆ = (L + x)2 − 2L(L + x) + L2 ln(L + x) |L
0
EI1 2
" #
2P2 L L2
= 2L − 4L + L ln 2L −
2 2 2 2 2
+ 2L + L log L
EI1 2
· ¸
2P2 L 2 1
= L (ln 2 − )
EI1 2
P2 L3
= 2.5887EI1 (10.104-a)

Draft
This exact value should be compared with the approximate one obtained with the Virtual
P L3
Displacement method in which a displacement field was assumed in Eq. 10.174 of 2.55EI 1
.
Similarly:
Z L M (1)
θ = ¡ x
¢
0 EI1 .5 + L
Z
2M L L 1
=
EI1 0 L + x
2M L
= ln(L + x) |L0
EI1
2M L
= (ln 2L − ln L)
EI1
2M L
= ln 2
EI1
ML
= .721EI1 (10.105-a)
Example 10-3: Three Hinged Semi-Circular Arch
We seek to determine the vertical deflection of the crown of the three hinged statically
determined semi-circular arch under its own dead weight w. Fig. 10.7 We first seek to determine
the analytical expression of the moment diagram. From
¡
statics,
¢
it can be shown that the vertical
and horizontal reactions are Rv = π2 wR and Rh = π2 − 1 wR.
Next considering the free body diagram of the arch, and summing the forces in the radial
direction (ΣFR = 0):
Z
¡π ¢ θ
− 2 − 1 wR cos θ + π2 wR sin θ − wRdα sin θ + V = 0 (10.106-a)
α=0
£¡ π ¢ ¡ ¢ ¤
V = wR 2 − 1 cos θ + θ − π
2 sin θ (10.106-b)
Similarly, if we consider the summation of forces in the axial direction (ΣFT = 0):
Z
¡π ¢ θ
2 − 1 wR sin θ + π
2 wR cos θ − wRdα cos θ + N = 0 (10.107-a)
α=0
£¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¤
N = wR θ − π
2 cos θ − π2 − 1 sin θ (10.107-b)
Now we can consider the third equation of equilibrium (ΣMθ = 0):

¡π ¢
2 − 1 wR · R sin θ − π2 wR2 (1 − cos θ) +
Z θ
wRdα · R(cos α − cos θ) + M = 0 (10.108-a)
α=0
£ ¡ ¢ ¤
M = wR 2 π
2 (1 − sin θ) + θ − π
2 cos θ (10.108-b)
The real curvature φ is obtained by deviding the moment by EI

· µ ¶ ¸
wR2 π π
φ= (1 − sin θ) + θ − cos θ (10.109)
EI 2 2
Draft
dP=wRdα
10–21
θ M r
V
N
R sin θ
dα
θ
α
R cos(θ −α)
C =(π /2-1)wR
x
R cos θ
C y=π /2 wR
R(1-cos θ)
R cos α
Figure 10.7: Three Hinge Semi-Circular Arch
The virtual force δP will be a unit vertical point in the direction of the desired deflection,
causing a virtual internal moment
R π
δM = [1 − cos θ − sin θ] 0≤θ≤ (10.110)
2 2
Hence, application of the virtual work equation yields:
Z π · µ ¶ ¸
wR2 π 2 π R
1
|{z} ·∆ = 2 (1 − sin θ) + θ − cos θ · · [1 − cos θ − sin θ] Rdθ
|{z}
θ=0 EI 2 2 2
δP | {z } | {z } dx
δM φ
wR4 h i
= 7π 2 − 18π − 12
16EI
4
= .0337 wR
EI (10.111-a)
Example 10-4: Cantilivered Semi-Circular Bow Girder
Considering the semi-circular cantilevered box girder shown in Fig. 10.8 subjected to its
own weight w, and with a rectangular cross-section of width b and height d = 2b and with
Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.3.

Draft
10–22
x
wRd α
θ dα
O
α V
B R
Τ ΖΜ r
C θ
A A
y y
z z
Figure 10.8: Semi-Circular Cantilevered Box Girder
First, we determine the internal forces by applying the three applicable equations of equi-
librium:
Z θ
ΣFZ = 0 V − wRdα = 0 V = wrθ
Z 0θ
ΣMR = 0 M − (wRdα)(R sin α) = 0 M = wR2 (1 − cos θ) (10.112)
Z θ
0
ΣMT = 0 + (wRdα)R(1 − cos α) = 0 T = −wR2 (θ − sin θ)

0
Noting that the member will be subjected to both flexural and torsional deformations, we
seek to determine the two stiffnesses.
3 b(2b)3 2Eb4
The flexural stiffness EI is given by EI = E bd12 = E 12 = 3 = .667Eb .
4
3
The torsional stiffness of solid rectangular sections J = kb d where b is the shorter side of
the section, d the longer, and k a factor equal to .229 for db = 2. Hence G = 2(1+ν)
E E
= 2(1+.3) =
4
.385E, and GJ = (.385E)(.229b ) = .176Eb . 4
Considering both flexural and torsional deformations, and replacing dx by rdθ:

Z π Z π
M T
| {z∆} =
δP δM Rdθ + δT Rdθ (10.113)
0 EIz 0 GJ
δW ∗ | {z } | {z }
flexural torsional
| {z }
δU ∗
where the real moments were given above.

Assuming a unit virtual downward force δP = 1, we have
δM = R sin θ (10.114-a)
δT = −R(1 − cos θ) (10.114-b)
Substituting these expression into Eq. 10.113

Z Z
wR2 π wR2 π
1 ∆ =
|{z} (R sin θ) (1 − cos θ) Rdθ + (θ − sin θ) R(1 − cos θ) Rdθ
EI 0 | {z } | {z } GJ 0 | {z }| {z }
δP M δM δT T

Draft
10.3 Potential Energy
wR4 π
Z ·
1
¸
10–23
= (sin θ − sin θ cos θ) + (θ − θ cos θ − sin θ + sin θ cos θ) dθ

EI 0 .265
wR4
= ( 2. + |18.56
{z } )
EI |{z}
flexure torsion
4
= 20.56 wR
EI (10.115-a)

10.3.1 Derivation
72 From section 10.1.7.1, if U0 is a potential function, we take its differential

∂U0
dU0 = dεij (10.116-a)
∂εij
∂U0
dU0∗ = dσij (10.116-b)
∂σij
73 However, from Eq. 10.4

Z εij
U0 = σij dεij (10.117-a)
0
dU0 = σij dεij (10.117-b)
thus,
∂U0
= σij (10.118)
∂εij
∂U0∗
= εij (10.119)
∂σij
74 We now define the variation of the strain energy density at a point1

∂U
δU0 = δεij = σij δεij (10.120)
∂εij
R R R
75The principle of virtual work, Eq. 10.73, Ω δεij σij dΩ − Ω δui bi dΩ − Γt δui tî dΓ = 0 can be
rewritten as Z Z Z
δU0 dΩ − δui bi dΩ − δui tî dΓ = 0 (10.121)
Ω Ω Γt
1
NoteR that the variation of strain energy density is, δU0 = σij δεij , and the variation of the strain energy itself
is δU = Ω δU0 dΩ.

Draft
k= 500 lbf/in
111
000
mg= 100 lbf
Figure 10.9: Single DOF Example for Potential Energy
76 If nor the surface tractions, nor the body forces alter their magnitudes or directions during
deformation, the previous equation can be rewritten as
 −We 
U
z }| { z Z }| Z {
Z 
 
δ  U0 dΩ − ui bi dΩ − ˆ
ui ti dΓ = 0 (10.122)
 Ω Ω Γt 
| {z }
Π
77 Hence, comparing this last equation, with Eq. 10.56 we obtain
δΠ = 0 (10.123)
def
Π = U − We (10.124)
Z µZ Z ¶
= U0 dΩ − ubdΩ + ut̂dΓ + uP (10.125)
Ω Ω Γt
78 We have thus derived the principle of stationary value of the potential energy:
Of all kinematically admissible deformations (displacements satisfying the essential
boundary conditions), the actual deformations (those which correspond to stresses
which satisfy equilibrium) are the ones for which the total potential energy assumes
a stationalry value.
79 For problems involving multiple degrees of freedom, it results from calculus that
∂Π ∂Π ∂Π
δΠ = δ∆1 + δ∆2 + . . . + δ∆n (10.126)
∂∆1 ∂∆2 ∂∆n
which results in n equations with n unknowns.

80 It can be shown that the minimum potential energy yields a lower bound prediction of
displacements.
81 As an illustrative example, let us consider the single dof system shown in Fig. 10.9. The
strain energy U and potential of the external work W are given by
1
U = u(Ku) = 250u2 (10.127-a)
2
We = mgu = 100u (10.127-b)

Draft
10.3 Potential Energy 10–25
Potential Energy of Single DOF Structure
Total Potential Energy

20.0 Strain Energy
External Work
Energy [lbf−in]
0.0
−20.0
−40.0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30
Displacement [in]
Figure 10.10: Graphical Representation of the Potential Energy
Thus the total potential energy is given by
Π = 250u2 − 100u (10.128)
and will be stationary for

dΠ
δΠ = = 0 ⇒ 500u − 100 = 0 ⇒ u = 0.2 in (10.129)
du
Substituting, this would yield
U = 250(0.2)2 = 10 lbf-in
W = 100(0.2) = 20 lbf-in (10.130)
Π = 10 − 20 = −10 lbf-in
Fig. 10.10 illustrates the two components of the potential energy.
10.3.2 ‡Euler Equations of the Potential Energy
82A variational statement is obtained by taking the first variation of the variational principle
and setting this scalar quantity equal to zero.
83 The variational statement for the general form of the potential energy functional (i.e. Equa-
tion 10.125) is
Z Z Z Z Z
δΠ = δ² D²dΩ −
T T
δ² D²0 dΩ + δ² σ 0 dΩ −
T
δu bdΩ −
T
δuT t̂dΓ = 0 (10.131)
Ω Ω Ω Ω Γt
which is the Principle of Virtual Work.

Draft
84 Since the differential operator L is linear, the variation of the strains δ² can be expressed in
terms of the variation of the displacements δu
δ² = δ(Lu) = Lδu (10.132)
This relationship is exploited to obtain a form of the variational statement in which only
variations of the displacements δu are present
Z Z Z Z Z
δΠ = δ(Lu)T D²dΩ − δ(Lu)T D²0 dΩ + δ(Lu)T σ 0 dΩ − δuT bdΩ − δuT t̂dΓ = 0
Ω Ω Ω Ω Γt
(10.133)
which is best suited for obtaining the corresponding Euler equations.
85A form of the variational statement in which strain-displacement relationship (i.e. Equation
??) is substituted into Equation 10.133
Z Z Z
δΠ = δ(Lu) D(Lu)dΩ −
T T
δ(Lu) D²0 dΩ + δ(Lu)T σ 0 dΩ
Ω Ω Ω
Z Z
− δu bdΩ −
T
δuT t̂dΓ = 0 (10.134)
Ω Γt
is better suited for obtaining the discrete system of equations.

86 To obtain the Euler equations for the general form of the potential energy variational prin-
ciple the volume integrals defining the virtual strain energy δU in Equation 10.133 must be
integrated by parts in order to convert the variation of the strains δ(Lu) into a variation of the
displacements δu.
87 Integration by parts of these integrals using Green’s theorem (Kreyszig 1988) yields
Z I Z
δ(Lu)T D²dΩ = δuT G(D²)dΓ − δuT LT (D²)dΩ
Z Ω IΓ ZΩ
δ(Lu)T D²0 dΩ = δuT G(D²0 )dΓ − δuT LT (D²0 )dΩ (10.135)
Z
Ω IΓ Z Ω
δ(Lu)T σ 0 dΩ = δuT Gσ 0 dΓ − δu LT σ 0 dΩ
T
Ω Γ Ω
where G is a transformation matrix containing the direction cosines for a unit normal vector
such that the surface tractions t are defined as t = Gσ and the surface integrals are over the
entire surface of the body Γ.
88 Substituting Equation 10.135 into Equation 10.133, the variational statement becomes
Z
δΠ = − δuT {LT [D(² − ²0 ) + σ 0 ] + b}dΩ
Ω | {z }
σ
Z
+ δuT {G[D(² − ²0 ) + σ 0 ] + t̂}dΓ = 0 (10.136)
Γ
89 Since δu is arbitrary the expressions in the integrands within the braces must both be equal
to zero for δΠ to be equal to zero. Recognizing that the stress-strain relationship (i.e. Equation
10.8) appears in both the volume and surface integrals, the Euler equations are
LT σ + b = 0 on Ω
(10.137)
Gσ − t̂ = 0 on Γt
Draft
where the first Euler equation is the equilibrium equation and the second Euler equation defines
10–27
the natural boundary conditions. The natural boundary conditions are defined on Γt rather
than Γ because both the applied surface tractions t̂ and the matrix-vector product Gσ are
identically zero outside Γt .
90Starting from the Euler equations, it is possible to derive the total potential energy functional
by performing the operations just presented in reverse order.
91 Substituting Equations 10.10 and 10.54 into the expression for the total potential energy the
functional for the general form of the potential energy variational principle is obtained
Z Z Z Z Z
1
Π= ²T D²dΩ − ²T D²0 dΩ + ²T σ 0 dΩ − uT bdΩ − uT t̂dΓ (10.138)
2 Ω Ω Ω Ω Γt
| {z } | {z }
92Thus, it is important to notice that we have now gone full circle. We began with equation of
equilibrium, derived the principle of virtual work, then the principle of minimum total potential
energy. Finally, we just proved that the Euler equations of the Potential Energy are the very
same which were used to derive the principle of virtual work.
10.3.3 Castigliano’s First Theorem

∂U0
93 A global version of Eq. 10.119 ∂εij = σij , is Castigliano’s theorem.
94 Since we are now considering a general structure, we consider an arbitrary three dimensional
structure subjected to a set of external forces (or moments) Pˆ1 , Pˆ2 , · · · , Pˆn with corresponding
unknown displacements ∆1 , ∆2 , · · · , ∆n . The total potential energy is given by
X
n
Π = Wi + We = −U + P̂i ∆i (10.139)
i=1
95The strain energy can also be expressed in terms of the displacements ∆i thus the potential
energy will be defined in terms of generalized coordinates or generalized displacements.
96 For the solid to be in equilibrium, δΠ = 0 or
∂U ∂U ∂U
δΠ = − δ∆1 − δ∆2 − · · · − δ∆n
∂∆1 ∂∆2 ∂∆n
+Pˆ1 δ∆1 + Pˆ2 δ∆2 · · · + Pˆn δ∆n = 0 (10.140-a)
or
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
∂U ∂U ∂U
− + Pˆ1 δ∆1 + − + Pˆ2 δ∆2 + · · · + − + Pˆn δ∆n = 0 (10.141)
∂∆1 ∂∆2 ∂∆n
but since the variation δ∆i is arbitrary, then each factor within the parenthesis must be equal
to zero. Thus
∂U
= Pˆk (10.142)
∂∆k
which is Castigliano’s first theorem:

Draft
If the strain energy of a body is expressed in terms of displacement components in

the direction of the prescribed forces, then the first partial derivative of the strain
energy with respect to a displacement, is equal to the corresponding force.
Example 10-5: Fixed End Beam, Variable I
Considering the beam shown in Fig. 10.11, we can assume the following solution:
0110 1
0
0
1
1010 EI/2 EI 0
1
0
1
X
10 0
1
L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4
Figure 10.11: Variable Cross Section Fixed Beam
v = a1 x3 + a2 x2 + a3 x + a4 (10.143)
1. First, this solution must satisfy the essential B.C.: v = v 0 = 0 at x = 0; and v = vmax and
v 0 = 0 at x = L2 . This will be enforced by determining the four parameters in terms of a
single unknown quantity (4 equations and 4 B.C.’s):
@x = 0 v=0 ⇒ a4 = 0
@x = 0 dv
dx = 0 ⇒ a3 = 0
3 2
(10.144)
@x = L
2 v = vmax ⇒ vmax = a1 L8 + a2 L4
@x = L
2
dv
dx = 0 ⇒ 34 a1 L2 + a2 L = 0 ⇒ a2 = − 34 a1 L
upon substitution, we obtain:
³ 3
´
12x2
v = − 16x
L3
+ L2
vmax (10.145)
Hence, in this problem the solution is in terms of only one unknown variable vmax .
2. In order to apply the principle of Minimum Potential Energy we should evaluate:

Z
M2
Internal Strain Energy U : for flexural members is given by U = dx (Eq. 10.14);
2EIz
M 2 2
recalling that EIz = dd xv2 , thus we must evaluate dd xv2 from above:
Ã !
dv 48x2 24x
= − 3 + 2 vmax (10.146-a)
dx L L
Draft
d2 v 24 4x
µ ¶
10–29
= − 1− vmax (10.146-b)
dx2 L2 L
which yields  
Z Ã !2
1 d2 v
U = 2 E Iz dx (10.147)
2 dx2
or:
Z L µ ¶
U 242
E 44x 2 2 Iz
= 4
1 − vmax dx
2 2
0 L L 2
Z L 2µ ¶2
E 2 24 4x
+ 1− 2
vmax Iz dx
2 L4 L4 L
72EIz 2
U = L3
vmax (10.148-a)
Potential of the External Work W: For a point load, W = P vmax
3. Finally,
∂Π
= 0 (10.149-a)
∂vmax
∂U ∂W
− = 0 (10.149-b)
∂vmax ∂vmax
144EIz
vmax = P (10.149-c)
L3
P L3
vmax = 144EIz (10.149-d)
4. Note, that had we applied Castigliano’s theorem, then

∂U def
= P (10.150-a)
∂vmax
144EIz
vmax = P (10.150-b)
L3
P L3
vmax = 144EIz (10.150-c)
which is identical to the solution obrained through the principle of minimum potential
energy.
10.3.4 Rayleigh-Ritz Method
97 Continous systems have infinite number of degrees of freedom, those are the displacements
at every point within the structure. Their behavior can be described by the Euler Equation, or
the partial differential equation of equilibrium. However, only the simplest problems have an
exact solution which (satisfies equilibrium, and the boundary conditions).

Draft
98 An approximate method of solution is the Rayleigh-Ritz method which is based on the
principle of virtual displacements. In this method we approximate the displacement field by a

function
X
n
u1 ≈ c1i φ1i + φ10 (10.151-a)
i=1
Xn
u2 ≈ c2i φ2i + φ20 (10.151-b)
i=1
X
n
u3 ≈ c3i φ3i + φ30 (10.151-c)
i=1
where cji denote undetermined parameters, and φ are appropriate functions of positions.
99 φ should satisfy three conditions
1. Be continous.
2. Must be admissible, i.e. satisfy the essential boundary conditions (the natural boundary
conditions are included already in the variational statement. However, if φ also satisfy
them, then better results are achieved).
3. Must be independent and complete (which means that the exact displacement and their
derivatives that appear in Π can be arbitrary matched if enough terms are used. Further-
more, lowest order terms must also beincluded).
In general φ is a polynomial or trigonometric function.

100 We determine the parameters cji by requiring that the principle of virtual work for arbitrary
variations δcji . or
Ã !
X
n
∂Π 1 ∂Π 2 ∂Π 3
δΠ(u1 , u2 , u3 ) = δc + 2 δci + 3 δci =0 (10.152)
i=1
∂c1i i ∂ci ∂ci
for arbitrary and independent variations of δc1i , δc2i , and δc3i , thus it follows that
∂Π
=0 i = 1, 2, · · · , n; j = 1, 2, 3 (10.153)
∂cji
Thus we obtain a total of 3n linearly independent simultaneous equations. From these displace-
ments, we can then determine strains and stresses (or internal forces). Hence we have replaced
a problem with an infinite number of d.o.f by one with a finite number.
101 Some general observations
1. cji can either be a set of coefficients with no physical meanings, or variables associated
with nodal generalized displacements (such as deflection or displacement).
2. If the coordinate functions φ satisfy the above requirements, then the solution converges
to the exact one if n increases.
3. For increasing values of n, the previously computed coefficients remain unchanged.

Draft
y
10–31
111
000 111
000
L
Figure 10.12: Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam Analysed by the Rayleigh-Ritz
Method
4. Since the strains are computed from the approximate displacements, strains and stresses
are generally less accurate than the displacements.
5. The equilibrium equations of the problem are satisfied only in the energy sense δΠ = 0
and not in the differential equation sense (i.e. in the weak form but not in the strong one).
Therefore the displacements obtained from the approximation generaly do not satisfy the
equations of equilibrium.
6. Since the continuous system is approximated by a finite number of coordinates (or d.o.f.),
then the approximate system is stiffer than the actual one, and the displacements obtained
from the Ritz method converge to the exact ones from below.
Example 10-6: Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam; Polynomial Approximation
For the uniformly loaded beam shown in Fig. 10.12

let us assume a solution given by the following infinite series:
v = a1 x(L − x) + a2 x2 (L − x)2 + . . . (10.154)
for this particular solution, let us retain only the first term:
v = a1 x(L − x) (10.155)
We observe that:
1. Contrarily to the previous example problem the geometric B.C. are immediately satisfied
at both x = 0 and x = L.
∂Π
2. We can keep v in terms of a1 and take ∂a 1
= 0 (If we had left v in terms of a1 and a2 we
∂Π ∂Π
should then take both ∂a1 = 0, and ∂a2 = 0 ).
L ∂Π
3. Or we can solve for a1 in terms of vmax (@x = 2) and take ∂vmax = 0.

Draft
Z Z
L M2 L
Π=U −W = dx − wv(x)dx (10.156)
o 2EIz 0
M 2
Recalling that: EIz = dd xv2 , the above simplifies to:
 Ã !2 
Z L EI
 z
d2 v
Π = − wv(x) dx (10.157-a)
0 2 dx2
Z L · EI ¸
z
= (−2a1 )2 − a1 wx(L − x) dx
0 2
EIz 2 L3 L3
= 4a1 L − a1 w + a1 w
2 2 3
a wL 3
1
= 2a21 EIz L − (10.157-b)
6
∂Π
If we now take ∂a1 = 0, we would obtain:
wL3
4a1 EIz l − = 0
6
wL2
a1 = (10.158-a)
24EIz
L
Having solved the displacement field in terms of a1 , we now determine vmax at 2:
Ã !
wL4 x x2
v = − 2
24EIz L L
| {z }
a1
wL4
= 96EIz (10.159-a)
4 4
exact = 5 wL = wL
This is to be compared with the exact value of vmax 384 EIz 76.8EIz which constitutes
≈ 17% error.
wL2 w
Note: If two terms were retained, then we would have obtained: a1 = 24EI z
& a2 = 24EI z
exact . (Why?)
and vmax would be equal to vmax
Example 10-7: Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam; Fourrier Series
Let us consider again the problem of Fi. 10.12 but with a trigonometric series for the
continuous displacement field:
X∞ nπx
v= an sin (10.160)
n=1 L
we note that the B.C. are satisfied (v = 0 at x = 0 and x = L). The potential energy is given
by:
Π = U −W

Draft
Z
 Ã !2 
10–33
L

EIz d2 v
= − wv(x) dx
0 2 dx2
 Ã !2 
XZ L EIz n2 π 2 an nπx nπx 
=  − sin − wan sin dx
0 2 L2 L L
= ...
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶X
EIz L 2 X∞ 2 nπ 4 L ∞ 1 nπx L
= an +w an cos |
2 2 n=1 L π n=1 n L 0
π 4 EIz X∞ 2 4 2wL X∞ an
= 3
an n − (10.161-a)
4L n=1 π n=1,3,5 n
Note that for n even, the second term vanishes.
We now take:
∂Π ∂Π ∂Π
=0 = 0 ... =0 (10.162)
∂a1 ∂a2 ∂an
which would yield:
4wL4
an = n =1,3,5 (10.163)
EIz (nπ)5
or: µ ¶5
4wL4 X∞ 1 nπx
v= 5
sin (10.164)
EIz π n=1,3,5 n L
L
and for x = 2 we would get:
³ ´
4wL4
v = vmax = EIz π 5
1− 1
35
+ 1
55
− 1
75
+ ... (10.165)
Note that should we consider only the 1st term, then:

wL4
vmax = ≈ vmax
exact
(10.166)
76.5EIz
Example 10-8: Tapered Beam; Fourrier Series
Revisiting the previous problem of a tapered beam subjected to a point load, Fig. 10.13 and
using the following approximation
X µ ¶
nπx
v= an 1 − cos (10.167)
n=1,3,... 2L
we seek to solve for v2 and θ2 , for n = 1 and n = 3.
Solution:
X µ ¶2
00 nπ nπx
v = an cos (10.168-a)
2L 2L
Z L
1
U = (v 00 )2 EIz dx (10.168-b)
2 0
Z " µ ¶2 #2 µ ¶
EI1 L X nπ nπx x
= an cos 1− dx (10.168-c)
2 0 n=1,3, 2L 2L L
Draft
P2
I=I1(1-x/2L)
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11 x,u
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
L
y,v
Figure 10.13: Example xx: External Virtual Work
However, we recall that:


Z L  0 m 6= n
mπx nπx
cos cos dx = (10.169-a)
0 2L 2L  L m=n
 2
Z L  0 m 6= n
mπx nπx
x cos cos dx = (10.169-b)
0 2L 2L  L2
− L2
m=n
8 2n2 π 2
Thus combining Eqns. 10.168-c, 10.169-a, and 10.169-b, we obtain:

µ ¶
π 4 EI1 X 3 1
U= 3
+ 2 2 n4 a2n (10.170)
64L 1,3,5 4 n π
The potential of the external work W in turn is given by:
X M2 π X n−1
W = P2 an + (−1) 2 nan (10.171)
| {z } L | {z }
v@x=l θ@x=l
Finally, taking
∂Π ∂U ∂W
= − =0 (10.172)
∂an ∂an ∂an
Combining Eqns. 10.170, 10.171, and 10.172 we solve for an :
³ n−1
´
nπ
32L3 P + 2L (−1) 2 M
an = 4 ³ ´ (10.173)
π EI1 3
+ 2
1
2 n4
4 n π
X
Solving for v2 = an we obtain:

 P L3 M L2
2.59EI1 + 1.65EI1 n=1
v2 = P L3 M L2 (10.174)
 2.55EI1 + 1.65EI1 n=3

Draft
10.4 † Complementary Potential Energy
Similarly we solve for θ2 = π

X
n(−1)
n−1
2 an
10–35
2L

 P L2 Ml
1.65EI + 1.05EI1 n=1
θ2 PL 2 ML (10.175)
 1.65EIz + 1.04EI1 n=3
10.4 † Complementary Potential Energy

10.4.1 Derivation
R R
102 Eq. 10.97, Ω εij δσij dΩ − Γu ûi δti dΓ = 0 can be rewritten as
·Z Z ¸
δ U0 dΩ − ûi δti dΓ = 0 (10.176)
Ω Γu
or
δΠ∗ = 0 (10.177)
Π∗ U ∗ − We∗
def
= (10.178)
which is the principle of stationary complementary energy which states that
Of all statically admissible states of stress (stresses satisfying the equation of equilib-
rium), the actual state of stress (the one which satisfy the kinematic conditions) are
the ones for which the total complementary potential energy assumes a stationalry
value.
10.4.2 Castigliano’s Second Theorem
103 Considering again a three dimensional structure subjected to external displacements (or
rotations) (or moments) ∆ˆ1 , ∆ˆ2 , · · · , ∆ˆn with corresponding unknown forces (or moments)
P1 , P2 , · · · , Pn . The total complementary potential energy is given by
X
n
Π∗ = Wi∗ + We∗ = Ui∗ − î Pi
∆ (10.179)
i=1
104 The complementary strain energy can also be expressed in terms of the forces Pi thus the
complementary potential energy will be defined in terms of generalized coordinates or generalized
forces.
105 For the solid to be in equilibrium, δΠ∗ = 0 or
∂Wi∗ ∂Wi∗ ∂Wi∗
δΠ∗ = δP1 + δP2 + · · · + δPn
∂P1 ∂P2 ∂Pn
−∆ˆ1 δP1 − ∆ˆ2 δP2 · · · − ∆ˆn δPn = 0 (10.180-a)

Draft
or µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
∂Wi∗ ∂Wi∗ ∂Wi∗
− ∆ˆ1 δP1 + − ∆ˆ2 δP2 + · · · + − ∆ˆn δPn (10.181)
∂P1 ∂P2 ∂Pn
but since the variation δPi is arbitrary, then each factor within the parenthesis must be equal
to zero. Thus
∂Wi∗
= ∆ˆk (10.182)
∂Pk
which is Castigliano’s second theorem:
If the complementary strain energy of a body is expressed in terms of forces then

the first partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to any one of the forces,
is equal to the corresponding displacement at the point where the force is located.
Example 10-9: Cantilivered beam
Solve for the displacement of the tip of a cantiliver loaded by a point load.
Solution:
Z L M2
From Eq. 10.14, the complementary strain energy is U ∗ = 1
dx, and for a point load,
2
EI 0
the external work is W ∗ e = P ∆ thus the potential energy of the system is
Π∗ = W ∗ e − U ∗
Z L M2
= P∆ − 1
2 dx
0 EIz
However, for the point load, the moment is M = P x, substituting above

Z L 2 2
P x
Π∗ = P∆ − 2 1
dx
2
0 3 EI
= P ∆ − 16 PEIL
dΠ∗ = 2 3
∆ − 13 PEIL = 0
dP
1 P 2 L3
⇒∆ = 3 EI
10.4.2.1 Distributed Loads
106Castigliano’s theorem can easily be applied to problems in which the structure is subjected
to point load or moments, and we seek the deflection under these loads.
107 However when a structure is subjected to say a uniform load, and we wish to determine
the deflection at a point where no point load is applied, then we must introduce a fictitious
corresponding force R and then write the complementary strain energy in terms of R and the
applied load, and ten set R = 0.

Draft
10.5 Comparison of Alternate Approximate Solutions
Example 10-10: Deflection of a Uniformly loaded Beam using Castigliano’s second Theorem
10–37
Considering a simply supported uniformly loaded beam, we seek the midspan deflection.
Solution:
2 x+ 2x−
wL R
We introduce a fictitious force R at midspan, and the moment is thus M (x) =
R L
w x2 . The complementary strain energy is U ∗ = 2
2 M (x)
2
0 2EI dx and the displacement
¯
∂U ∗ ¯
∆ = ¯
µ∂R R=0 ¶¯ ½ h³ ´ i ¾¯
R L ¯ R L ¯
= 2 2 ∂M ¯ 2 2 wL R
x− w x2
2 x ¯
EI 0 M ∂R dx ¯ = EI 0 2 + 2 2 dx¯
R=0 R=0
5wL4
= 384EI
10.5 Comparison of Alternate Approximate Solutions
108 While we were able to assess the accuracy of our approximate solutions with respect to the
exact one, (already known), in general this is not possible. (i.e., If an exact solution is known,
there is no need for an approximate one). Thus the question is, given two or more alternate
approximate solutions which one is the best?
109This can be determined by evaluating the potential energy of each approximate solution
and identify the lowest one.
Example 10-11: Comparison of MPE Solutions
With reference to examples (simply supported uniformly loaded beams) we can determine
for each one its Potential Energy Π = U − We :
Polynomial Solution: From Eq. 10.158-a and 10.157-b respectively, we had:
wL2
a1 = (10.183-a)
24EIz
a1 wL3
Π = 2a21 EIz L −
6
Ã !2 Ã !
wL2 wL2 wL3
= 2 EIz l −
24EIz 24EIz 6
µ ¶
w2 L5 2 1
= 2
−
EIz 24 (6)(24)
2
1 w L 5
= − (10.183-b)
288 EIz

Draft
Trigonometric Solution: From Eq. 10.161-a and 10.163 respectively we had:
π 4 EIz X∞ 2 4 2wL X∞ an
Π = 3
an n − (10.184-a)
4L n=1 π n=1,2,3 n
4wL4
an = n = 1, 3, 5 (10.184-b)
EIz (nπ)5
For n = 1:
4wL4
a1 = (10.185-a)
EIz π 5
" #2 " #
π 4 EIz 4wL4 2wL 4wL4
Π = −
4L3 EIz π 5 π EIz π 5
· ¸
w2 L5 16 8
= −
EIz 4π 6 π 6
4 w2 L5
= − 6
π EIz
1 w2 L5
= − (10.185-b)
240 EIz
We note that the Trigonometric solution has a lower potential energy than the polynomial
wL4
approximation and is thus more accurate (the exact displacement is vmax = 76.8EI z
) as shown
in Table 10.2.
Π wEI z
2 L5
EIz
vmax wL 4 % error
Polynomial − 2881 1
96 17%
Trigonometric − 2401 1
76.6 1%
Table 10.2: Comparison of 2 Alternative Approximate Solutions
10.6 Summary
110 A summary of the various methods introduced in this chapter is shown in Fig. 10.14.
111 The duality between the two variational principles is highlighted by Fig. 10.15, where
beginning with kinematically admissible displacements, the principle of virtual work provides
statically admissible solutions. Similarly, for statically admissible stresses, the principle of
complementary virtual work leads to kinematically admissible solutions.
112Finally, Table 10.3 summarizes some of the major equations associated with one dimensional
rod elements.

Draft
10.6 Summary 10–39
Displacement Based Formulation [k] Force Based Formulation [d]

Natural B.C.
Essential B.C.
? ? ? ?
div σ + ρb = 0 δε − Dδu = 0 Ω εij − (ui,j + uj,i ) = 0
1
2
δσij,j = 0
- t − bt = 0 Γt δu = 0 Γu Γ - ui − u b = 0 Γu δti = 0 Γt
def Rε def Rσ
U0 = 0 σdε U0∗ = 0 εdσ
6 6
Gauss Gauss
? ? ? ?
Principle of Virtual Work Principle of Complementary
R R R R VirtualR Work
Ω δε
T σdΩ − Ω δu − Γt δuT btdΓ = 0
T bdΩ
Ω ε ij δσ ij dΩ − Γu ubi δti dΓ = 0
∗ ∗
δWi − δWe = 0
δWi − δWe = 0
6 6
? ?
Principle of Stationary Principle of Complementary
Potential Energy Stationary Potential Energy
δΠ = 0 δΠ∗ = 0
def ∗ def ∗ ∗
R Π =R U − We R RΠ = Wi + R We
∗
Π = Ω U0 dΩ − ( Ω ui bi dΩ + Γt ui tbi dΓ) Π = Ω U0 dΩ + Γu ubi δti dΓ
? ?
Castigliano’s Castigliano’s
First Theorem Second Theorem
∂Wi ck ∂Wi∗ ck
=P =∆
∂∆k ∂Pk
?
Rayleigh-Ritz
X
n
uj ≈ cji φji + φj0
i=1
∂Π
=0 i = 1, 2, · · · , n; j = 1, 2, 3
∂cji
Figure 10.14: Summary of Variational Methods

Draft
Kinematically Admissible Displacements

Displacements satisfy the kinematic equations
and the the kinematic boundary conditions
?
Principle of Stationary Principle of Virtual Work
Complementary Energy
Principle of Complementary Principle of Stationary
Virtual Work Potential Energy
6
?
Statically Admissible Stresses
Stresses satisfy the equilibrium conditions
and the static boundary conditions
Figure 10.15: Duality of Variational Principles

Draft
10.7 Variational Calculus; Preliminaries 10–41
U Virtual Displacement
³ ´ δU Virtual Force δU ∗
R R
− Ω δu L σ + b dΩ
T T (εij − ui,j ) δσij dΩ
R RΩ
+ Γt δuT (t − t̂)dΓ = 0 − Γu (ui − û) δti dΓ = 0
General Linear General Linear
Z Z L Z L Z L Z L
1
L P2 du d(δu) P
Axial 2 dx σδεdx E Adx
| {z } δσεdx δP
|{z} dx
0 AE 0 dx} | dx
0 | {z {z } dΩ 0 0 AE
|{z}
δσ
σ ε
Z L
δε Z L
Shear ... V δγxy dx ... δV γxy dx ...
Z Z 0L Z Z 0L Z
1
L M2 L d2 v d2 (δv) L M
Flexure 2 dx M δφdx EIz 2 2
dx δM φdx δM
|{z} dx
0 EIz 0 0 | {zdx } | dx
{z } 0 0 EIz
δσ | {z }
σ δε ε
Z Z Z Z Z
1
L T2 L L dθx d(δθx ) L L T
Torsion 2 dx T δθdx GJ dx δT θdx δT
|{z} dx
0 GJ 0 0 | {zdx} | dx
{z } 0 0 GJ
|{z}
δσ
σ δε ε
W Virtual Displacement δW Virtual Force δW ∗
1
P Σi 2 Pi ∆i Σi Pi δ∆i Σi δPi ∆i
M Σi 21 Mi θi Σi Mi δθi Σi δMi θi
Z L Z L Z L
w w(x)v(x)dx w(x)δv(x)dx δw(x)v(x)dx
0 0 0
Table 10.3: Summary of Variational Terms Associated with One Dimensional Elements
10.7 Variational Calculus; Preliminaries
113 The analysis of structures so far, has been achieved through the solution of specific boundary-
value problems expressed in terms of partial differential equations.

114 A different approach, exploiting minimum principles that characterize the equilibrium states
of elastic bodies, is developed in this chapter. It is an approach based on the use of direct
methods in the calculus of variations first proposed by Lord Rayleigh and W. Ritz and extended
by R. Courant, B. Galerkin and others.
115 Broadly speaking, previous methods can be labelled as Newtonian, whereas methods based
on energy considerations (as will be the case in this chapter) are labelled as Lagrangian.
116 This chapter borrows heavily from [?] and [?].
10.7.1 Euler Equation
117 The fundamental problem of the calculus of variation2 is to find a function u(x) such that
Z b
Π(u) = F (x, u, u0 )dx (10.186)
a
2
Differential calculus involves a function of one or more variable, whereas variational calculus involves a
function of a function, or a functional.

Draft
10–42
u, u
~
u(x)
B
u(x)
δu du
A dx
x
x=a x=c x=b
Figure 10.16: Variational and Differential Operators
is stationary. Or,
δΠ = 0 (10.187)
where δ indicates the variation

118We define u(x) to be a function of x in the interval (a, b), and F to be a known real function
(such as the energy density).
119 We define the domain of a functional as the collection of admissible functions belonging to
a class of functions in function space rather than a region in coordinate space (as is the case
for a function).
120 We seek the function u(x) which extremizes Π.
121Letting ũ to be a family of neighbouring paths of the extremizing function u(x) and we
assume that at the end points x = a, b they coincide. We define ũ as the sum of the extremizing
path and some arbitrary variation, Fig. 10.16.
ũ(x, ε) = u(x) + εη(x) = u(x) + δu(x) (10.188)
where ε is a small parameter, and δu(x) is the variation of u(x)
δu = ũ(x, ε) − u(x) (10.189-a)
= εη(x) (10.189-b)
and η(x) is twice differentiable, has undefined amplitude, and η(a) = η(b) = 0. We note that
ũ coincides with u if ε = 0
122 It can be shown that the variation and derivation operators are commutative
)
d
= ũ0 (x, ε) − u0 (x) ³ ´
dx (δu) d
=δ du
δu0 = ũ0 (x, ε) − u0 (x) dx (δu) dx (10.190)
123 Furthermore, the variational operator δ and the differential calculus operator d can be
similarly used, i.e.

δ(u0 )2 = 2u0 δu0 (10.191-a)

Draft
δ(u + v) = δu + δv
10–43
(10.191-b)
µZ ¶ Z
δ udx = (δu)dx (10.191-c)
∂u ∂u
δu = δx + δy (10.191-d)
∂x ∂y
however, they have clearly different meanings. du is associated with a neighbouring point at
a distance dx, however δu is a small arbitrary change in u for a given x (there is no associated
δx).
124 For boundaries where u is specified, its variation must be zero, and it is arbitrary elsewhere.
The variation δu of u is said to undergo a virtual change.

125 To solve the variational problem of extremizing Π, we consider
Z b
Π(u + εη) = Φ(ε) = F (x, u + εη, u0 + εη 0 )dx (10.192)
a
126 Since ũ → u as ε → 0, the necessary condition for Π to be an extremum is

¯
dΦ(ε) ¯¯
=0 (10.193)
dε ¯ε=0
127 From Eq. 10.188 ũ = u + εη, and ũ0 = u0 + εη 0 , and applying the chain rule
dΦ(ε)
Z b µ ∂F dũ ∂F dũ0
¶ Z bµ ∂F ∂F
¶
= + dx = η + η 0 0 dx (10.194)
dε a ∂ ũ dε ∂ ũ0 dε a ∂ ũ ∂ ũ
for ε = 0, ũ = u, thus ¯
dΦ(ε) ¯¯
Z bµ ∂F ∂F
¶
= η + η 0 0 dx = 0 (10.195)
dε ¯ε=0 a ∂u ∂u
128 Integration by part (Eq. 4.1 and 4.1) of the second term leads to
Z bµ ¶ ¯ Z µ ¶
∂F ∂F ¯b b d ∂F
η0 0 dx = η 0 ¯¯ − η(x) dx (10.196)
a ∂u ∂u a a dx ∂u0
129 Substituting,
¯ Z · ¸ ¯
dΦ(ε) ¯¯ b ∂F d ∂F ∂F ¯¯b
= η(x) − + η(x) =0 (10.197)
dε ¯ε=0 ∂u dx ∂u0 ∂u0 ¯a
|a {z } | {z }
I (x ∈ [a, b]) II (x = a, b)
We will force each one of the two terms to be equal to zero.

130 The fundamental lemma of the calculus of variation states that for continuous Ψ(x) in
a ≤ x ≤ b, and with arbitrary continuous function η(x) which vanishes at a and b, then
Z b
η(x)Ψ(x)dx = 0 ⇔ Ψ(x) = 0 (10.198)
a

Draft
10–44
Thus, part I in Eq. 10.197 yields

∂F d ∂F
− =0 in a < x < b (10.199)
∂u dx ∂u0
131 This differential equation is called the Euler-Lagrange equation associated with Π and
is a necessary condition for u(x) to extremize Π.

132Generalizing for a functional Π which depends on two field variables, u = u(x, y) and
v = v(x, y) Z Z
Π= F (x, y, u, v, u,x , u,y , v,x , v,y , · · · , v,yy )dxdy (10.200)
There would be as many Euler equations as dependent field variables

 ∂ 2 ∂F ∂2 ∂ 2 ∂F
∂u − ∂x ∂u,x − ∂y ∂u,y + ∂x2 ∂u,xx
∂F ∂ ∂F ∂ ∂F ∂F
+ ∂x∂y ∂u,xy + ∂y 2 ∂u,yy
= 0
(10.201)
 ∂ 2 ∂F ∂2 ∂ 2 ∂F
∂v − ∂x ∂v,x − ∂y ∂v,y + ∂x2 ∂v,xx
∂F ∂ ∂F ∂ ∂F ∂F
+ ∂x∂y ∂v,xy + ∂y 2 ∂v,yy
= 0
133 We note that the Functional and the corresponding Euler Equations, Eq. 10.186 and 10.199,
or Eq. 10.200 and 10.201 describe the same problem.

134 The Euler equations usually correspond to the governing differential equation and are re-
ferred to as the strong form (or classical form).
135 The functional is referred to as the weak form (or generalized solution). This classification
stems from the fact that equilibrium is enforced in an average sense over the body (and the
field variable is differentiated m times in the weak form, and 2m times in the strong form).
136 It can be shown that in the principle of virtual displacements, the Euler equations are the
equilibrium equations, whereas in the principle of virtual forces, they are the compatibility
equations.
137 Euler equations are differential equations which can not always be solved by exact meth-
ods. An alternative method consists in bypassing the Euler equations and go directly to the
variational statement of the problem to the solution of the Euler equations.
138 Finite Element formulation are based on the weak form, whereas the formulation of Finite
Differences are based on the strong form.

139 We still have to define δΠ. The first variation of a functional expression is
)
δF = ∂F ∂F
δu + ∂u 0 Z b µ ∂F ∂F 0
¶
0 δu
R∂u δΠ = δu + δu dx (10.202)
δΠ = ab δF dx a ∂u ∂u0
As above, integration by parts of the second term yields
Z b µ ¶
∂F d ∂F
δΠ = δu − dx (10.203)
a ∂u dx ∂u0
140 We have just shown that finding the stationary value of Π by setting δΠ = 0 is equivalent
¯
¯
to finding the extremal value of Π by setting dΦ(ε)
dε ¯ equal to zero.
ε=0
141 Similarly, it can be shown that as with second derivatives in calculus, the second variation
δ 2 Π can be used to characterize the extremum as either a minimum or maximum.

Draft
10.7.2 Boundary Conditions

10–45
142 Revisiting the second part of Eq. 10.197, we had

¯
∂F ¯¯b
η(x) =0 (10.204)
| {z } ∂u0 ¯a
Ess. | {z }
|
Nat.}
{z
Boundary Cond.
This can be achieved through the following combinations
η(a) = 0 and η(b) = 0 (10.205-a)

∂F
η(a) = 0 and (b) = 0 (10.205-b)
∂u0
∂F
(a) = 0 and η(b) = 0 (10.205-c)
∂u0
∂F ∂F
(a) = 0 and (b) = 0 (10.205-d)
∂u0 ∂u0
143 Generalizing, for a problem with, one field variable, in which the highest derivative in the
governing differential equation is of order 2m (or simply m in the corresponding functional),

then we have
Essential (or forced, or geometric) boundary conditions, (because it was essential for the
derivation of the Euler equation) if η(a) or η(b) =0. Essential boundary conditions,
involve derivatives of order zero (the field variable itself) through m-1. Trial displacement
functions are explicitely required to satisfy this B.C. Mathematically, this corresponds to
Dirichlet boundary-value problems.
Natural (or natural or static) if we left η to be arbitrary, then it would be necessary to use
∂F
∂u0 = 0 at x = a or b. Natural boundary conditions, involve derivatives of order m
and up. This B.C. is implied by the satisfaction of the variational statement but not
explicitly stated in the functional itself. Mathematically, this corresponds to Neuman
boundary-value problems.
Mixed Boundary-Value problems, are those in which both essential and natural boundary
conditions are specified on complementary portions of the boundary (such as Γu and
Gammat ).
144 Table 10.4 illustrates the boundary conditions associated with some problems
Example 10-12: Extension of a Bar
The total potential energy Π of an axial member of length L, modulus of elasticity E, cross
sectional area A, fixed at left end and subjected to an axial force P at the right one is given by
Z L µ ¶2
EA du
Π= dx − P u(L) (10.206)
0 2 dx
Draft
10–46
Problem Axial Member

Flexural Member
Distributed load Distributed load
2 d4 w
Differential Equation AE dd xu2 + q = 0 EI dx4
−q =0
m 1 2
Essential B.C. [0, m − 1] u w, ddw
x
Natural B.C. [m, 2m − 1] du d w d w2 3
dx dx2 and dx3

or σxx = Eu,x or M = EIw,xx and V = EIw,xxx
Table 10.4: Essential and Natural Boundary Conditions
where the first term represents the strain energy sotred in the bar, and the second term denotes
the work done on the bar by the load P in displacing the end x = L through displacement
u(L).
Determine the Euler Equation by requiring that Π be a minimum.
Solution:
Solution I The first variation of Π is given by

Z L µ ¶ µ ¶
EA du du
δΠ = 2 δ dx − P δu(L) (10.207)
0 2 dx dx
Integrating by parts we obtain
Z µ ¶ ¯
L
d du du ¯L
δΠ = − EA δudx + EA δu¯¯ − P δu(L) = 0 (10.208-a)
0 dx dx dx 0
Z L µ ¶ ·µ ¶¯ ¸
d du du ¯¯
= − δu EA dx + EA − P δu(L)
0 dx dx dx ¯x=L
| {z } | {z }
Euler Eq. B.C.
µ ¶¯
du ¯¯
− EA δu(0) (10.208-b)
dx ¯x=0
| {z }
0
The last term is zero because of the specified essential boundary condition which implies
that δu(0) = 0. Rcalling that δ in an arbitrary operator which can be assigned any
value, we set the coefficients of δu between (0, L) and those for δu at x = L equal to zero
separately, and obtain
Euler Equation: µ ¶
d du
− EA =0 0<x<L (10.209)
dx dx
Natural Boundary Condition:
du
EA −P =0 at x = L (10.210)
dx
Solution II We have µ ¶2
EA du
F (x, u, u0 ) = (10.211)
2 dx

Draft
(note that since P is an applied load at the end of the member, it does not appear as part
10–47
of F (x, u, u0 ) To evaluate the Euler Equation from Eq. 10.199, we evaluate
∂F ∂F
=0 & = EAu0 (10.212-a)
∂u ∂u0
Thus, substituting, we obtain
∂F d ∂F d
− = 0⇒− (EAu0 ) = 0 Euler Equation (10.213-a)
∂u dx ∂u0 dx
du
EA = 0 B.C. (10.213-b)
dx
Example 10-13: Flexure of a Beam
The total potential energy of a beam supporting a uniform load p is given by

Z L µ1 ¶ Z L µ1 ¶
Π= M κ − pw dx = (EIw00 )w00 − pw dx (10.214)
0 2 0 2
| {z }
F
Derive the first variational of Π.

Solution:
Extending Eq. 10.202, and integrating by part twice
Z L Z Lµ ∂F ∂F
¶
δΠ = δF dx = δw00 + δw dx (10.215-a)
0 0 ∂w00 ∂w
Z L
= (EIw00 δw00 − pδw)dx (10.215-b)
0
Z
¯L L£ ¤
= (EIw00 δw0 )¯0 − (EIw00 )0 δw0 − pδw dx (10.215-c)
0
Z
¯L L£ ¤
= (EIw00 δw0 )¯0 − [(EIw00 )0 δw]|L
0 + (EIw00 )00 + p δwdx = 0 (10.215-d)
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } 0 | {z }
Nat. Ess. {z Nat. Ess. Euler Eq.
| }
BC
Or
(EIw00 )00 = −p for all x
which is the governing differential equation of beams and
Essential Natural
δw0 = 0 or EIw00 = −M = 0
δw = 0 or (EIw00 )0 = −V = 0
at x = 0 and x = L

Draft
10–48
10.8 Homework
For the cantilivered beam shown below:

q
111111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000000
0
000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111
0
1
000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111
0
1
000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111
0
1 0
1
000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111
000
111 0
1 0
1
000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111
000
111 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1
000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111
000
111 0
1 0
1 0
1
0 1 0 1
0
000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111
1 0
1 x
000
111
000
111 1 2 3
000
111
111
000
111
000 L/2 L/2
subjected to a linearly varying vertical load of magnitude q = q0 (1 − xl ):

1. By means of the principle of virtual displacements, reanalyze the previous problem using
the following expression for both the virtual and actual systems:
πx 3πx
v = (1 − cos )a1 + (1 − cos )a2 (10.216)
2L 2L
and:
(a) Determine the vertical displacement of node 3.
(b) On the basis of your results, draw the shear and moment diagrams.
(c) Compute the the total potential energy of the system.
(d) Compare your results with those of problem 1 (exact solution) and Discuss.
Note: You should first fit the coefficients a1 and a2 to the displacements of points 2 and
3, v2 and v3 .
2. Using the principle of virtual force, analyse the cantilivered beam (using a virtual unit
point load), and:
(a) Determine the vertical displacement of point 3.
(b) Draw the shear and moment diagram.
(c) Compute the total potential energy.
3. Analyse using the principle of minimum total potential energy.
4. Analyse this problem by the Rayleigh-Ritz method.
5. Analyse using the principle of minimum complementary total potential energy.
6. Analyse this problem using Castigliano’s second theorem
7. Discuss your results
You are strongly advised to use Mathematica.

Draft
Chapter 11
INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS
11.1 Introduction
1Application of the Principle of Virtual Displacement requires an assumed displacement field.

This displacement field can be approximated by interpolation functions written in terms of:
1. Unknown polynomial coefficients, most appropriate for continuous systems, and the Rayleigh-
Ritz method
y = a1 + a2 x + a3 x2 + a4 x3 (11.1)
A major drawback of this approach, is that the coefficients have no physical meaning.
2. Unknown nodal deformations, most appropriate for discrete systems and Potential Energy
based formulations
y = ∆ = N 1 ∆1 + N 2 ∆2 + . . . + N n ∆n (11.2)
2 For simple problems both Eqn. 11.1 and Eqn. 11.2 can readily provide the exact solutions of
d4 y q
the governing differential equation (such as dx 4 = EI for flexure), but for more complex ones,
one must use an approximate one.
11.2 Shape Functions
3For an element (finite or otherwise), we can write an expression for the generalized displace-
ment (translation/rotation), ∆ at any point in terms of all its known nodal ones, ∆.
X
n
∆= Ni (x)∆i = bN(x)c{∆} (11.3)
i=1
where:
1. ∆i is the (generalized) nodal displacement corresponding to d.o.f i
2. Ni is an interpolation function, or shape function which has the following characteristics:
(a) Ni = 1 at node i
(b) Ni = 0 at node j where i 6= j.
3. Summation of N at any point is equal to unity ΣN = 1.
Draft
11–2
N1
N2
1 2
L
Figure 11.1: Axial Finite Element
4. N can be derived on the bases of:

(a) Assumed deformation state defined in terms of polynomial series.
(b) Interpolation function (Lagrangian or Hermitian).
4 Shape functions should

1. Be continuous, of the type required by the variational principle.
2. Exhibit rigid body motion (i.e. v = a1 + . . .)
3. Exhibit constant strain.
5 Shape functions should be complete, and meet the same requirements as the coefficients of
the Rayleigh Ritz method.
6 Shape functions can often be written in non-dimensional coordinates (i.e. ξ = xl ). This will
be exploited later by isoparametric elements.
7 We shall distinguish between two classes of problems, those involving displacements only, and
those involving displacement and their derivatives.
8 The first class requires only continuity of displacement, and will be referred to as C 0 problems
(truss, torsion), whereas the second one requires continuity of slopes and will be referred to as
C 1 problems.
11.2.1 Axial/Torsional
9 With reference to Fig. 11.1 we start with:
u = N 1 u1 + N2 u2 (11.4-a)
θx = N1 θx1 + N2 θx2 (11.4-b)
10 Since we have 2 d.o.f’s, we will assume a linear deformation state
u = a1 x + a2 (11.5)
where u can be either ∆ or θ, and the B.C.’s are given by: u = u1 at x = 0, and u = u2 at
x = L. Thus we have:
u 1 = a2 (11.6-a)
u2 = a1 L + a2 (11.6-b)

Draft
11.2 Shape Functions 11–3
11 Solving for a1 and a2 in terms of u1 and u2 we obtain:

u2 u1
a1 = − (11.7-a)
L L
a2 = u1 (11.7-b)
12 Substituting and rearranging those expressions into Eq. 11.5 we obtain

u2 u1
u = ( − )x + u1 (11.8-a)
L L
x x
= (1 − ) u1 + u2 (11.8-b)
L
| {z } L
|{z}
N1 N2
or:
N1 = 1 − x
L (11.9)
N2 = Lx
11.2.2 Generalization
13 The previous derivation can be generalized by writing:

( )
a1
u = a1 x + a2 = b x 1 c (11.10)
| {z } a2
[p] | {z }
{a}
where [p] corresponds to the polynomial approximation, and {a} is the coefficient vector.
14 We next apply the boundary conditions:
( ) " #( )
u1 0 1 a1
= (11.11)
u2 L 1 a2
| {z } | {z } | {z }
{∆} [L] {a}
following inversion of [L], this leads to

( ) " #( )
a1 1 −1 1 u1
= (11.12)
a2 L L 0 u2
| {z } | {z } | {z }
{a} [L]−1 {∆}
15 Substituting this last equation into Eq. 11.10, we obtain:

( )
u1
u = b (1 − x
L)
x
L c (11.13)
| {z } u2
| {z }
[p][L]−1
| {z } {∆}
[N]

Draft
11–4
y,v
V1 V2
x
1 2
θ1 L θ2
Figure 11.2: Flexural Finite Element
16 Hence, the shape functions [N] can be directly obtained from
[N] = [p][L]−1 (11.14)
11.2.3 Flexural
17 With reference to Fig. 11.2. We have 4 d.o.f.’s, {∆}4×1 : and hence will need 4 shape
functions, N1 to N4 , and those will be obtained through 4 boundary conditions. Therefore we
need to assume a polynomial approximation for displacements of degree 3.
v = a1 x3 + a2 x2 + a3 x + a4 (11.15-a)
dv
θ = = 3a1 x2 + 2a2 x + a3 (11.15-b)
dx
18 Note that v can be rewritten as:

 
( ) " #


a1 


v x3 x2 x 1  a2 
dv = (11.16)
3x2  a3 
2x 1 0  
dx 
 
a4 
| {z }
{a}
19 We now apply the boundary conditions:

v = v1 at x=0
v = v2 at x=L
dv
θ = θ1 = dx at x=0
dv
θ = θ2 = dx at x=L
or:     

 v1 
 0 0 0 1 
 a1 


 
  a 
θ1  0 0 1 0  2
=  (11.17)

 v 
2   L3 L2 L 1  a3 


 
 
 
θ2 3L2 2L 1 0 a4 
| {z } | {z } | {z }
{∆} [L] {a}

Draft
11.2 Shape Functions
ξ=0 ξ=1
11–5
Function Ni Ni,x Ni Ni,x

N1 = (1 + 2ξ 3 − 3ξ 2 ) 1 0 0 0
N2 = ξ(1 − ξ)2 0 1 0 0
N3 = (3ξ 2 − 2ξ 3 ) 0 0 1 0
N4 = ξ(ξ 2 − ξ) 0 0 0 1
Table 11.1: Characteristics of Beam Element Shape Functions
20 which when inverted yields:

    

 a1 
 2 L −2 L 
 v1 


 a    
 

2 1  −3L −2L 3L −L  θ1
2 2
=   (11.18)

 a3 
 L3  0 L3 0 0   v2 


   
a4  L3 0 0 0 
θ2 
| {z } | {z }| {z }
{a} [L]−1 {∆}
21 Combining Eq. 11.18 with Eq. 11.16, we obtain:

  
2 L −2 L 
 v1 

  
1  −3L −2L2 3L −L2 

 θ
1

∆ = b x3 x2 x 1 c   (11.19-a)
| {z } L3  0 L3 0 0   v 



2 

[p] L3 0 0 0 θ2
| {z }| {z }
[L]−1 {∆}
 

 v1 


 

(1 + 2ξ 3 − 3ξ 2 ) x(1 − ξ)2 (3ξ 2 − 2ξ 3 ) x(ξ 2 − ξ) θ1
= b | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } c (11.19-b)

 v2 

} 
N1 N2 N3 N4
| {z  
θ2
[p][L]−1 | {z }
| {z }
[N]
{∆}
x
where ξ = L.
22 Hence, the shape functions for the flexural element are given by:
N1 = (1 + 2ξ 3 − 3ξ 2 ) (11.20)
N2 = x(1 − ξ) 2
(11.21)
N3 = (3ξ − 2ξ ) 2 3
(11.22)
N4 = x(ξ − ξ) 2
(11.23)
and are shown in Fig 11.3.

23 Table 11.1 illustrates the characteristics of those shape functions
11.2.4 Constant Strain Triangle Element
24 Next we consider a triangular element, Fig. 11.4 with bi-linear displacement field (in both x

Draft
11–6 INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS
Shape Functions for Flexure

(v1; θ1; v2; θ2)
1.0
0.8
N1
0.6
N3
N2
N4
N
0.4
0.2
0.0
−0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
ξ(x/L)
Figure 11.3: Shape Functions for Flexure of Uniform Beam Element.
Figure 11.4: Constant Strain Triangle Element

Draft
11.3 Interpolation Functions
and y):
11–7
u = a1 + a2 x + a3 y (11.24-a)
v = a4 + a5 x + a6 y (11.24-b)
 

 a1 

∆ = b 1 x y c 2 a (11.24-c)
| {z }
 a 
3
[p] | {z }
{a}
25 As before, we first seek the shape functions, and hence we apply the boundary conditions at
the nodes for the u displacements first:
    

 u1 
 1 0 0   a1 

 
u2 =  1 x2 0  a2 (11.25)

 u   
3 1 x3 y3  a3 
| {z } | {z }| {z }
{∆} [L] {a}
26 We then multiply the inverse of [L] in Eq. 11.25 by [p] and obtain:
u = N1 u1 + N2 u2 + N3 u3 (11.26)
where
x2 y3 (x2 y3 − xy3 − x2 y + x3 y)
1
N1 =
x2 y3 (xy3 − x3 y)
1
N2 = (11.27)
y
N3 = y3
We observe that each of the three shape functions is equal to 1 at the corrsponding node, and
equal to 0 at the other two.
27 The same shape functions can be derived for v:
v = N1 v 1 + N2 v 2 + N3 v 3 (11.28)
28 Hence, the displacement field will be given by:

 

 u1 

 v1 
( ) " #





u N1 0 N2 0 N3 0  u2 
= (11.29)
v 0 N1 0 N 2 0 N3 
 v2 

 


 u 



3 

v3
29The element is refered to as Constant Strain Triangle (CST) because it has a linear displace-
ment field, and hence a constant strain.
11.3 Interpolation Functions
30 Based on the preceding examples, we now seek to derive a “general formula” for shape
functions of polynomials of various orders.

Draft
11–8
11.3.1 C 0 : Lagrangian Interpolation Functions

31 In our earlier approach, the shape functions were obtained by:

1. Assumption of a polynomial function: ∆ = bpc{a}
2. Application of the boundary conditions {∆} = [L]{a}
3. Inversion of [L]
4. And finally [N] = [p][L]−1
32 By following these operations, we have in effect defined the Lagrangian Interpolation Func-
tions for problems with C 0 interelement continuity (i.e continuity of displacement only).
33 The Lagrangian interpolation defines the coefficients ([N] in our case) of a polynomial series
representation of a function in terms of values defined at discrete points (nodes in our case).
For points along a line this would yield:
Qm+1
(x−xj )
Ni = Qm+1
j=1,j6=i
(11.30)
j=1,j6=i
(xi −xj )
34 If expanded, the preceding equation would yield:

(x−x2 )(x−x3 )···(x−xm+1 )
N1 = (x1 −x2 )(x1 −x3 )···(x1 −xm+1 )
(x−x1 )(x−x3 )···(x−xm+1 )
N2 = (x2 −x1 )(x2 −x3 )···(x2 −xm+1 ) (11.31)
(x−x1 )(x−x2 )···(x−xm )
Nm+1 = (xm+1 −x1 )(xm+1 −x2 )···(xm+1 −xm )
35 For the axial member, m = 1, x1 = 0, and x2 = L, the above equations will result in:
(x − L) x x x
∆= ∆1 + ∆2 = (1 − ) ∆1 + ∆2 (11.32)
−L L | {z L } L
|{z}
N1 N2
which is identical to Eq. 11.8-b.
11.3.1.1 Constant Strain Quadrilateral Element
36 Next we consider a quadrilateral element, Fig. 11.5 with bi-linear displacement field (in both
x and y).
37 Using the Lagrangian interpolation function of Eq. 11.30, and starting with the u displace-
ment, we perform two interpolations: the first one along the bottom edge (1-2) and along the
top one (4-3).
38 From Eq. 11.30 with m = 1 we obtain:
x2 −x x1 −x
u12 = x2 −x1 u1 + x1 −x2 u2
a−x x+a (11.33)
= 2a u1 + 2a u2
39 Similarly
x2 −x x1 −x
u43 = x2 −x1 u4 + x1 −x2 u3
a−x x+a (11.34)
= 2a u4 + 2a u3

Draft
11.3 Interpolation Functions 11–9
Figure 11.5: Constant Strain Quadrilateral Element
40Next, we interpolate in the y direction along 1-4 and 2-3 between u12 and u43 . Again, we
use Eq. 11.30 however this time we replace x by y:
y2 − y y1 − y
u = u12 + u43 (11.35-a)
y2 − y1 y1 − y2
b−ya−x b−yx+a y+ba−x y+bx+a
= u1 + u2 + u4 + u3
2b 2a 2b 2a 2b 2a 2b 2a
(a − x)(b − y) (a + x)(b − y) (a + x)(b + y) (a − x)(b + y)
= u1 + u2 + u3 + u4
| 4ab
{z } | 4ab
{z } | 4ab
{z } | 4ab
{z }
N1 N2 N3 N1
41 One can easily check that at each node i the corresponding Ni is equal to 1, and all others
to zero, and that at any point N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 = 1. Hence, the displacement field will be
given by:  

 u1 

 


 v 



1 


 u 
2 
( ) " # 

u N1 0 N2 0 N 3 0 N4 0  v2 
= (11.36)
v 0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N 4   u3  

 


 v3 



 


 u 



4 
v4 
11.3.1.2 Solid Rectangular Trilinear Element
42 By extension to the previous derivation, the shape functions of a solid rectangular trilinear
solid element, Fig. 11.6 will be given by:

Draft
Figure 11.6: Solid Trilinear Rectangular Element

 

 u1 


 


 v1 


 


 w1 


 


 


 u2 

   
 v2



  
 u 
 N1 0 0 N2 0 0 N3 0 0 N4 0 0 
 

  w2
v =  0 N1 0 0 N2 0 0 N3 0 0 N4 0  (11.37)

   u3 
w  0 0 N1 0 0 N2 0 0 N3 0 0 N4 







 v3 


 


 w3 


 


 u4 


 


 v4 


 

 
w4
where
(a ± x)(b ± y)(c ± z)
Ni = (11.38)
8abc
11.3.2 C 1 : Hermitian Interpolation Functions
43 For problems involving the first derivative of the shape function, that is with C 1 interelement
continuity (i.e continuity of first derivative or slope) such as for flexure, Hermitian interpolation
functions rather than Lagrangian ones should be used.
44 Hermitian interpolation functions are piecewise cubic functions which satisfy the conditions
of displacement and slope (C 0 , C 1 ) continuities. They are exensively used in CAD as Bezier
curves.
11.4 Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial

Series
45 A schematic interpretation of shape functions in terms of polynomial series terms is given in
Table 11.2.
46 Polynomial terms present in various element formulations is shown in Table 11.3

Draft
11.4 Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial Series 11–11
Constant a1
Linear a2 x a3 y
Quadratic a4 x2 a5 xy a6 y 2 (11.39)
3 2 2
Cubic a7 x a8 x y a9 xy a10 y 3
Quartic a11 x4 a12 x3 y a13 x2 y 2 a14 xy 3 a15 y 4
Table 11.2: Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial Series (1D & 2D)
Element Terms # of Nodes

(terms)
Linear a1 , a2 2
Quadratic a1 , a2 , a4 3
Bi-Linear (triangle) a1 , a2 , a3 , 3
Bi-Linear (quadrilateral) a1 , a2 , a3 , a5 4
Bi-Quadratic (Serendipity) a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a8 , a9 8
Bi-Quadratic (Lagrangian) a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a8 , a9 , a13 9
Table 11.3: Polynomial Terms in Various Element Formulations (1D & 2D)

Draft

Draft
Chapter 12
FINITE ELEMENT
FORMULATION
1 Having introduced the virtual displacement method in chapter 10, the shape functions in
chapter 11, and finally having reviewed the basic equations of elasticity in chapter 9, we shall
present a general energy based formulation of the element stiffness matrix in this chapter.
2 Whereas chapter 2 derived the stiffness matrices of one dimensional rod elements, the ap-
proach used could not be generalized to general finite element. Alternatively, the derivation of
this chapter will be applicable to both one dimensional rod elements or contnuum (2D or 3D)
elements.
3 It is important to note that whereas the previously presented method to derive the stiffness
matrix yielded an exact solution, it can not be generalized to continuum (2D/3D elements). On
the other hands, the method presented here is an approximate method, which happens to result
in an exact stiffness matrix for flexural one dimensional elements. Despite its approximation,
this so-called finite element method will yield excellent results if enough elements are used.
12.1 Strain Displacement Relations
4 The displacement ∆ at any point inside an element can be written in terms of the shape
functions bNc and the nodal displacements {∆}
∆(x) = bN(x)c{∆} (12.1)
The strain is then defined as:

def
ε(x) = [B(x)]{∆} (12.2)
where [B] is the matrix which relates nodal displacements to strain field and is clearly expressed
in terms of derivatives of N.
12.1.1 Axial Members

x x ( )
(1 −
) u1
u(x) = b | {z L } |{z}
L c (12.3-a)
u2
} | {z }
N1 N2
| {z
bNc {∆}
Draft
12–2

 1 1
FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION

( )
du  −L L
 u
 1
ε(x) = εxx = =  |{z} |{z}  (12.3-b)
dx ∂N1 ∂N2
u2
| {z }
| {z }
∂x ∂x
[B] {∆}
12.1.2 Flexural Members
5 Using the shape functions for flexural elements previously derived in Eq. 11.23 we have:
y d2 v
ε = =y 2 (12.4-a)
ρ dx
1 M
κ = = (12.4-b)
ρ EI
2
d v
= y 2 (12.4-c)
dx  
  v1 
 6 2 6 2  
 2 (2ξ − 1) − (3ξ − 2) (−2ξ + 1) − (3ξ − 1)  

 2  θ1
= y  |L {z } | L {z } |L {z } | L {z }  (12.4-d)

 v2 

∂ 2 N1 ∂ 2 N2 ∂ 2 N3 ∂ 2 N4 
 
|
∂x2 ∂x2
{z
∂x2 ∂x2
}| θ2 
{z }
[B]
{∆}
12.2 Virtual Displacement and Strains
6 In anticipation of the application of the principle of virtual displacement, we define the vectors
of virtual displacements and strain in terms of nodal displacements and shape functions:
δ∆(x) = [N(x)]{δ∆} (12.5-a)

δε(x) = [B(x)]{δ∆} (12.5-b)
12.3 Element Stiffness Matrix Formulation
7 In one dimensional elements with initial strain (temperature effect, support settlement, or
other) such that:
σx
εx = + ε0x (12.6)
E
|{z} |{z}
due to load initial strain
thus:
σx = Eεx − Eε0x (12.7)
8 Generalizing, and in matrix form:
{σ} = [D]{ε} − [D]{ε0 } (12.8)

Draft
12.3 Element Stiffness Matrix Formulation
where [D] is the constitutive matrix which relates stress and strain vectors.
12–3
9 The element will be subjected to a load q(x) acting on its surface

10 Let us now apply the principle of virtual displacement and restate some known relations:
δU = δW (12.9-a)
Z
δU = bδεc{σ}dΩ (12.9-b)
Ω
{σ} = [D]{ε} − [D]{ε0 } (12.9-c)
{ε} = [B]{∆} (12.9-d)
{δε} = [B]{δ∆} (12.9-e)
bδεc = bδ∆c[B] T
(12.9-f)
11Combining Eqns. 12.9-a, 12.9-b, 12.9-c, 12.9-f, and 12.9-d, the internal virtual strain
energy is given by:
Z Z
δU = bδ∆c[B]T [D][B]{∆} dΩ − bδ∆c[B]T [D]{ε0 } dΩ
Ω| {z }| {z } Ω| {z } | {z }
Z {δε} {σ } Z {δ ε} {σ 0 } (12.10)
= bδ∆c [B] [D][B] dΩ{∆} − bδ∆c
T
[B] [D]{ε }dΩ
T 0
Ω Ω
12 The virtual external work in turn is given by:

Z
δW = bδ∆c {F} + bδ∆cq(x)dx (12.11)
| {z } |{z} l
Virt. Nodal Displ. Nodal Force
13 combining this equation with:

{δ∆} = [N]{δ∆} (12.12)
yields:
Z l
δW = bδ∆c{F} + bδ∆c [N]T q(x) dx (12.13)
0
14 Equating the internal strain energy Eqn. 12.10 with the external work Eqn. 12.13, we obtain:
Z Z
bδ∆c [B]T [D][B] dΩ{∆} − bδ∆c [B]T [D]{ε0 }dΩ =
Ω Ω
| {z } | {z }
[k] 0
{F }
| {z }
Z l
δU
(12.14)
bδ∆c{F} + bδ∆c T
[N] q(x) dx
0
| {z }
e
{F }
| {z }
δW
15 Cancelling out the bδ∆c term, this is the same equation

n ofo equilibrium as the one written
earlier on. It relates the (unknown) nodal displacement ∆ , the structure stiffness matrix

Draft
12–4
n o
FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION
[k], the external nodal force vector F , the distributed element force F
n e
o
, and the vector of
initial displacement.
16 From this relation we define:
The element stiffness matrix:
Z
[k] = [B]T [D][B]dΩ (12.15)
Ω
Element initial force vector:

Z
0
{F } = [B]T [D]{ε0 }dΩ (12.16)
Ω
Element equivalent load vector:

Z L
e
{F } = [N] q(x) dx (12.17)
0
and the general equation of equilibrium can be written as:
0 e
[k]{∆} − {F } = {F} + {F } (12.18)
12.3.1 Stress Recovery
17 Whereas from the preceding section, we derived a general relationship in which the nodal
displacements are the primary unknowns, we next seek to determine the internal (generalized)
stresses which are most often needed for design.
18 Recalling that we have:
{σ} = [D]{ε} (12.19-a)

{ε} = [B]{∆} (12.19-b)
With the vector of nodal displacement {∆} known, those two equations would yield:
{σ} = [D] · [B]{∆} (12.20)
19 We note that the secondary variables (strain and stresses) are derivatives of the primary
variables (displacement), and as such may not always be determined with the same accuracy.

Draft
Chapter 13
SOME FINITE ELEMENTS
13.1 Introduction
1 Having first introduced the method of virtual displacements in Chapter 10, than the shape
functions [N] (Chapter 11) which relate internal to external nodal displacements, than the
basic equations of elasticity (Chapter 9) which defined the [D] matrix, and finally having
applied the virtual displacement method to finite element in chapter 12, we now revisit some
one dimensional element whose stiffness matrix was earlier derived, and derive the stiffness
matrices of additional two dimensional finite elements.
13.2 Truss Element
2 The shape functions of the truss element were derived in Eq. 11.9:
x
N1 = 1 −
L
x
N2 =
L
3 The corresponding strain displacement relation [B] is given by:

du
εxx =
dx
= [ dN
dx
1 dN2
dx
]
= [ − L1 1
L ] (13.2-a)
| {z }
[B]
4 For the truss element,

Z the constitutive matrix [D] reduces to the scalar E; Hence, substituting
into Eq. 12.15 [k] = [B]T [D][B]dΩ and with dΩ = Adx for element with constant cross
Ω
sectional area we obtain:
Z ( )
L − L1
[k] = A 1 · E · b − L1 1
L cdx (13.3)
0 L
Draft
13–2
Z " #
AE L 1 −1
[k] = 2 dx
L −1 1
" 0 # (13.4)
1 −1
= AEL −1 1
5 We observe that this stiffness matrix is identical to the one earlier derived in Eq. 2.41.
13.3 Flexural Element
6 For a beam element, for which we have previously derived the shape functions in Eq. 11.23
and the [B] matrix in Eq. 12.4-d, substituting in Eq. 12.15:

Z LZ
[k] = [B]T [D][B] y 2 dA dx (13.5)
0 A
Z
and noting that y 2 dA = Iz Eq. 12.15 reduces to
A
Z L
[k] = [B]T [D][B]Iz dx (13.6)
0
7 For this simple case, we have: [D] = E, thus:

Z l
[k] = EIz [B]T [B] dx (13.7)
0
8 Using the shape function for the beam element from Eq. 11.23, and noting the change of
integration variable from dx to dξ, we obtain

 6

 L2 (2ξ − 1) 
Z 1
 
¥ ¦
− L2 (3ξ − 2) 6
[k] = EIz 6 L2 (2ξ − 1) − L2 (3ξ − 2) 6
L2 (−2ξ + 1) − L2 (3ξ − 1) Ldξ (13.8)
0 
 L2 (−2ξ + 1) 
 |{z}
 
− L2 (3ξ − 1) dx
or
 
v1 θ1 v2 θ2
V1  12EIz
 L3
6EIz
L2
− 12EI
L3
z 6EIz
L2



M1 6EI z 4EIz
− L2
6EIz 2EIz  (13.9)
L2 L L 
[k] =  12EI 
V2 − L3 z − 6EI z 12EIz
− 6EI z

 L2 L3 L2 
M2 6EIL2
z 2EIz
L − 6EI
L2
z 4EIz
L

Which is identical to the beam stiffness matrix derived in Eq. 2.41 from equilibrium relations.
13.4 Triangular Element
9 Having retrieved the stiffness matrices of simple one dimensional elements using the principle
of virtual displacement, we next consider two dimensional continuum elements starting with

Draft
13.4 Triangular Element
the triangular element of constant thickness t made out of isotropic linear elastic material. The
13–3
element will have two d.o.f’s at each node:

n o
∆ = b u1 u2 u3 v 1 v 2 v 3 ct (13.10)
13.4.1 Strain-Displacement Relations
10 The strain displacement relations is required to determine [B]

11 For the 2D plane elasticity problem, the strain vector {ε} is given by:
{ε} = b εxx εyy γxy ct (13.11)
hence we can rewrite the strains in terms of the derivatives of the shape functions through the
matrix [B]:    ∂N 
 ( )
 εxx   ∂x 0
 0 ∂N  u
εyy = ∂y  (13.12)

 γ   ∂N ∂N v
xy | {z }
} n o
∂y ∂x
| {z
[B] ∆
12We note that because we have 3 u and 3 v displacements, the size of [B] and [∆] are 3 × 6
and 6 × 1 respectively.
13 Differentiating the shape functions from Eq. 11.27 we obtain:
 
1 1
 − 0
|{z} 0 0  0
 | {z } x2 x2 
 |{z} ∂N3
 
 ∂N1 ∂N2 ∂x   u1 
  

   ∂x ∂x
x3 − x2 −x3 1   u2 
 εxx    

   0 0 0 −  u  
 x2 y3 x2 y3 y3  3
εyy = | {z } | {z } |{z}   (13.13)

    v 
γxy   ∂N3  

 1  
v2 
∂N1 ∂N2
| {z }  ∂y ∂y ∂y 
 

 x3 − x2 −x3 1 1 1  
 

{ε}  − −  v
 0
|{z}  3
 x2 y3 x y y3 x x2  | {z }
 | {z } | {z2 3} |{z} | {z 2} |{z} ∂N3  n o
∂N1 ∂N1 ∂N3 ∂N1 ∂N2 ∂x ∆
∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂x
| {z }
[B]
13.4.2 Stiffness Matrix
14 With the constitutive matrix [D] given by Eq. ??, the strain-displacement relation [B] by
Eq. 13.13, we can substitute those two quantities into the general equation for stiffness matrix,
Eq. 12.15:
Z
[k] = [B]T [D][B]dΩ
Ω

Draft
13–4

− x12 0 x3 −x2
x2 y3

 1
0 − x−x 3  " #
Z  x2 2 y3 
 0 0 1  E 1 ν 0
=  y3  ν 1 0
 0 x3 −x2
− x12  1 − ν2
Ω x2 y3  0 0 1−ν
)
 0 − x−x 3 1 | {z 2
}
2 y3 x2
1 [D]
0 y3
0
| {z }
[B]T
 
− x12 1
x2
0 0 0 0
 0 0 0 x3 −x2
− x−x 3 1  tdxdy (13.14-a)
x3 −x2
x2 y3 2 y3 y3
| {z }
x2 y3
− x−x 3
2 y3
1
y3
− x12 1
x2
0 dvol
| {z }
[B]
 
y32 + αx23−2 −y32 − αx3 x3−2 αx2 x3−2 −βy3 x3−2 νx3 y3 + αy3 x3−2 −νx2 y3
 −y32 − αx3 x3−2 y32 + αx23 −αx2 x3 νy3 x3−2 + αx3 y3 −βx3 y3 νx2 y3 
 
 αx2 x3−2 −αx2 x3 αx22 −αx2 y3 αx2 y3 0 
= γ 
 −βy3 x3−2 νy3 x3−2 + αx3 y3 −αx2 y3 αy32 + x23−2 −αy32 − x3 x3−2 x2 x3−2 
 νx3 y3 + αy3 x3−2 −βx3 y3 αx2 y3 −αy32 − x3 x3−2 αy32 + x23 −x2 x3 
−νx2 y3 νx2 y3 0 x2 x3−2 −x2 x3 x22
where α = 1−ν
2 , β= 1+ν
2 , γ= ET
2(1−ν 2 )x2 y3
, x3−2 = x3 − x2 , and y3−2 = y3 − y2 .
13.4.3 Internal Stresses
15Recall from Eq. 12.20 that {σ} = [D] · [B]{∆} hence for this particular element we will
have:
 

 u1 

     


 σxx 
 1 ν 0 − x12 1
x2 0 0 0 0  


u2 



E   x3 −x2 1  u3
σ yy =  ν 1 0  0 0 0 − x−x 3
y3  

 τ 
 1 − ν2 x 2 y3 2 y3 v1 
xy 0 0 1−ν
2 )
x3 −x2
− x−x 3 1
− x12 1
0  






} 
x 2 y3 2 y3 y3 x2 v2
| {z } | {z }| {z 
 

{σ } [D] [B] v3
| {z }
n o
∆
 

 u1 

 
 u2



−y3 y3 0 νx3−2 −νx3 νx2 




  u3
= κ  −νy3 νy3 0 x3−2 −x3 x2  (13.15-a)

 v1 

αx3−2 −αx3 αx2 −αy3 αy3 0 
 


 v2 


 

v3
E
where κ = (1−ν 2 )x2 y3
16 We should note that for this element the stress is independent of x and y because a linear
displacement relation was assumed resulting in a constant strain and stress (for linear elastic
material).
13.4.4 Observations
17 For this element we should note that:

Draft
13.5 Quadrilateral Element
1. Both σ and ε are constants

13–5
2. Interelement equilibrium conditions are not satisfied

3. Interelement continuity of displacement is satisfied
13.5 Quadrilateral Element

Draft
13–6
13.6 Homework
1. Establish the exact displacement expression and the shape functions for an axial member
of length L, and variable cross section given by
A1
F ,u F ,u
1 1 x, u 2 2
L
" µ ¶2 #
2x
A = A1 1 − (13.16)
3L
Formulate the relevant stiffness matrix. (McGuire and Gallagher, Prob. 9.10).
2. Formulate, by use of the work equivalent load approach, the fictitious nodal forces (F1 , M1 , F2 , M2 )
in a beam for the following load in the interval 1-2.
nπx
q = qn sin2 (13.17)
L
3. A three noded axial element, of length 2L, has the following displacement field:
 

 u1 

u=b 1− x2 x2 x2 c
3x
+ 2x
− − 2L
x
+ u2 (13.18)
2L 2L2 L L2 2L2 
 u 
3
is subjected to a temperature change given by:

µ ¶
x x
T = 1− T1 + T3 (13.19)
2L 2L
where T1 and T3 are the temperature change at points 1 and 3. Calculate the relevant
initial force vector.
Note: Strongly advised to use Mathematica

Draft
Chapter 14
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
14.1 Introduction
1 When the frequency of excitation of a structure is less than about a third of its lowest natural
frequency of vibration, then we can neglect inertia effects and treat the problem as a quasi-static
one.
2 If the structure is subjected to an impact load, than one must be primarily concerned with
(stress) wave propagation. In such a problem, we often have high frequencies and the duration
of the dynamic analysis is about the time it takes for the wave to travel across the structure.
3 If inertia forces are present, then we are confronted with a dynamic problem and can analyse
it through any one of the following solution procedures:
1. Natural frequencies and mode shapes (only linear elastic systems)
2. Time history analysis through modal analysis (again linear elastic), or direct integration.
4 Methods of structural dynamics are essentially independent of finite element analysis as these
methods presume that we already have the stiffness, mass, and damping matrices. Those matri-
ces may be obtained from a single degree of freedom system, from an idealization/simplification
of a frame structure, or from a very complex finite element mesh. The time history analysis
procedure remains the same.
14.2 Variational Formulation
5 In a general three-dimensional continuum, the equations of motion of an elementary volume
Ω without damping is
LT σ + b = mü (14.1)
Draft
14–2
where m is the mass density matrix equal to ρI, and b is the vector of body forces. The
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Differential operator L is  ∂ 
∂x 0 0
 0 ∂
0 
 ∂y 
 ∂ 
 0 0 
L=  ∂ ∂
∂z 
 (14.2)
 ∂y ∂x 0 
 ∂ ∂ 
 ∂z 0 ∂x 
∂ ∂
0 ∂z ∂y
6 For linear elastic material

σ = De ε (14.3)
for nonlinear material, the constitutive equations can be written as
σ̇ = Di ε̇ (14.4)
where Di is the tangent stiffness matrix.

7 Whereas Eq. 14.1 describes the body motion in a strong sense, a weak formulation is obtained
by the principle of minimum complementary virtual work (or Weighted Residual/Galerkin)

Z
δuT [LT σ + b − mü]dΩ = 0 (14.5)
Ω
Applying Gauss divergence theorem, Eq. 4.10:

Z Z I Z Z
φdiv qdA = φqT nds − (∇φ)T qdA (14.6)
A s A
and recalling that Lu = ε,

Z Z Z
δu L σdΩ = −
T T
δε σdΩ +
T
δuT σndΓ (14.7)
Ω Ω Γ
thus, Eq. 14.5 transforms into

Z Z
[δuT (mü − b) + δεT σ]dΩ − δuT tdΓ = 0 (14.8)
Ω Γ
so far no assumption has been made with regard to material behavior.

8 Next we will seek the spatial discretization of the virtual work equation (Eq. 14.8). From the
previous chapters, we have the following relations
u = Nu (14.9-a)
T T T
δu = δu N (14.9-b)
ü = Nü (14.9-c)
B = LN (14.9-d)
ε = Bu (14.9-e)
T T T
δε = δu B (14.9-f)
ε̇ = Bu̇ (14.9-g)

Draft
14.2 Variational Formulation
14.2.1 Explicit Time Integration; Central Difference

14–3
9 For explicit integration, we consider the virtual work (Eq. 14.8) at time t
Z Z Z Z
δuT mdΩüt = δuT bt dΩ + δuT tt dΓ − δεT σ t dΩ (14.10)
Ω Ω Γ Ω
Substituting
 
Z ·Z Z ¸  Z
 
δu  B σ dΩ
t
T
 N mNdΩ ü −
T T
N b dΩ + t T t
N t dΓ + =0
T t
(14.11)
| Ω
{z } | Ω
{z Γ
} | Ω {z }
M fet fit
Since this identity must hold for any admissible δu, we conclude that
t
Mü = fet − fit (14.12)
Which represents the semi-discrete linear equation of motion in the explicit time integration in
terms of the mass matrix
Z
M= NT mNdΩ (14.13)
Ω
the vector of external forces

Z Z
fet = T
N b dΩ + t
NT tt dΓ (14.14)
Ω Γ
and the vector of internal forces

Z
fit = BT σ t dΩ (14.15)
Ω
But since σ = Dε = DB, then

Z
fit = BT DBdΩu (14.16)
Ω
10 It should be noted that Eq. 14.13 defines the consistent mass matrix, which is a fully
populated matrix. Alternatively, a lumped mass matrix can be defined, resulting only in a
diagonal matrix. For an axial element, the lumped mass matrix is obtained by placing half of
the total element mass as a particle at each node.
11 For linear elastic systems, and if damping was considered
t t
Mü + Cu̇ + Ku = fet (14.17)
the damping matrix matrix is often expressed in terms of the mass and stiffness matrix, called
Rayleigh damping, as
C = αM + βK (14.18)

Draft
14–4
14.2.2 Implicit Time Integration

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
14.2.2.1 Linear Case
12 For implicit time integrate we consider the virtual work equation at time t + ∆t (instead of
t in the explicit method), thus Eq. 14.8 transforms into

Z Z Z Z
δuT mdΩüt+∆t + δεT σ t+∆t dΩ = δuT tt+∆t dΓ + δuT bt+∆t dΩ (14.19)
Ω Ω Γ Ω
13 For linear problems

σ t+∆t = De But+∆t (14.20)
14 Again, upon proper substitution, this would yield

 
Z Z µZ Z ¶
 
δu  dΓ 
t+∆t

T T
N mNdΩ ü + T
B De BdΩ u t+∆t
− N b T t+∆t
dΩ + N t T t+∆t
=0
| Ω
{z } | Ω
{z } | Ω
{z Γ
}
M K fet+∆t
(14.21)
or
t+∆t
Mü + Kut+∆t = fet+∆t (14.22)
Which represents the semi-discrete linear equation of motion in the implicit time integration.
14.2.2.2 NonLinear Case
15 In nonlinear problems, the constitutive matrix D is no longer constant and we must use the
tangential relation which is linearized as
∆σ = Di ∆ε (14.23)
with the stress at time t + ∆t:

σ t+∆t = σ t + ∆σ (14.24)
16 Substituting into the virtual work equation (Eq. 14.19)

Z Z Z Z Z
T
δu mdΩü t+∆t
+ T
δε ∆σdΩ = δu tT t+∆t
dΓ+ δu bT t+∆t
dΩ− δεT σ t dΩ (14.25)
Ω Ω Γ Ω Ω
| {z }
new term
17 Again, combining with

∆σ = Di B∆u (14.26)
and substituting:
Z Z Z Z Z
t+∆t
δuT [ NT mNdΩ ü + BT Di BdΩ ∆u−( NT bt+∆t dΩ + NT tt+∆t dΓ)− BT σ t dΩ] = 0
Ω Ω Ω Γ Ω
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
M Kt fet+∆t fit
(14.27)

Draft
14.3 Time Discretization
or
14–5
t+∆t
Mü + Kt ∆u = fet+∆t − fit (14.28)
Which represents the semi-discrete nonlinear equation of motion in the implicit time integration.
18 Mathematically Equation ?? represents a system of linear differential equation of second
order, and in principle, the solution of the equations can be obtained by standard procedures
for the solution of differential equations with constant coefficients.
19 However, the procedures proposed for the solution of general systems of differential equations
can become very expensive if the order of the matrices is large - unless specific advantage is
taken of the special characteristics of the coefficient matrices M, C and K.
20 In practical finite element analysis, we are therefore mainly interested in a few effective
methods, namely direct integration and mode superposition. These two techniques are closely
related and the choice for one method or the other is determined only by their numerical
effectiveness. In the present implementation the direct integration method is employed.
21 In the direct integration method Eq. ?? are integrated using a numerical step by step
procedure, the term “direct” meaning that prior to the numerical integration, no transformation
of the equations into a different form is carried out.
14.3.1 Explicit Time Integration
22 For the explicit time integration, we adopt at starting point a slight variation of the differ-
ential equation previously derived, one which includes the effects of damping.
M ü + |{z}
|{z} Cu̇ + |{z}
Ku = fe (14.29)
|{z}
FI (t) FD (t) Fi (t) fe (t)
where M, C and K are the mass, damping and stiffness matrices, fe is the external load vector
and ü, u̇ and u are the acceleration, velocity and displacement vectors of the finite element
assemblage.
23 An alternative way to consider this equation, is to examine the equation of statics at time
t, where FI (t), FD (t), Fi (t), Fe (t) are the inertia, damping, internal and external elastic forces
respectively.
14.3.1.1 Linear Systems
24 For the semi-discretized equation of motion, we adopt the central difference method. This
method is based on a finite difference approximation of the time derivatives of displacement
(velocity and acceleration). Assuming a linear change in displacement over each time step, for

Draft
14–6
the velocity and the acceleration at time t:

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
t ut+∆t − ut−∆t
u̇ = (14.30-a)
2∆t
t ut−∆t − 2ut + ut+∆t
ü = (14.30-b)
∆t2
where ∆t is the time step.
t t
25 Substituting into Eq. 14.17 (Mü + Cu̇ + Ke u = fet ) we obtain
     
 1 1  t+∆t  2  t  1 1  t−∆t
  = fet −    
 ∆t2 M + 2∆t C u K − ∆t2 M u −  ∆t2 M − 2∆t C u
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } (14.31)
a0 a1 a2 a0 a1
| {z } | {z }
b
M bfet
from where we can solve for ut+∆t .

26 It should be noted that:
1. Solution is based on the equilibrium condition at time t
2. No factorization of the stiffness matrix K is necessary (i.e. no K−1 term appears in the
equation).
3. To initiate the method, we should determine the displacements, velocity and acceleration
at time −∆t.
27 Algorithm:
1. Form the stiffness matrix K, mass matrix M, and damping matrix C.
0 0
2. Initialise u0 , u̇ , ü at time t = 0
3. Select the time step ∆t ≤ ∆tcr
1 1 1
4. Determine the constants a0 = ∆t2
, a1 = 2∆t , a2 = 2a0 , a3 = a2 .
5. Select time step ∆t smaller than the critical one.
6. Compute
u−∆t = u0 − ∆tu̇ + a3 ü
0 0
(14.32)
c = a0 M + a1 C,
7. Compute the effective mass matrix M
c (not necessary if lumped mass matrix is used):
8. Triangularize M
c = LDLT
M (14.33)
9. For each step:

(a) Determine the effective loads at time t:
b
fet = fet − (K − a2 M)ut − (a0 M − a1 C)ut−∆t (14.34)
(b) Solve for the displacements at time t + ∆t
LDLT ut+∆t = bfet (14.35)

Draft
(c) If required, solve for velocities and accelerations, strains and stresses at time t
14–7
t
ü = a0 (ut−∆t − 2ut + ut+∆t ) (14.36-a)
t
u̇ = a1 (−ut−∆t + ut+∆t ) (14.36-b)
ε t+∆t
= Bu t+∆t
(14.36-c)
σ t+∆t
= De ε t+∆t
(14.36-d)
(d) Update next time t = t + ∆t and go back to a
28 An explicit time integration has many advantages, the major one is that it does not require
factorisation of the stiffness matrix.

29 If we adopt a lumped, instead of consistent mass, matrix, and there is no damping, then no
factorization is necessary, and Eq. 14.31 reduces to:
µ ¶
1
M ut+∆t = bfet (14.37)
∆t2
where µ ¶ µ ¶
b 2 1
fe = fe − K −
t t
2
M u −
t
2
M ut−∆t (14.38)
∆t ∆t
hence, if the mass is diagonal, there is no need to factorize.
30Furthermore, if the structure stiffness matrix need not be triangularized, then it is not
necessary to assemble the global stiffness matrix. It can be shown that
X
n X
Kut = K(e) ut = Ft(e) (14.39)
i
which means that K(i) ut needed in Eq. 14.38 can be evaluated on the element level by summing
the contributions from each element to the effective load vector. Thus
X 1
b
fet = fet − Ft(i) − M(ut−∆t − 2ut ) (14.40)
i
∆t2
31 Since no structural stiffness matrix needs to be assembled, very large problems can be ef-
fectively solved. This includes quasi-static problems (linear and non-linear) where the load
is applied incrementally in time. Codes duch as DYNA or ABAQUS/EXPLICIT exploit this
feature to perform complex analyses such as metal forming, penetration, crash worthiness, etc...
32 A major disadvantage of the explicit method is that it converges only if
2
∆t < ∆tcr = (14.41)
ωmax
where ωmax is the highest natural frequency (or smallest wave length) of the structure. Recall
that
2π
ω= (14.42)
T
If this condition is violated, numerical instability occurs.

Draft
14–8 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
33 Hence, an eigenvalue analysis of the complete system must first be undertaken. But since
the global structural stiffness matrix is not necessarily assembled, an upper bound estimate of
ωmax is obtained from
(e)
ωmax < ωmax (14.43)
(e)
where ωmax is the maximum frequency of a single finite element (usually the smallest one). It
can in turn be determined from
det(K(e) − (ωmax
e
)2 Me ) = 0 (14.44)
in nonlinear problems, K is the tangent stiffness.

34 Note that the determination of the eigenvalues (which correspond to ω 2 ) of the simple prob-
lem without damping K − ω 2 M can be solved by either expanding the determinant of the
resulting matrix, or simply determining the eigenvalues of M−1 K.
35 Alternatively,
e 2c
ωmax = (14.45)
L
p
where c is the acoustic wave speed c = E/ρ and L is a representative length of element (e).
Essentially, this means that ∆t must be small enough so that information does not propagate
across more than one element per time step.
Example 14-1: MATLAB Code for Explicit Time Integration
%================================================================
%I N I T I A L I Z A T I O N
%================================================================
% Initialize the matrices
M=[2 0;0 1]; K=[6 -2;-2 4];C=[0 0;0 0];P=[0 ; 10];
% determine the eigenvalues, minimum frequency, and delta t critical
omega2=eig(inv(M)*K);
Tcrit=min(2*pi./sqrt(omega2));
Delta_t=Tcrit/10;
% Initialize the displacement and velocity vectors at time = 0;
u_t(1:2,:)=0;
du_t(1:2,:)=0;
Phat_t(1:2,:)=0;
% solve for the initial acceleration at time 0
ddu_t(1:2,:)=inv(M)*(P- K*u_t);
% Initialize the constants
a_0=1/(Delta_t^2);a_1=1/(2*Delta_t);a_2=2*a_0;a_3=1/a_2;
% Determine displacement at t-Delta_t;
u_tmdt=u_t-Delta_t*du_t+a_3*ddu_t;
% Determine the effective mass matrix
Mhat=a_0*M+a_1*C;
MhatInv=inv(Mhat);
u(1:2,1:13)=0;

Draft
d(1:2,1)=u_t;
14–9
%===============================================================
% I T E R A T I O N S
%===============================================================
for i=2:13
% Effective Load
Phat=P-(K-a_2*M)*u_t-(a_0*M-a_1*C)*u_tmdt;
% Solve for the displacement
u_tpdt=MhatInv*Phat;
u_tmdt=u_t;
u_t=u_tpdt;
d(1:2,i)=u_tpdt;
end
14.3.1.2 NonLinear Systems
36 In the nonlinear systems the incremental displacements ∆u, the incremental strains and
stresses and the stiffness matrix are updated according to
∆u = ut+∆t − ut (14.46-a)
∆ε = B∆u (14.46-b)
∆σ = Dt+∆t
i ∆ε (14.46-c)
σ t+∆t
= σ + ∆σ
t
(14.46-d)
Z
Kt+∆t
i = BT Dit+∆t BdΩ (14.46-e)
Ω
In the algorithm shown above, we must evaluate Ki at each time step.
14.3.2 Implicit Case

14.3.2.1 Newmark Method; Forward difference
37 Consider the Taylor series expansions of the displacement and velocity terms about the values
at t
∂ut ∂ 2 ut ∆t2 ∂ 3 ut+∆t ∆t3
ut+∆t = ut + ∆t + + (14.47)
∂t ∂t2 2! ∂t3 3!
t+∆t t ∂ 2 ut ∂ 3 ut+∆t ∆t2
u̇ = u̇ + ∆t + (14.48)
∂t2 ∂t3 2!
38 The above two equations represent the approximate displacement and velocity ( ut+∆t and
t+∆t
u̇ ) by a truncated Taylor series. Looking at the remainder term (last term above),
∂ 2 ut+∆t ∂ 2 ut
∂ 3 ut+∆t ∆t3 ∂t2
− ∆t3
∂t2
R1 = '
∂t3 3! ∆t 3!
2
t+∆t t ∆t
' (ü − ü )
3!
t+∆t t
' β(ü − ü )∆t2 (14.49)

Draft
14–10
Note the presence of t + ∆t because of the forward difference nature of the algorithm.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
39 Similarly,
∂ 2 ut+∆t 2 t
∂ 3 ut+∆t ∆t2 − ∂∂tu2 ∆t2
∂t2
R2 = '
∂t3 2! ∆t 2!
t+∆t t
' γ(ü − ü )∆t (14.50)
β and γ are parameters representing numerical approximations.
40Those paramters will account for R1 and R2 plus additional terms which were dropped from
our Taylor series approximation.
41 Substituting Equations 14.49 and 14.50 into Equations and respectively, we obtain,
2
t t ∆t t+∆t t
ut+∆t = ut + u̇ ∆t + ü + β(ü − ü )∆t2 (14.51)
2
t+∆t t t t+∆t t
u̇ = u̇ + ü ∆t + γ(ü − ü )∆t (14.52)
42 By rearrangement, we obtain,
t+∆t t t t+∆t
u̇ = u̇ + [(1 − γ)ü + γ ü ]∆t (14.53)
t t t+∆t
ut+∆t
= u + u̇ ∆t + [(1/2 − β)ü + β ü
t
]∆t 2
(14.54)
t+∆t t+∆t
fet+∆t = Mü + Cu̇ + Kut+∆t (14.55)
Where the last equation is the equation of equilibrium, Eq. 14.22 expressed at time t + ∆t.
43 It can be shown that Newmark’s forward difference assumes constant average acceleration
over the time step.

44 β and γ are parameters that can be determined to obtain integration accuracy and stability.
If γ = 1/2 and β = 1/6, then we recover the linear acceleration method.

45The scheme is explicit when β is 0. When γ is 1/2, this explicit form has the same numerical
properties as the central difference method.
46 It can be shown that the Newmark method is
1. unconditionally stable if
1
γ ≥ (14.56)
2
γ
β ≥ (14.57)
2
2. conditionally stable if
1
γ ≥ (14.58)
2
γ
β < (14.59)
2
with the following stability limit:
ξ(γ − 1/2) + [γ/2 − β + ξ 2 (γ − 1/2)2 ]1/2
ω∆tcrit = (14.60)
(γ/2 − β)
where ξ is the damping parameter.

Draft
14.4 Free Vibration
14.3.2.2 Linear Case

14–11
t+∆t t+∆t
47 Solving from Eq. 14.54 for ü in terms of ut+∆t and then substituting for ü into Eq.
t+∆t t+∆t
14.53, we obtain equations for ü and u̇ each in terms of the unknown displacements
t+∆t t+∆t
ut+∆t only. These two equations for u̇ and ü are then substituted in Eq. 14.55 to solve
t+∆t t+∆t t+∆t
for u , after which, using Eq. 14.53 and 14.54, ü , and u̇ can be determined.
48 This leads to the following algorithm:
1. Form the stiffness matrix K, mass matrix M, and damping matrix C.
0 0
2. Initialise u0 , u̇ , ü at time t = 0
3. Select the time step ∆t and parameters β and γ.
γ γ
4. Determine the constants a0 = 1
, a1 = β∆t , a2 = 1
β∆t , a3 = 1
− 1, a4 = − 1,
³ ´ β∆t2 2β β
γ
a5 = ∆t
2 β − 2 , a6 = ∆t(1 − γ), a7 = γ∆t.
b K
5. Form the effective stiffness matrix K: b = K + a0 M + a1 C
b = LDLT
6. Triangularize K
7. For each time step:
(a) Determine the effective load at time t + ∆t
b t t t t
fet+∆t = fet+∆t + M(a0 ut + a2 u̇ + a3 ü ) + C(a1 ut + a4 u̇ + a5 ü ) (14.61)
(b) Solve for the displacement at time t + ∆t
LDLT ut+∆t = bfet+∆t (14.62)
(c) Compute the accelerations and velocities

t+∆t t t
ü = a0 (ut+∆t − ut ) − a2 u̇ − a3 ü (14.63-a)
t+∆t t t t+∆t
u̇ = u̇ + a6 ü + a7 ü (14.63-b)
(d) If necessary solve for the stresses
σ t+∆t = f (ut+∆t ) (14.64)
(e) Increase time step t = t + ∆t
14.3.2.3 NonLinear Case
14.4 Free Vibration
49 The governing equation for the free (undamped) vibration of a structure is
Mü + Ku = 0 (14.65)
where the motion is referred to being free, since there are no applied loads.
50 By assuming a harmonic motion
u = φ sin ωt (14.66)

Draft
the natural frequencies ω and the corresponding mode shapes φ can be determined from the
generalized eigenvalue problem
ω 2 Mφ = Kφ (14.67)
or
(K − ω 2 M)φ = 0 (14.68)
Since φ is nontrivial
|K − ω 2 M| = 0 (14.69)
or with ω 2 = λ
|K − λM| = 0 (14.70)
which is the characteristic equation, and λ is called the eigenvalue of the equation, and the
structure is said to respond in the mode corresponding to a particular frequency.
51 For computational purposes, if we premultiply each side of the preceding equation by M−1 ,
then
(M−1 K − λI)φ = 0 (14.71)
It should be noted that a zero eigenvalue is obtained for each possible rigid body motion of a
structure that is not completely supported.
52 Depending on which mass matrix is adopted, slightly different results are obtained. In
general, lumped mass matrices approach the exact value (consistent mass matrix) from below.
53 The mode shapes φ are “shapes” , anfd give a relative magnitude of the DOF, not the
absolute values (since they are the solution to a set of homogeneous equations).
54 The natural frequencies and mode shapes provide a fundamental description of the vibrating
structure.

Draft
14.5 Homework
14.5 Homework
14–13
The mass matrices, as well as the problem statement are taken from Pilkey and Wunderlich,
“Mechanics of Structures, Variational and Computational Methods”.
1) Show that the consistent mass matrix for a beam element is given by
 
156 22L 54 −13L
Z L ρAL 
 22L 4L2 13L −3L2 
ρNT Ndx =   (14.72)
0 420  54 13L 156 −22L 
−13L −3L2 −22L 4L2
If axial motion of the beam is considered (u1 , v1 , θ1 , u2 , v2 , θ2 ) the consistent mass matrix is
 
140 0 0 70 0 0
 0 156 22L 0 54 −13L 
Z  
L
T ρAL 
 0 22L 4L 2 0 13L −3L2 

ρN Ndx =   (14.73)
420  70 0 0 140 0 0 
0  
 0 54 13L 0 156 −22L 
0 −13L −3L2 0 −22L 4L2
If rotary inertia is included, the additional mass matrix is:

 
0 0 0 0 0 0
 0 36 3L 0 −36 3L 
 

ρAry2 0 3L 4L2 0 −3L −L2 
 
  (14.74)
30L 

0 0 0 0 0 0 

 0 −36 −3L 0 36 −3L 
0 3L −L2 0 −3L 4L2
2) Perform two time history analysis of the following frame:

B C
P(t) P(t) [N]
2
10
3.0 m
1 3
Y
1111
0000 A D 1111
0000 1 2 t [sec]
0000
1111
0000
1111 1111
0000
0000
1111
1.732 m 3.0 m
using
1. Explicit central difference scheme,
2. Implicit Newmark method
The properties of the elements are as follows
Member Iy [cm4 ] A [cm2 ]

1&2 2,356 32
3 5245 66
Draft
E = 200 GN/m2 , and ρ = 7, 800 Kg/m3 . Assume the damping matrix C to be proportional
to the mass matrix, 0.000625M. Take ∆T = 0.5 × 10−3 .
Plot the displacements at node C from time t = 0 to t = 2.0 sec.
Note that the displacements at time t = 0 correspond to the static solution (and not zero).

Draft
Chapter 15
GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
15.1 Introduction
1 With refernce to Fig. 15.1, we distinguish different levels of analysis:

First order
elastic analysis Stiffening
Load
Bifurcation Elastic Critical Load

Elastic Stability Limit
Bifurcation
Softening
Second order
Bifurcation elastic analysis
Inelastic Critical Load
Plastic Limit Load
First order inelastic analysis
Inelastic Stability Limit
Second order
inelastic analysis
Displacement
Figure 15.1: Level of Analysis
First Level elastic which excludes anly nonlinearities. This is usually acceptable for service
loads.
Elastic Critical load is usually determined from an eigenvalue analysis resulting in the
buckling load.
Second-order elastic accounts for the effects of finite deformation and displacements, equi-
librium equations are written in terms of the geometry of the deformed shape, does not
account for material non-linearilties, may be able to detect bifurcation and or increased
stiffness (when a member is subjected to a tensile axial load).
First-order inelastic equilibrium equations written in terms of the geometry of the unde-
formed structure, accounts for material non-linearity.
Draft
15–2 GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
Second-order inelastic equations of equilibrium written in terms of the geometry of the

deformed shape, can account for both geometric and material nonlinearities. Most suitable
to determine failure or ultimate loads.
2 This chapter will focus on elastic critical load determination. We will begin by reviewing the
derivation of some of the fundamental equations in stability analysis. We will examine both
the strong form, and the weak formulation.
15.1.1 Strong Form
3 Column buckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler in 1744.

4 An initially straight member is concentrically loaded, and all fibers remain elastic until buck-
ling occur. For buckling to occur, it must be assumed that the column is slightly bent as shown
in Fig. 15.2. Note, in reality no column is either perfectly straight, and in all cases a minor
P P
x
x and y are
principal axes
x
Slightly bent position

L
Figure 15.2: Euler Column
imperfection is present.
15.1.1.1 Lower Order Differential Equation; Essential B.C.
5 At any location x along the column, the imperfection in the column compounded by the
concentric load P , gives rise to a moment
Mz = P y (15.1)
Note that the value or sign of y is irrelevant.
6 Recalling that
d2 y Mz
2
= (15.2)
dx EI
upon substitution, we obtain the following differential equation
d2 y P
− y=0 (15.3)
dx2 EI
P
7 Letting k 2 = EI , the solution to this second-order linear differential equation is
y = −A sin kx − B cos kx (15.4)
8 The two constants are determined by applying the boundary conditions

Draft
15.1 Introduction
1. y = 0 at x = 0, thus B = 0
15–3
2. y = 0 at x = L, thus
A sin kL = 0 (15.5)
9 This last equation can be satisfied if: 1) A = 0, that is there is no deflection; 2) kL = 0, that
is no applied load; or 3)
kL = nπ (15.6)
P
¡ nπ ¢2
Thus buckling will occur if EI = L or
n2 π 2 EI
P =
L2
10The fundamental buckling mode, i.e. a single curvature deflection, will occur for n = 1; Thus
Euler critical load for a pinned column is
π 2 EI
Pcr = (15.7)
L2
11 The corresponding critical stress is
π2 E
σcr = ³ ´2 (15.8)
L
r
where I = Ar2 .
12 Note that buckling will take place with respect to the weakest of the two axis.
15.1.1.2 Higher Order Differential Equation; Essential and Natural B.C.
13 In the preceding approach, the buckling loads were obtained for a column with specified
boundary conditons. A second order differential equation, valid specifically for the member
being analyzed was used.
14 In the next approach, we derive a single fourth order equation which will be applicable to
any column regardelss of the boundary conditions.

15 Considering a beam-column subjected to axial and shear forces as well as a moment, Fig.
dv between the
15.3, taking the moment about i for the beam segment and assuming the angle d x
axis of the beam and the horizontal axis is small, leads to
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
dM (dx)2 dV dv
M− M+ dx + w + V + dx − P dx = 0 (15.9)
dx 2 dx dx
16 Neglecting the terms in dx2 which are small, and then differentiating each term with respect
to x, we obtain
d2 M dV d2 v
− − P =0 (15.10)
dx2 dx dx2

Draft
15–4
w
w(x) w
V+ δ V dx
P M
P
x P i
δx
1111
0000 1111
0000 θi i
1111
0000 1111
0000 δv M+δ M dx
P
δx
P δx j
dx P
y, u dx θj
Figure 15.3: Simply Supported Beam Column; Differential Segment; Effect of Axial Force P
17 However, considering equilibrium in the y direction gives

dV
= −w (15.11)
dx
18 From beam theory, neglecting axial and shear deformations, we have
d2 v
M = −EI (15.12)
dx2
19 Substituting Eq. 15.11 and 15.12 into 15.10, and assuming a beam of uniform cross section,
we obtain
d4 v d2 v
EI 4 − P 2 = w (15.13)
dx dx
P
20 Introdcing k 2 = EI , the general solution of this fourth order differential equation to any set
of boundary conditions is
v = C1 sin kx + C2 cos kx + C3 x + C4 (15.14)
21 If we consider again the stability of a hinged-hinged column, the boundary conditions are
Essential Natural
v = 0, v,xx = 0 at x = 0 (15.15)
v = 0, v,xx = 0 at x = L
substitution of the two conditions at x = 0 leads to C2 = C4 = 0. From the remaining

conditions, we obtain
C1 sin kL + C3 L = 0 (15.16-a)
−C1 k sin kl = 0
2
(15.16-b)
these relations are satisfied either if C1 = C3 = 0 or if sin kl = C3 = 0. The first alternative

leads to the trivial solution of equilibrium at all loads, and the second to kL = nπ for n =
1, 2, 3 · · ·. For n = 1, the critical load is
π 2 EI
Pcr = (15.17)
L2
which was derived earlier using the lower order differential equation.

Draft
15.1 Introduction
22 Next we consider a column with one end fixed (at x = 0), and one end hinged (at x = L).
15–5
The boundary conditions are

v = 0, v,xx = 0 at x = 0
(15.18)
v = 0, v,x = 0 at x = L
These boundary conditions will yield C2 = C4 = 0, and
sin kL − kL cos kL = 0 (15.19)
But since cos kL can not possibly be equal to zero, the preceding equation can be reduced to
tan kL = kL (15.20)
which is a transcendental algebraic equation and can only be solved numerically. We are
essentially looking at the intersection of y = x and y = tan x, Fig. 15.4 and the smallest
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
-8.0
-10.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
Figure 15.4: Solution of the Tanscendental Equation for the Buckling Load of a Fixed-Hinged
Column
P
positive root is kL = 4.4934, since k2 = EI , the smallest critical load is
(4.4934)2 π2
Pcr = EI = EI (15.21)
L2 (0.699L)2
Note that if we were to solve for x such that v,xx = 0 (i.e. an inflection point), then x = 0.699L.
23 We observe that in using the higher order differential equation, we can account for both
natural and essential boundary conditions.

Draft
15–6
15.1.2 Weak Form

15.1.2.1 Strain Energy
24 Considering a uniform section prismatic element, Fig. ??, subjected to axial and flexural
deformation (no shear), the Lagrangian finite strain-displacement relation is given by ??
1
εxx = u,x + (u2,x + v,x
2 2
+ w,x ) (15.22)
2
25 Recalling from Strength of Materials

)
d2 v = M d2 v
dx 2 EI ε=y (15.23)
σ = My dx2
I
thus, the total strain would be

Ã ! µ ¶2
du d2 v 1 dv
εxx = −y + (15.24)
dx
|{z} dx2 2 dx
| {z } | {z }
Axial Flexure Large Deformation
26 We note that the first and second terms are the familiar components of axial and flexural
strains respectively, and the third one (which is nonlinear) is obtained from large-deflection
strain-displacement.
27 The Strain energy of the element is given by
Z
1
Ue = Eε2xx dΩ (15.25)
2 Ω
28 Substituting Eq. 15.24 into U e we obtain

 Ã !2
Z Z µ ¶2 µ ¶4 µ ¶Ã !

du d2 v 1 dv du d2 v
Ue = 1
2 + y2 + − 2y
L A dx dx2 4 dx dx dx2 (15.26)
µ ¶³ ´2 ³ ´³ ´2 ¸
d2 v
−y d dv + du dv EdAdx
x2 dx dx dx
29 Noting that Z Z Z
dA = A; ydA = 0; y 2 dA = I (15.27)
A A A
for y measured from the centroid, U e reduces to
 Ã !2 
Z µ ¶2 µ ¶4 µ ¶µ ¶2
1 du d2 v A dv du dv
Ue = E A +I + +A  dx (15.28)
2 L dx dx2 4 dx dx dx
³ ´4
We discard the highest order term A dv in order to transform the above equation into a
4 dx
linear instability formulation.

Draft
15.1 Introduction
30 Under the assumption of an independent prebuckling analysis for axial loading, the axial
15–7
load Px is
du du Px
Px = EA ⇒A = (15.29)
dx dx E
Thus Eq. 15.28 reduces to
 Ã !2 
Z µ ¶2 µ ¶2
1 EA
du d2 v dv  dx
Ue = + EI + Px (15.30)
2 L dx dx2 dx
31 We can thus decouple the strain energy into two components, one associated with axial and
the other with flexural deformations
U e = Uae + Ufe (15.31-a)

Z µ ¶2
1 du
Uae = EA dx (15.31-b)
2 L dx
 Ã !2 
Z µ ¶2
1 EI
d2 v dv  dx
Ufe = + Px (15.31-c)
2 L dx2 dx
15.1.2.2 Euler Equation
32 Recall, from Eq. 10.200 that for a functional in terms of two field variables (u and v) with
higher order derivatives of the form
Z Z
Π= F (x, y, u, v, u,x , u,y , v,x , v,y , · · · , v,yy )dxdy (15.32)
there would be as many Euler equations as dependent field variables, Eq. 10.201


 ∂F
− ∂ ∂F
− ∂ ∂F
+ ∂ 2 ∂F
+ ∂2 ∂F
+ ∂ 2 ∂F
= 0
∂u ∂x ∂u,x ∂y ∂u,y ∂x2 ∂u,xx ∂x∂y ∂u,xy ∂y 2 ∂u,yy
(15.33)

2 ∂2 ∂ 2 ∂F

∂F
∂v − ∂x ∂v,x −
∂ ∂F ∂ ∂F
∂y ∂v,y
∂
+ ∂x ∂F
2 ∂v
,xx
+ ∂F
∂x∂y ∂v,xy + ∂y 2 ∂v,yy
= 0
33 For the problem at hand, those two equations reduce to

Z
1h i
Ufe = 2
EIv,xx 2
+ Px v,x dx (15.34)
L |2 {z }
F
and the corresponding Euler equation will be
∂ ∂F ∂ 2 ∂F
− + 2 =0 (15.35)
∂x ∂v,x ∂x ∂v,xx
The terms of the Euler Equation are given by
∂F
= Px v,x (15.36-a)
∂v,x
∂F
= EIv,xx (15.36-b)
∂v,xx
Draft
34 Substituting into the Euler equation, and assuming constant Px , and EI, we obtain
d4 v d2 v
EI − Px =0 (15.37)
dx4 dx2
which is identical to Eq. 15.13
15.2 Finite Element Discretization
35 Assuming a functional representation of the transverse displacements in terms of the four

joint displacements
v = Nu (15.38-a)
dv
= N,x u (15.38-b)
dx
d2 v
= N,xx u (15.38-c)
dx2
36 Substituting this last equation into Eq. 15.31-c, the element potential energy is given by
Πe = Ufe + W e (15.39-a)
1 1
= bue c[ke ] {ue } + bue c[kg ] {ue } − buc {P} (15.39-b)
2 2
where ·Z ¸
[ke ] = EI {N,xx } bN,xx cdx (15.40)
L
and
· Z ¸
[kg ] = P {N,x } bN,x cdx (15.41)
L
where [ke ] is the conventional element flexural stiffness matrix.

37 [kg ] introduces the considerations related to elastic instability. We note that its terms solely
depend on geometric parameters (length), therefore this matrix is often referred to as the
geometric stiffness matrix.
38 Using the shape functions for flexural elements, Eq. 11.23, and substituting into Eq. 15.40
and Eq. 15.41 we obtain
u1 v1 θ1 u2 v2 θ2
 
EA
L 0 0 − EA
L 0 0
 0 12EI 6EI
− 12EI 6EI 
 L3 L2
0 L3 L2 
 
 0 6EI 4EI
0 − 6EI 2EI 
ke = 
 − EA
L2 L
EA
L2 L 
 (15.42)
 L 0 0 L 0 0 
 
 0 − 12EI
L3
− 6EI
L2
0 12EI
L3
− 6EI
L2 
0 6EI
L2
2EI
L 0 − L2
6EI 4EI
L
Draft
15.3 Elastic Instability; Bifurcation Analysis
which is the same element stiffness matrix derived earlier in Eq. 13.9.
15–9
39 The geometric stiffness matrix is given by
u1 v1 θ1 u2 v2 θ2
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
 0 6 L
0 − 65 L 
 5 10 10 
 
P  
2
 0
L
10
2 2
15 L 0 − 10
L
− L30 
kg = (15.43)
L 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 
 0 − 65 − 10
L
0 6
5 − 10
L

L2
0 L
10 − 30 0 − 10
L 2 2
15 L
40 The equilibrium relation is thus

ku = P (15.44)
where the element stiffness matrix is expressed in terms of both the elastic and geometric
components)
k = k e + kg (15.45)
41 In a global formulation,we would have
K = K e + Kg (15.46)
we note that the structure becomes stiffer for tensile load P applied through Kg , and weaker
in compression.
42 We assume that conservative loading is applied, that is the direction of the load does not
“follow” the deflected direction of the member upon which it acts.
43 In elastic instability, the intensity of the axial load system to cause buckling is yet unknown,
the incremental stiffness matrix must first be numerically evaluated using an arbitrary chosen
load intensity (since Kg is itself a function of P ).
44For buckling to occur, the intensity of the axial load system must be λ times the initially
∗
arbitrarily chosen intensity of the force. Note that for a structure, the initial distribution of P
must be obtained from a linear elastic analysis. Hence, the buckling load, P is given by
∗
P = λP (15.47)
45 Since the geometric stiffness matrix is proportional to the internal forces at the start, it
follows that
Kg = λK∗g (15.48)
where K∗g corresponds to the geometric stiffness matrix for unit values of the applied loading
∗
(P = 1).

Draft
15–10
46
The elastic stiffness matrix Ke remains a constant, hence we can write

∗
(Ke + λK∗g )u −λP = 0
| {z }
P
47 The displacements are in turn given by

∗
u = (Ke + λK∗g )−1 λP
and for the displacements to tend toward infinity (i.e buckling/bifurcation/instability), then
|Ke + λK∗g | = 0 (15.49)
which can also be expressed as
|K−1
g Ke + λI| = 0 (15.50)
This is an eigenvalue problem.

48 Alternatively, it can simply be argued that there is no unique solution (bifurcation condition)
to u.
49 The lowest value of λ, λcrit will give the buckling load for the structure and the buckling
loads will be given by
∗
Pcrit = λcrit P (15.51)
50 Finally, the corresponding deformed shape is directly obtained from the corresponding eigen-
vector.
Example 15-1: Column Stability
Determine the buckling load of the following column.

P
1
1
0
0
1
3 2
0
1
L
6 5
4
9
11
00 8
7

Draft
Solution:
15–11
1. The following elastic stiffness matrices are obtained
1 2 3 4 5 6
 
EA
L 0 0 − EA
L 0 0
 0 12EI 6EI
− 12EI 6EI 
 L3 L2
0 L3 L2 
 
 0 6EI 4EI
0 − L2
6EI 2EI 
k1e =  L2 L L  (15.52-a)
 − EA 0 0 EA
0 0 
 L L 
 
 0 − 12EI
L3
− 6EI
L2
0 12EI
L3
− 6EI
L2 
0 6EI
L2
2EI
L 0 − 6EI
L2
4EI
L
4 5 6 7 8 9
 
EA
L 0 0 − EA
L 0 0
 0 12EI 6EI
− 12EI 6EI 
 L3 L2
0 L3 L2 
 
 0 6EI 4EI
0 − 6EI 2EI 
k2e =  L2 L L2 L  (15.52-b)
 − EA 0 0 EA
0 0 
 L L 
 
 0 − 12EI
L3
− 6EI
L2
0 12EI
L3
− 6EI
L2 
0 6EI
L2
2EI
L 0 − 6EI
L2
4EI
L
2. Similarly, the geometric stiffness matrices are given by
1 2 3 4 5 6
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 6 L
0 − 65 L 
 5 10 10 
 
−P  
2
0
L 2 2
15 L 0 − 10
L
− L30 
k1g = 10 (15.53-a)
L 
0 0 0 0 0 0 

 
0 − 65 − 10
L
0 6
5 − 10
L

2
0 L
10 − L30 0 − 10
L 2 2
15 L
4 5 6 7 8 9
 
0 6
5
L
10 0 − 65 L
10
 2 
0 L 2 2
15 L 0 − 10
L
− L30 
−P 
0
10 

k2g = 0 0 0 0 0 (15.53-b)
L 
0


 − 65 − 10
L
0 6
5 − 10
L

2
0 L
10 − L30 0 − 10
L 2 2
15 L
3. The structure’s stiffness matrices Ke and Kg can now be assembled from the element
stiffnesses. Eliminating rows and columns 2, 7, 8, 9 corresponding to zero displacements
in the column, we obtain
1 4 3 5 6
 AL2 2 
I − AL
I 0 0 0
 AL2
0 
2
− I 2 AL 0 0 
EI  I 
Ke =  0 0 4L2 −6L 2L2  (15.54)
L3 


0 0 −6L 24 0 
0 0 2L2 0 8L2

Draft
15–12
and
1 4 3 5 6
 
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 
−P 
0 2 2 −L −L2


Kg =  0 15 L  (15.55)
L 
0 0 −L
10
12
30
0


10 5
−L2 4 2
0 0 30 0 15 L
4. Noting that in this case K∗g = Kg for P = 1, the determinant |Ke + λK∗g | = 0 leads to
1 4 3 5 6
¯ 2 2 ¯
1 ¯¯ ALI − AL
I 0 0 0 ¯
¯
4 ¯¯ − AL ¯
2 2
2 AL 0 0 0 ¯
¯ I I ¯
3 ¯¯ 0 0 4L − 15
2 2 λL4
EI −6L + 101 λL3
EI
2
2L + 301 λL4
EI
¯=0
¯ (15.56)
¯ 1 λL3 λL2 ¯
5¯ 0 0 −6L + 10 24 − 12 0 ¯
¯ EI 5 EI ¯
6¯ 0 0 1 λL4
2L2 + 30 EI 0 4 λL4
8L2 − 15 EI
¯
AL2 λL2
5. Introducing φ = I and µ = EI , the determinant becomes
1 4 3 5 6
¯ ¯
1 ¯¯ φ −φ 0 0 0 ¯
¯
4 ¯¯ −φ 2φ ¡
0 ¢ 0 0 ¯
¯
¯ µ µ µ ¯
3¯ 0 0 2 2 − 15 −6L
¡
+ 10 2 + 30 ¯ = 0 (15.57)
¯ µ¢ ¯
5 ¯¯ 0 µ
0 −6L + 10 12 2 − 5 ¡
0 ¢ ¯¯
6¯ 0 0 µ
2 + 30 0 µ ¯
4 2 − 15
6. Expanding the determinant, we obtain the cubic equation in µ
3µ3 − 220µ2 + 3, 840µ − 14, 400 = 0 (15.58)
and the lowest root of this equation is µ = 5.1772 .

7. We note that from Eq. 15.21, the exact solution for a column of length L was
(4.4934)2 (4.4934)2
Pcr = EI = EI = 5.0477 EI
L2
(15.59)
l2 (2L)2
and thus, the numerical value is about 2.6 percent higher than the exact one.
51 The mathematica code for this operation is:

(* Define elastic stiffness matrices *)
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_]:={
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },
{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
}
ke1=N[ke[e,a,l,i]]
ke2=N[ke[e,a,l,i]]

Draft
15.3 Elastic Instability; Bifurcation Analysis 15–13
(* Assemble structure elastic stiffness matrices *)

ke={
{ke1[[3,3]], ke1[[3,5]] , ke1[[3,6]] },
{ ke1[[5,3]], ke1[[5,5]]+ke2[[2,2]], ke1[[5,6]]+ke2[[2,3]]},
{ ke1[[6,3]], ke1[[6,5]]+ke2[[3,2]], ke1[[6,6]]+ke2[[3,3]]}
}
WriteString["mat.out",MatrixForm[ke1]]
WriteString["mat.out",MatrixForm[ke]]
(* Define geometric stiffness matrices *)
kg[p_,l_]:=p/l{
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }
}
kg1=kg[p,l]
kg2=kg[p,l]
(* Assemble structure geometric stiffness matrices *)
kg={
{kg1[[3,3]], kg1[[3,5]] , kg1[[3,6]] },
{ kg1[[5,3]], kg1[[5,5]]+kg2[[2,2]], kg1[[5,6]]+kg2[[2,3]]},
{ kg1[[6,3]], kg1[[6,5]]+kg2[[3,2]], kg1[[6,6]]+kg2[[3,3]]}
}
(* Determine critical loads in terms of p (note p=1) *)
p=1
keigen= l^2 (Inverse[kg] . ke)/( e i)
pcrit=N[Eigenvalues[keigen]]
(* Alternatively*)
knew =ke - x kg
pcrit2=NSolve[Det[knew]==0,x]
Example 15-2: Frame Stability
Determine the buckling load for the following frame. Neglect axial deformation.
θ2 P P
θ3
u1 u1
I=200
I=50 6’
10’
I=100
111
000
111
000
15’

Draft
15–14
Solution:
The element stiffness matrices are given by
u1 θ2 0 0
 
20 1, 208 ··· ···
 1, 208 ··· ···
 96, 667 
k1e =   (15.60-a)
 ··· ··· ··· ···
··· ··· ··· ···
u1 θ2 0 0
 
0.01 0.10 ··· ···
 0.10 ··· ···
 16.00 
k1g = −P   (15.60-b)
 ··· ··· ··· ···
··· ··· ··· ···
0 θ2 0 θ3
 
··· ··· ··· ···
 · · · 128, 890 · · · 64, 440 
 
k2e =   (15.60-c)
··· ··· ··· ··· 
· · · 64, 440 · · · 128, 890
u1 θ3 0 0
 
47 1, 678 ··· ···
 1, 678 ··· ···
 80, 556 
k3e =   (15.60-d)
 ··· ··· ··· ···
··· ··· ··· ···
u1 θ3 0 0
 
0.01667 0.1 ··· ···
 0.1 ··· ···
 9.6 
k3g = −P   (15.60-e)
 ··· ··· ··· ···
··· ··· ··· ···
The global equilibrium relation can now be written as
(Ke − P Kg ) δ = 0 (15.61)
u θ2 θ3
¯ 1 ¯
¯ (66.75) − P (0.026666) (1, 208.33) − P (0.1) (1, 678.24) − P (0.1) ¯¯
¯
¯ ¯
¯ (1, 208.33) − P (0.1) (225, 556.) − P (16.) (64, 444.4) − P (0) ¯ = 0 (15.62)
¯ ¯
¯ (1, 678.24) − P (0.1) (64, 444.) − P (0) (209, 444.) − P (9.6) ¯
The smallest buckling load amplification factor λ is thus equal to 2, 017 kips.
(* Initialize constants *)
a1=0
a2=0
a3=0
i1=100
i2=200
i3=50
l1=10 12
l2=15 12
l3=6 12

Draft
15.4 Second-Order Elastic Analysis; Geometric Non-Linearity
e1=29000
15–15
e2=e1
e3=e1
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_]:={
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },
{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
}
ke1=ke[e1,a1,l1,i1]
ke2=ke[e2,a2,l2,i2]
ke3=ke[e3,a3,l3,i3]
kg[l_,p_]:=p/l{
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }
}
kg1=kg[l1,1]
kg3=kg[l3,1]
(* Assemble structure elastic and geometric stiffness matrices *)
ke={
{ ke1[[2,2]]+ke3[[2,2]] , ke1[[2,3]] , ke3[[2,3]] },
{ ke1[[3,2]] , ke1[[3,3]]+ke2[[3,3]] , ke2[[3,6]] },
{ ke3[[3,2]] , ke2[[6,3]] , ke2[[6,6]]+ke3[[3,3]] }
}
kg={
{ kg1[[2,2]]+kg3[[2,2]] , kg1[[2,3]] , kg3[[2,3]] },
{ kg1[[3,2]] , kg1[[3,3]] , 0 },
{ kg3[[3,2]] , 0 , kg3[[3,3]] }
}
(* Determine critical loads in terms of p (note p=1) *)
p=1
keigen=Inverse[kg] . ke
pcrit=N[Eigenvalues[keigen]]
modshap=N[Eigensystems[keigen]]
51From Eq. 15.45 it is evident that since kg depends on the magnitude of Px , which itself may
be an unknown in a framework, then we do have a geometrically non-linear problem.
52 We rewrite Eq. 15.46 as
[Ke + Kg ] u = P (15.63)
but since Kg depends on the axial laod P , the preoblem is nonlinear.

Draft
53 A simple way to solve this nonlinear equation is to use a step-by-step incremental proce-
dure. The linearized incremental formulation can be obtained by applying an incremental

operator ∆
n o
∆P = [Ke + Kg ]i−1 {∆u}i (15.64)
i
n o
{∆u}i = [Ke + Kg ]−1
i−1 ∆P (15.65)
i
Example 15-3: Effect of Axial Load on Flexural Deformation
Determine the midspan displacement and member end forces for the beam-column shown
below in terms of Px ; The concentrated force is 50 kN applied at midspan, E=2 × 109 kN/m2
and I=2 × 10−3 m4 .
50 kN
80,000 kN1
0 1
0 80,000 kN
1
0 0
1
0
1 0
1
0
1 6m 6m
0
1
Solution:
Using two elements for the beam column, the only degrees of freedom are the deflection and
rotation at midspan (we neglect the axial deformation).
The element stiffness and geometric matrices are given by
0 0 0 0 v1 θ2
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 222, 222. 666, 666. 0 −222, 222. 666, 666. 
 
0 −666, 
 666, 666. 2, 666, 666 0. 666. 1, 333, 333 
[K1e ] =   (15.66)
0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 −222, 222. −666, 666. 0 222, 222. −666, 666. 
0 666, 666. 1, 333, 333 0. −666, 666. 2, 666, 666
0 v1 θ2 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 222, 222. 666, 666. 0 −222, 222. 666, 666. 
 
0 666, 666. 2, 666, 666 0. −666, 666. 1, 333, 333 
2  
[Ke ] =   (15.67)
0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 −222, 222. −666, 666. 0 222, 222. −666, 666. 
0 666, 666. 1, 333, 333 0. −666, 666. 2, 666, 666
0 0 0 0 v1 θ2
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
 0 −16, 000 −8, 000 0 16, 000 −8, 000 
 
 0 −8, 000 −64, 000 16, 000 
1  0 8, 000 
[Kg ] =   (15.68)
0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 16, 000 8, 000 0 −16, 000 8, 000 
0 −8, 000 16, 000 0. 8, 000 −64, 000
Draft
0 v1 θ2 0 0 0
15–17
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
 0 −16, 000 −8, 000 0 16, 000 −8, 000 
 
 0 −8, 000 −64, 000 16, 000 
2  0 8, 000 
[Kg ] =   (15.69)
0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 16, 000 8, 000 0 −16, 000 8, 000 
0 −8, 000 16, 000 0. 8, 000 −64, 000
Assembling the stiffness and geometric matrices we get
"
v1 θ2 #
412, 444. 0.
[K] = (15.70)
0. 5, 205, 330
and the displacements would be

( ) ( )
v1 −0.00012123
= (15.71)
θ2 0
and the member end forces for element 1 are given by

   

 Plf t 
 
 ulf t 


 
 
 


 Vlf t 
 
 vlf t 


 M 
 h i
 θ 

lf t lf t
= [K1e ] + [K1g ]

 Prgt 
 
 urgt 


 
 
 


 Vrgt 
 
 vrgt 


 
 
 

Mrgt θrgt
0 0 0 0 v1 θ2
  
0 0 0 0 0 ,0 
 0 

 0 206, 222.  
 658, 667. 0 −206, 222. 658, 667.  

 0 


 0 658, 667.  
 

 260, 2670 0 −658, 667. 1, 349, 330  0
=  
0 0 0 0 0 0  0 
 



 0 −206, 222 −658, 667. 0 206, 222. −658, 667.   
 −0.00012123 



 
0 658, 667. 1, 349, 330 0 −658, 667. 2, 602, 670 0
 

 0 


 


 25. 


 79.8491 

= (15.72-a)

 0. 


 


 −25. 


 

79.8491
Note that had we not accounted for the axial forces, then
( ) ( )
v1 −0.0001125
= (15.73-a)
θ2 0
   

 Plf t 
 
 0 

 
 
 

 Vlf t 
 
 25. 



 M 
 
 75. 

lf t
= (15.73-b)

 Prgt 
 
 0. 

 
 
 


 Vrgt 
 
 −25. 

Victor Saouma 
 
 
 
 Element I; Framed Structures
Finite
Mrgt 75.
Draft
Alternatively, if instead of having a compressive force, we had a tensile force, then

( ) ( )
v1 −0.000104944
= (15.74-a)
θ2 0
   

 Plf t 
 
 0 


 
 
 


 Vlf t 
 
 25. 


 
 
 

Mlf t 70.8022
= (15.74-b)

 Prgt 
 
 0. 


 
 
 


 Vrgt 
 
 −25. 


 
 
 

Mrgt 70.8022
We observe that the compressive force increased the displacements and the end moments,
whereas a tensile one stiffens the structure by reducing them.
The Mathematica to solve this problem follows
OpenWrite["mat.out"]
a1=1; a2=1;
i1=1 l^3/12;i2=i1;
l1=12;l2=12;
e1=200000;e2=e1;e3=e1;
theta1=N[Pi/8];theta2=Pi-theta1;
load
i1=i
i2=i1
l=6
l1=l
l2=6
p=-80000 (* negative compression *)
load={-50,0}
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_]:={
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },
{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
}
ke1=N[ke[e,a1,l1,i1]]
ke2=N[ke[e,a2,l2,i2]]
(* Assemble structure elastic stiffness matrices *)
ke=N[{
{ ke1[[5,5]]+ke2[[2,2]], ke1[[5,6]]+ke2[[2,3]]},
{ ke1[[6,5]]+ke2[[3,2]], ke1[[6,6]]+ke2[[3,3]]}
}]
WriteString["mat.out",MatrixForm[ke]]
kg[p_,l_]:=p/l {
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }

Draft
}
15–19
kg1=N[kg[p,l1]]
kg2=N[kg[p,l2]]
(* Assemble structure geometric stiffness matrices *)
kg=N[{
{ kg1[[5,5]]+kg2[[2,2]], kg1[[5,6]]+kg2[[2,3]]},
{ kg1[[6,5]]+kg2[[3,2]], kg1[[6,6]]+kg2[[3,3]]}
}]
(* Determine critical loads and normalize wrt p *)
keigen=Inverse[kg] . ke
pcrit=N[Eigenvalues[keigen] p]
(* Note that this gives lowest pcrit=1.11 10^6, exact value is 1.095 10^6 *)
(* Add elastic to geometric structure stiffness matrices *)

k=ke+kg
(* Invert stiffness matrix and solve for displacements *)
km1=Inverse[k]
dis=N[km1 . load]
(* Displacements of element 1*)
dis1={0, 0, 0, 0, dis[[1]], dis[[2]]}
k1=ke1+kg1
(* Member end forces for element 1 with axial forces *)
endfrc1=N[k1 . dis1]
(* Member end forces for element 1 without axial forces *)

knopm1=Inverse[ke]
disnop=N[knopm1 . load]
disnop1={0, 0, 0, 0, disnop[[1]], disnop[[2]]}
(* Displacements of element 1*)
endfrcnop1=N[ke1 . disnop1]
Example 15-4: Bifurcation
Analyse the stability of the following structure. Compare the axial force caused by the
coupled membrane/flexural effects with the case where there is no interaction.
1,000
1
0
0
1
0
1
12
0
1
0
1
12
1
0 π/8 π/8 1
0
0
1 0
1
Solution:
In the following solution, we will first determine the axial forces based on the elastic stiffness
matrix only. Then, on the basis of those axial forces, we shall determine the geometric stiffness
matrix, and solve for the displacements. Because of the non-linearity of the problem, we may

Draft
have to iterate in order to reach convergence. Following each analysis, we shall recompute the
geometric stiffness matrix on the basis of the axial loads detemined from the previous iteration.
Note that convergence will be reached only for stable problems. If the method fails to
converge, it implies possible biffurcation which could be caused by elastic displacements ap-
proaching L sin θ, due to either θ being too small, or E being too small (i.e not stiff enough).
NEEDS SOME CORRECTION

a1 = 1
a2 = 1
i1 = 1 1^3/12
i2 = i1
l1 = 12
l2 = 12
e1 = 200000
e2 = e1
e3 = e1
theta1 =N[Pi/8]
theta2 = Pi-theta1
load ={0, -1000, 0}
normold = 0
epsilon = 0.01
puncpl = load[[2]] / (Sin[theta1] 2)
(*
Define elastic stiffness matrices
*)
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_] := {
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },
{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
}
(*
Define geometric stiffness matrix
*)
kg[l_,p_] := p/l {
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }
}
(*
Define Transformation matrix and its transpose
*)
gam[theta_] := {
{ Cos[theta] , Sin[theta], 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ -Sin[theta], Cos[theta], 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , Cos[theta] , Sin[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , -Sin[theta] , Cos[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1 }
}
gamt[theta_] := {

Draft
{ Cos[theta] , -Sin[theta], 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
15–21
{ Sin[theta] , Cos[theta] , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , Cos[theta] , -Sin[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , Sin[theta] , Cos[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1 }
}
(*
Define functions for local displacments and loads
*)
u[theta_,v1_,v2_] := Cos[theta] v1 + Sin[theta] v2
(*
Transformation and transpose matrices
*)
gam1 = gam[theta1]
gam2 = gam[theta2]
gam1t = gamt[theta1]
gam2t = gamt[theta2]
(*
Element elastic stiffness matrices
*)
ke1 = ke[e1, a1, l1, i1]
ke2 = ke[e2, a2, l2, i2]
Ke1 = gam1t . ke1 . gam1
Ke2 = gam2t . ke2 . gam2
(*
Structure’s global stiffness matrix
*)
Ke={
{ Ke1[[4,4]] + Ke2[[1,1]] , Ke1[[4,5]] + Ke2[[1,2]] , Ke1[[4,6]] + Ke2[[1,3]] },
{ Ke1[[5,4]] + Ke2[[2,1]] , Ke1[[5,5]] + Ke2[[2,2]] , Ke1[[5,6]] + Ke2[[2,3]] },
{ Ke1[[6,4]] + Ke2[[3,1]] , Ke1[[6,5]] + Ke2[[3,2]] , Ke1[[6,6]] + Ke2[[3,3]] }
}
(*
======= uncoupled analysis ==========
*)
dise=Inverse[Ke].load
u[theta_,diseg1_,diseg2_] := Cos[theta] diseg1 + Sin[theta] diseg2
uu1 = u[ theta1, dise[[1]], dise[[2]] ]
uu2 = u[ theta2, dise[[1]], dise[[2]] ]
up1 = a1 e1 uu1/l1
up2 = a2 e2 uu2/l2
(*
========== Coupled Nonlinear Analysis ==============
Start Iteration
*)
diseg = N[dise]
For[ iter = 1 , iter <= 100, ++iter,
(* displacements in local coordinates *)
disloc={ 0,0,0,
u[ theta1, diseg[[1]], diseg[[2]] ],
u[ theta2, diseg[[1]], diseg[[2]] ],
0};
(* local force *)
ploc = ke1 . disloc;
p1 = ploc[[4]];
p2 = p1;
kg1 = kg[ l1 , p1 ];
kg2 = kg[ l2 , p2 ];

Draft
15–22
Kg1 = gam1t . kg1 . gam1;

Kg2 = gam2t . kg2 . gam2;

Kg={
{ Kg1[[4,4]] + Kg2[[1,1]] , Kg1[[4,5]] + Kg2[[1,2]] , Kg1[[4,6]] + Kg2[[1,3]] },
{ Kg1[[5,4]] + Kg2[[2,1]] , Kg1[[5,5]] + Kg2[[2,2]] , Kg1[[5,6]] + Kg2[[2,3]] },
{ Kg1[[6,4]] + Kg2[[3,1]] , Kg1[[6,5]] + Kg2[[3,2]] , Kg1[[6,6]] + Kg2[[3,3]] }
};
(*
Solve
*)
Ks = Ke + Kg;
diseg = Inverse[Ks] . load;
normnew = Sqrt[ diseg . diseg ];
ratio = ( normnew-normold ) / normnew;
Print["Iteration ",N[iter],"; u1 ",N[u1],"; p1 ",N[p1]," ratio ",N[ratio]];
normold = normnew;
If[ Abs[ ratio ] < epsilon, Break[] ]
]
Print[" p1 ",N[p1]," up1 ",N[up1]," p1/up1 ",N[p1/up1]," ratio ",N[ratio]]
15.5 Summary

Draft
15.5 Summary 15–23
STRONG FORM WEAK FORM
? ? µ ?¶ ³ ´2
εx = du
− y d2 v + 1 dv
2nd Order D.E. 4th Order D.E. dx dx 2 2 dx
2 B.C. 4 B.C.
? ?
d2 y − P = 0 1R 2
U= 2 Ω Eε dΩ
dx2 EI
v = −A sin kx − B cos kx
? ?
4 2
d v −Pd v =w
EI d K= Ke Kg
x4 dx2
v = C1 sin kx + C2 cos kx + C3 x + C4
?
P = (Ke + λKg )u
?
|Ke + λKg | = 0
Figure 15.5: Summary of Stability Solutions

Draft

Draft
Chapter 16
REFERENCES
Basic Structural Analysis :

1. Arbabi, F., Structural Analysis and Behavior, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991
2. Beaufait, F.W., Basic Concepts of Structural Analysis, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J., 1977
3. Chajes, A., Structural Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1983
4. Gerstle, K.H., Basic Structural Analysis, (Local Reprint 1984.
5. Ghali, A., and Neville, A.M., Structural Analysis, Chapan and Hall, London, 1978
6. Gutowski, R.M., Structures: Fundamental Theory and Behavior, Van Nostrand Rein-
hold Co., N.Y., 1984
7. Hsieh, Y.Y., Elementary Theory of Structures, 2nd Ed., Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J., 1982
8. Laursen, H.I., Structural Analysis, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1978
9. Morris, J.C., Wilbur, S., and Utku, S., Elementary Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
N.Y., 1976
10. Wang, C.K., Intermediate Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1983
Matrix Analysis :
1. Argyris, J.H., Recent Advances in Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon
Press, Oxford, 1964
2. Beaufait, F.W., Rowan Jr., W.H., Hoadley, P.G., and Hackett, R.M., Computer Meth-
ods of Structural Analysis, 4th Edition, 1982
3. Bhatt, P., Programming the Matrix Analysis of Skeletal Structures, Halsted Press,
1986
4. Elias, Z.M., Theory and Methods of Structural Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, 1986
5. Holzer, S.M., Computer Analysis of Structures. Elsevier, 1985
6. Livesley, R., Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 964
7. Martin, H.C., Introduction to Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
N.Y., 1966
8. McGuire, W., and Gallagher, R.H., Matrix Structural Analysis, John Wiley and Sons
Inc., N.Y., 1979
9. Meek, J.L., Matrix Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1971
10. Meyers, V.J., Matrix Analysis of Structures, Harper and Row, Publ., N.Y., 1983
Draft
–2 REFERENCES
11. Przemieniecki, J.S., Theory of Matrix Structural Analaysis, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1968
12. Weaver Jr, W., and Gere, J.M., Matrix Analysis of Framed Structures, 2nd Ed., Van
Nostrand Co., N.Y., 1980
Introduction to Finite Element and Programming :
1. Bathe, K.J., Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1982
2. Cook, Malkus, and Plesha, Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis,
John Wiley & Sons, 1989 (Third Edition)
3. Gallagher, R.H., Finite Element Analysis Fundamentals, Prentice Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J., 1979
4. Hinton and Owen, An Introduction to Finite Element Computation, Pineridge Press,
Swansea U.K., 1978
5. Hughes, T.R., The Finite Element Method, Linear Static and Dynamic Finite Element
Analysis, Prentice Hall, 1987
6. Zienkiewicz, O., and Taylor, R., The Finite Element Method, Vol. 1 Basic Formulation
and Linear Problems, 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 1989
Energy Methods :
1. Pilkey and Wunderlich, Mechanics of Structures, Variational and Computational Meth-
ods, CRC Press, 1994
2. Langhaar, H., Energy Methods in Applied Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.,
1962
3. Reddy, J.N., Energy and Variational Methods in Applied Mechanics, John Wiley and
Sons, 1984.
Numerical Techniques :
1. Jennings, A., Matrix Computations for Engineers and Scientists, John Wiley and
Sons, N.Y., 1977.
2. Hilderbrand, F.B., An Introduction to Numerical Analysis, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1974
3. Press, W., et. al., Numerical Recipes, The Art of Scientific Computing, Cambridge
University Press, 1987
Journals :
1. Journal of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineering
2. Computers and Structures
3. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering

Draft
Appendix A
REVIEW of MATRIX ALGEBRA
Because of the discretization of the structure into a finite number of nodes, its solution will
always lead to a matrix formulation. This matrix representation will be exploited by the
computer ability to operate on vectors and matrices. Hence, it is essential that we do get a
thorough understanding of basic concepts of matrix algebra.
A.1 Definitions
Matrix:  
A11 A12 ... A1j ... A1n
 A21 A22 ... A2j ... A2n 
 
 .. .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . 
 . . . . 
[A] =   (A.1)
 Ai1 Ai2 . . . Aij . . . Ain 
 
 .. .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . . . 
Am1 Am2 . . . Amj . . . Amn
We would indicate the size of the matrix as [A]m×n , and refer to an individual term of
the matrix as Aij . Note that matrices, and vectors are usually boldfaced when typeset, or
with a tilde when handwritten Ã.
Vectors: are one column matrices:  

 B1 


 


 B2 


 


 ... 

{X} = (A.2)

 Bi 


 


 .. 


 . 


 

Bm
A row vector would be
bCc = b B1 B2 . . . Bi . . . Bm c (A.3)
Note that scalars, vectors, and matrices are tensors of order 0, 1, and 2 respectively.
Square matrix: are matrices with equal number of rows and columns. [A]m×m
Symmetry: Aij = Aji
Draft
A–2 REVIEW of MATRIX ALGEBRA
Identity matrix: is a square matrix with all its entries equal to zero except the diagonal terms
which are equal to one. It is often denoted as [I], and
½
0, if i 6= j
Iij = (A.4)
1, if i = j
Diagonal matrix: is a square matrix with all its entries equal to zero except the diagonal
terms which are different from zero. It is often denoted as [D], and
½
0, if i 6= j
Dij = (A.5)
6 0, if i = j
=
Upper Triangular matrix: is a square matrix with all its entries equal to zero, except those
along and above the diagonal. It is often denoted as [U], and
½
0, if i > j
Uij = (A.6)
6 0, if i ≤ j
=
Lower Triangular matrix: is a square matrix with all its entries equal to zero except those
along and below the diagonal. It is often denoted as [L], and
½
0, if i < j
Lij = (A.7)
6= 0, if i ≥ j
Orthogonal matrices: [A]m×n and [B]m×n are said to be orthogonal if [A]T [B] = [B]T [A] =
[I]
A square matrix [C]m×m is orthogonal if [C]T [C] = [C] [C]T = [I]
Pn
Trace of a matrix: tr(A) = i=1 Aii
Submatrices: are matrices within a matrix, for example
 
5 3 1 " #
  [A11 ] [A12 ]
[A] =  4 6 2  = (1.8-a)
[A21 ] [A22 ]
10 3 4
 
1 5 " #
  [B1 ]
[B] =  2 4  = (1.8-b)
[B2 ]
3 2
" #
[A11 ] [B1 ] + [A12 ] [B2 ]
[A] [B] = (1.8-c)
[A21 ] [B1 ] + [A22 ] [B2 ]
" #" # " #
5 3 1 5 11 37
[A11 ] [B1 ] = = (1.8-d)
4 6 2 4 16 44
[A22 ] [B2 ] = [4] [3 2] = [12 8] (1.8-e)
 
14 34
 
[A] [B] =  22 48  (1.8-f)
28 70
Operate on submatrices just as if we were operating on individual matrix elements.

Draft
A.2 Elementary Matrix Operations
A.2 Elementary Matrix Operations

A–3
Transpose: of a matrix [A]m×n is another matrix [B] = [B]Tn×m such that Bij = Aji Note
that
([A] [B])T = [B]T [A]T (A.9)
Addition (subtraction):
[A]m×n = [B]m×n + [C]m×n (1.10-a)

Aij = Bij + Cij (1.10-b)
(1.10-c)
Scalar Multiplication:
[B] = k · [A] (1.11-a)

Bij = kAij
Matrix Multiplication: of two matrices is possible if the number of columns of the first one
is equal to the number of rows of the second.
[A]m×n = [B]m×p · [C]p×n (1.12-a)

Aij = bBi c1×p · {Cj }p×1
| {z }
1×1
X
p
= Bir Crj (1.12-b)
r=1
(1.12-c)
Some important properties of matrix products include:

Associative: [A]([B][C]) = ([A][B])[C]
Distributive: [A]([B] + [C]) = [A][B] + [A][C]
Non-Commutativity: [A][B] 6= [B][A]
A.3 Determinants
The Determinant of a matrix [A]n×n , denoted as det A or |A|, is recursively defined as
X
n
det A = (−1)1+j a1j det A1j (A.13)
j=1
Where A1j is the (n − 1)x(n − 1) matrix obtained by eliminating the ith row and the jth column
of matrix A. For a 2 × 2 matrix
¯ ¯
¯ a ¯
¯ 11 a12 ¯
¯ ¯ = a11 a22 − a12 a21 (A.14)
¯ a21 a22 ¯

Draft
A–4
For a 3 × 3 matrix
REVIEW of MATRIX ALGEBRA
¯ ¯
¯ a a12 a13 ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ 11 ¯ ¯ a ¯ ¯ a ¯ ¯ a ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ a23 ¯ ¯ 21 a23 ¯ ¯ 21 a22 ¯
¯ a21 a22 a23 ¯ = a11 ¯ 22 ¯ − a12 ¯ ¯ + a13 ¯ ¯ (1.15-a)
¯ ¯ ¯ a32 a33 ¯ ¯ a31 a33 ¯ ¯ a31 a32 ¯
¯ a31 a32 a33 ¯
= a11 (a22 a33 − a32 a23 ) − a12 (a21 a33 − a31 a23 ) (1.15-b)
+a13 (a21 a32 − a31 a22 ) (1.15-c)
= a11 a22 a33 − a11 a32 a23 − a12 a21 a33 + a12 a31 a23 (1.15-d)
+a13 a21 a32 − a13 a31 a22 (1.15-e)
Can you write a computer program to compute the determinant of an n × n matrix?

We note that an n × n matrix would have a determinant which contains n! terms each one
involving n multiplications. Hence if n = 10 there would be 10! = 3, 628, 800 terms, each one
involving 9 multiplications hence over 30 million floating operations should be performed in
order to evaluate the determinant.
This is why it is impractical to use Cramer’s rule to solve a system of linear equations.
Some important properties of deteminants:
1. The determinant of the transpose of a matrix is equal to the determinant of the matrix
| A |=| AT | (1.16)
2. If at least one row or one column is a linear combination of the other rows or columns,
then the determinant is zero. The inverse is also true, if the determinant is equal to zero,
then at least one row or one column is a linear combination of of other rows or columns.
3. If there is linear dependancy between rows, then there is also one between columns and
vice-versa.
4. The determinant of an upper or lower triangular matrix is equal to the product of the
main diagonal terms.
5. The determinant of the product of two square matrices is equal to the product of the
individual determinants
| AB |=| A || B | (1.17)
A.4 Singularity and Rank

If the deteminant of a matrix [A]n×n is zero, than the matrix is said to be singular. As we
have seen earlier, this means that there is at least one row or one column which is a linear
combinations of the others. Should we remove this row and column, we can repeat the test for
singularity until the size of the submatrix is r × r. Then we refer to r as the rank of the matrix
or rank(A) = r. We deduce that the rank of a nonsigular n × n matrix is n. If the rank of a
matrix r is less than its size n, we say that it has n − r rank deficiency.
If n is the size of the global stiffness matrix of a structure in which the boundary conditions
have not been accounted for (n = is equal to the total number of nodes times the total number
of degrees of freedom per node) would have a rank r equal to n minus the number of possible
rigid body motions (3 and 6 in two and three dimensional respectively).

Draft
A.5 Inversion
A.5 Inversion
A–5
The inverse of a square (nonsingular) matrix [A] is denoted by [A]−1 and is such that
[A] [A]−1 = [A]−1 [A] = [I] (1.18)
Some observations
1. The inverse of the transpose of a matrix is equal to the transpose of the inverse
h i−1 h iT
AT = A−1 (1.19)
2. The inverse of a matrix product is the reverse product of the inverses
([A] [B])−1 = [B]−1 [A]−1 (1.20)
3. The inverse of a symmetric matrix is also symmetric

4. The inverse of a diagonal matrix is another diagonal one with entries equal to the inverse
of the entries of the original matrix.
5. The inverse of a triangular matrix is a triangular matrix.
6. It is computationally more efficient to decompose a matrix ([A] = [L] [D] [U]) using upper
and lower decomposition or Gauss elimination) than to invert a matrix.
A.6 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

A special form of the system of linear equation
    
A11 A12 . . . A1n 
 x1 
 
 B1 

  
 
 

 A21 A22 . . . A2n  x2   B2 
[A] = 
 .. .. .. .. 
 .. = .. (1.21)
 . . . .  . 
 
 . 


 
 
 

Ai1 Ai2 . . . Ann  xn   B 
n
is one in which the right hand side is a multiple of the solution:
[A] {x} = λ {x} (1.22)
which can be rewritten as

[A − λI] {x} = 0 (1.23)
A nontrivial solution to this system of equations is possible if and only if [A − λI] is singular
or
|A − λI| = 0 (1.24)
or ¯ ¯
¯ A −λ A12 ... A1n ¯
¯ 11 ¯
¯ ¯
¯ A21 A22 − λ . . . A2n ¯
[A] = ¯¯ .. .. .. .. ¯=0
¯ (1.25)
¯ . . . . ¯
¯ ¯
¯ Ai1 Ai2 . . . Ann − λ ¯

Draft
A–6 REVIEW of MATRIX ALGEBRA
When the determinant is expanded, we obtain an nth order polynomial in terms of λ which is
known as the characteristic equation of [A]. The n solutions (which can be real or complex)
are the eigenvalues of [A], and each one of them λi satisfies
[A] {xi } = λi {xi } (1.26)
where {xi } is a corresponding eigenvector.

It can be shown that:
1. The n eigenvalues of real symmetric matrices of rank n are all real.
2. The eigenvectors are orthogonal and form an orthogonal basis in En .
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are used in stability (buckling) analysis, dynamic analysis, and to
assess the performance of finite element formulations.

Draft
Appendix B
SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR
EQUATIONS
Note this chapter is incomplete
B.1 Introduction
1 Given a system of linear equations [A]n×n {x} = {b} (which may result from the direct
stiffness method), we seek to solve for {x}. Symbolically this operation is represented by:
{x} = [A]−1 {b}
2 There are two approaches for this operation:
Direct inversion using Cramer’s rule where [A]−1 = [adjA] [A] . However, this approach is compu-
tationally very inefficient for n ≥ 3 as it requires evaluation of n high order determinants.
Decomposition: where in the most general case we seek to decompose [A] into [A] = [L][D][U]
and where:
[L] lower triangle matrix
[D] diagonal matrix
[U] upper triangle matrix
There are two classes of solutions
Direct Method: characterized by known, finite number of operations required to achieve
the decomposition yielding exact results.
Indirect methods: or iterative decomposition technique, with no a-priori knowledge of
the number of operations required yielding an aapproximate solution with user defined
level of accuracy.
B.2 Direct Methods

B.2.1 Gauss, and Gaus-Jordan Elimination
3 Given [A]{x} = {b}, we seek to transform this equation into

Draft
B–2 SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
1. Gaus Elimination: [U]{x} = {y} where [U]is an upper triangle, and then backsubstitute
from the bottom up to solve for the unknowns. Note that in this case we operate on both
[A] & {b}, yielding {x}.
2. Gauss-Jordan Elimination: is similar to the Gaus Elimination, however tather than
transforming the [A] matrix into an upper diagonal one, we transform [A|I] into [I|A−1 ].
Thus no backsubstitution is needed and the matrix inverse can be explicitely obtained.
Example B-1: Gauss Elimination
In this first example we simply seek to solve for the unknown vector {x} given:


 +10x1 +x2 −5x3 = 1.
−20x1 +3x2 +20x3 = 2. (2.1-a)

 +5x1 +3x2 +5x3 = 6.
Solution:
1. Add 2010 times the first equation to the second one will elliminate the x1 coefficient from
the second equation.
5
2. Substract 10 times the first equation from the third one will elliminate the x1 coefficient
from the third equation.


 10.x1 +x2 −5.x3 = 1.
+5.x2 +10.x3 = 4.

 +2.5x2 +7.5x3 = 5.5
3. Substract 2.5
5 times the second equation from the third one will elliminate the x2 coefficient
from the last equation


 10.x1 +x2 −5.x3 = 1.
+5.x2 +10x3 = 4.

 +2.5x3 = 3.5
4. Now we can backsubstitute and solve from the bottom up:

3.5
x3 = = 1.4 (2.4-a)
2.5
4. − 10.x3
x2 = = −2. (2.4-b)
5.
1. − x2 + 5.x3
x1 = = 1. (2.4-c)
10.

Draft
B.2 Direct Methods B–3
Example B-2: Gauss-Jordan Elimination
In this second example we will determine both {x} and the matrix inverse [A]−1 .
Solution:
The operation is identical to the first, however we augment the matrix [A] by [I]: [A|I], and
operate simultaneously on the two submatrices.
1. Initial matrix
  
10 1 −5 1 0 0   1 

 
 −20 3 20 0 1 0  2 (2.5-a)
 
5 3 5 0 0 1  6 
2. Elimination of the first column:

(a) row 1=0.1(row 1)
(b) row 2=(row2)+20(new row 1)
(c) row 3=(row 3) -5(new row 1)
  
1 0.1 −0.5 0.1 0 0   0.1 

 
 0 5 10 2 1 0  4 (2.6-a)
 
0 2.5 7.5 −0.5 0 1  5.5 
3. Elimination of second column

(a) row 2=0.2(row 2)
(b) row 1=(row 1)-0.1(new row 2)
(c) row 3=(row 3) -2.5(new row 2)
  
1 0 −0.7 0.06 −0.02 0   0.02 

 
 0 1 2 0.4 0.2 0  0.8 (2.7-a)
 
0 0 2.5 −1.5 −0.5 1  3.5 
4. Elimination of the third column

(a) row 3=0.4(row 3)
(b) row 1=(row 1)+0.7(new row 3)
(c) row 2=(row 2)-2(new row 3)
  
1 0 0 −0.36 −0.16 0.28 
 1  
 
 0 1 0 1.6 0.6 −0.8  −2 (2.8-a)

 1.4 

0 0 1 −0.6 −0.2 0.4
| {z }
{x}
This last equation is [I|A−1 ]

Draft
B–4
B.2.1.1 Algorithm
SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
4 Based on the preceding numerical examples, we define a two step algorithm for the Gaussian
ellimination.
5 Defining akij to be the coefficient of the ith row & j th column at the k th reduction step with
i ≥ k & j ≥ k:
Reduction:
ak+1
ik =0 k<i≤n
akik akkj
ak+1
ij = akij − akkk
k < i ≤ n; k < j ≤ n (2.9)
akik bkkj
bk+1
ij = bkij − akkk
k < i ≤ n; 1 < j ≤ m
Backsubstitution:
Xn
biij − ai x
k=i+1 ik kj
xij = aiii
(2.10)
Note that Gauss-Jordan produces both the solution of the equations as well as the inverse of
the original matrix. However, if the inverse is not desired it requires three times (N 3 ) more
3
operations than Gauss or LU decomposition ( N3 ).
B.2.2 LU Decomposition
6 In the previous decomposition method, the right hand side ({b} must have been known before
decomposition (unless we want to detemine the inverse of the matrix which is computationaly
more expensive).
7 In some applications it may be desirable to decompose the matrix without having the RHS
completed. For instance, in the direct stiffness method we may have multiple load cases yet we
would like to invert only once the stiffness matrix.
This will be achieved through the following decomposition:
[A] = [L][U] (2.11)
It can be shown that:

1. Both decompositions are equivalent.
2. Count on number of operation show that the 2 methods yield the same number of opera-
tions. Number of operations in LU decomposition is equal to the one in Gauss elimination.
8 The solution consists in:

Decomposition: of the matrix independently of the right hand side vector
[A] = [L] [U] (2.12-a)

[L] [U] {x} = {b} (2.12-b)
| {z }
{y}
Backsubstitution: for each right hand side vector

Draft
B.2 Direct Methods
1. Solve for {y} from [L]{y} = {b} starting from top

B–5
2. Solve for {x} from [U]{x} = {y} starting from bottom
9 The vector {y} is the same as the one to which {b} was reduced to in the Gauss Elimination.
B.2.2.1 Algorithm
1. Given:
    
a11 a12 · · · a1n 1 u11 u12 · · · u1n
    
 a21 a22 · · · a2n   l21 1  u22 · · · u2n 
 =
   ..    (2.13-a)
.   
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
 . . . .   . .  . 
an1 an2 · · · ann ln1 ln2 · · · 1 unn
2. solve:
a11 = u11 a12 = u12 · · · a1n = u1n
a21 = l21 u11 a22 = l21 u12 + u22 a2n = l21 u1n + u2n
.. (2.14-a)
.
Xn−1
an1 = ln1 u11 an2 = ln1 u12 + ln2 u22 ann = l u + unn
k=1 nk kn
3. let:
 
u11 u12 · · · u1n
 
 l21 u22 · · · u2n 
[A]F = 
 .. .. 
 (2.15-a)
 . . 
ln1 ln2 · · · unn
4. Take row by row or column by column

Xj−1
aij − l u
lij = k=1 ik kj i>j
ujj
Xi−1 (2.16)
uij = aij − l u i≤j
k=1 ik kj
lii = 1
Note:
1. Computed elements lij or uij may always overwrite corresponding element aij
2. If [A] is symmetric [L]T 6= [U], symmetry is destroyed in [A]F
For symmetric matrices, LU decomposition reduces to:
Xi−1
uij = aij − l u i≤j
k=1 ik kj
lii = 1 (2.17)
uji
lij = ujj
Example B-3: Example

Draft
B–6
Given:
 
7 9 −1 2
 4 −5 2 −7 
 
A=  (2.18-a)
 1 6 −3 −4 
3 −2 −1 −5
Solution:
Following the above procedure, it can be decomposed into:

Row 1: u11 = a11 = 7; u12 = a12 = 9; u13 = a13 = −1; u14 = a14 = 2
Row 2:
l21 = ua21
11
= 47
u22 = a22 − l21 u12 = −5 − 4 97 = −10.1429
u23 = a23 − l21 u13 = 2 + 4 17 = 2.5714
u24 = a24 − l21 u14 = −7 − 4 27 = −10.1429
Row 3:
l31 = ua31
11
= 17
l32 = a32 −l 31 u12
u22 = 6−(0.1429)(9)
−10.1429 = −0.4647
u33 = a33 − l31 u13 − l32 u23 = −3 − (0.1429)(−1) − (−0.4647)(2.5714) = −1.6622
u34 = a34 − l31 u14 − l32 u24 = −4 − (0.1429)(2) − (−0.4647)(−8.1429) = −8.0698
Row 4:
l41 = ua41
11
= 37
l42 = a42 −l 41 u12
u22 = −2−(0.4286)(9)
−10.1429 = −0.
−1−(0.4286)(−1)−(0.5775)(2.5714)
l43 = a43 −l41 uu13
33
−l42 u23
= −1.6622 = 1.23
u44 = a44 − l41 u14 − l42 u24 − l43 u34 = −5 − (0.4286)(2) − (0.5775)(−8.1429) − (1.2371)(−8.0698) = 8.82
or
  
1 0 0 0 7 9 −1 2
  0 −10.1429 2.571 −8.143 
 .5714 1 0 0  
   (2.22-a)
 .1429 −.4647 1 0  0 0 −1.662 −8.069 
.4286 .5775 1.2371 1 0 0 0 8.8285
| {z }| {z }
[L] [U]
| {z }
[A]
B.2.3 Cholesky’s Decomposition
10 If [A] is symmetric [A]F is not. For example:

    
16 4 8 1 16 4 8
    
 4 5 −4  =  .25 1  4 −6  (2.23-a)
8 −4 22 .5 −1.5 1 9
Draft
B.2 Direct Methods B–7
11 In the most general case, we will have:
[A] = [L∗ ][D][U∗ ]T (2.24)
12 For aa symmetric [A] matrix, [U∗ ] should be the transpose of [L∗ ] or
[A] = [L∗ ][D][L∗ ]T (2.25)
13Furthermore, the diagonal matrix [D] can be factored as as the product of two matrices:
1 1
[D] = [D] 2 [D] 2 Thus:
[A] = [L∗ ][D] 2 [D] 2 [L∗ ]T
1 1
(2.26)
| {z }| {z }
[L] [L]T
14 This algorithm can be summarized as:

r
Xi−1
lii = aii − l2
k=1 ik
Xj−1 (2.27)
aij −
lij = k=1 i>j
ljj
15 Note:
1. Decomposition takes place by columns
2. lij will occupy same space as aij
Example B-4: Cholesky’s Decomposition
Given:
 
4 6 10 4
 
 6 13 13 6 
A=  (2.28-a)
 10 13 27 2 
4 6 2 72
Solution:
Column 1:
√ √
l11 = a11 = 4 =2
a21 6
l21 = l11 = 2 =3
a31 10
l31 = l11 = 2 =5
a41 4
l41 = l11 = 2 =2

Draft
B–8
Column 2:
q √
l22 = a22 − l21
2 = 13 − 32 = 2
a32 −l31 l21 13−(5)(3)
l32 = l22 = 2 = −1
a42 −l41 l21 6−(2)(3)
l42 = l22 = 2 =0
Column 3:
q p
l33 = a33 − l31
2 − l2
32 = 27 − 52 − (−1)2 = 1
a43 −l41 l31 −l42 l32 2−(2)(5)−(0)(−1)
l43 = l33 = 1 = −8
Column 4:
q p
l44 = a44 − l41
2 − l2 − l2
42 43 = 72 − (2)2 − (0)2 − (−8)2 = 2
or
  
2 0 0 0 2 3 5 2
  2 −1 0 
 3 2 0 0  0 
   (2.33-a)
 5 −1 1 0  0 0 1 −8 
2 0 −8 2 0 0 0 2
| {z }| {z }
[L] [U]
| {z }
[A]
B.2.4 Pivoting
B.3 Indirect Methods
16 Iterative methods are most suited for

1. Very large systems of equation n > 10, or 100,000
2. systems with a known “guess” of the solution
17 The most popular method is the Gauss Seidel.
B.3.1 Gauss Seidel
c11 x1 + c12 x2 + c13 x3 = r1

c21 x1 + c22 x2 + c23 x3 = r2 (2.34-a)
c31 x1 + c32 x2 + c33 x3 = r3
solve 1st equation for x1 using initial “guess” for x2 , x3 .

r1 − c12 x2 − c13 x3
x1 = (2.35)
c11
Draft
B.4 Ill Conditioning
solve 2nd equation for x2 using the computed value of x1 & initial guess of x3
B–9
r2 − c21 x1 − c23 x3
x2 = (2.36)
c22
so on & so forth · · ·
Note:
1. The iterative process can be considered to have converged if:
xk − xk−1
| |≤ε (2.37)
xlk
2. The convergence can be accelerated by relaxation
xki = λxki + (1 − λ)xik−1 (2.38)
where λ is a weight factor between 0. and 2. For values below 1 we have underrelaxation,
and for values greater than 1 we have overrelaxation. The former is used for nonconvergent
systems, whereas the later is used to accelerate convergence of converging ones. optimum
λ for frame analysis is around 1.8.
B.4 Ill Conditioning
18 An ill condition system of linear equations is one in which a small perturbation of the
coefficient aij results in large variation in the results x. Such a system arises in attempting
to solve for the intersection of two lines which are nearly parallel, or the decomposition of a
structure stiffness matrix in which very stiff elements are used next to very soft ones.
B.4.1 Condition Number
19 Ill conditioning can be detected by determining the condition number κ of the matrix.
λmax
κ= (2.39)
λmin
where λmax and λmin are the maximum and minimum eigenvalues of the coefficient matrix.
20 In the decomposition of a matrix, truncation errors may result in a loss of precision which
has been quantified by:

s = p − log κ (2.40)
where p is the number of decimal places to which the coefficient matrix is represented in the
computer, and s is the number of correct decimal places in the solution.
21 Note that because the formula involves log κ, the eigenvalues need only be approximately
evaluated.
B.4.2 Pre Conditioning
22 If a matrix [K] has an unacceptably high condition number, it can be preconditionedthrough

a congruent operation:
[K0 ] = [D1 ][K][D2 ] (2.41)
However there are no general rules for selecting [D1 ] and [D2 ].

Draft
B–10
B.4.3
Residual and Iterative Improvements

Draft
Appendix C
TENSOR NOTATION
NEEDS SOME EDITING
1 Equations of elasticity are expressed in terms of tensors, where

• A tensor is a physical quantity, independent of any particular coordinate system yet spec-
ified most conveniently by referring to an appropriate system of coordinates.
• A tensor is classified by the rank or order
• A Tensor of order zero is specified in any coordinate system by one coordinate and is a
scalar.
• A tensor of order one has three coordinate components in space, hence it is a vector.
• In general 3-D space the number of components of a tensor is 3n where n is the order of
the tensor.
2 For example, force and a stress are tensors of order 1 and 2 respectively.
3 To express tensors, there are three distinct notations which can be used: 1) Engineering; 2)
indicial; or 3) Dyadic.
4 Whereas the Engineering notation may be the simplest and most intuitive one, it often leads
to long and repetitive equations. Alternatively, the tensor and the dyadic form will lead to
shorter and more compact forms.
C.1 Engineering Notation

In the engineering notation, we carry on the various subscript(s) associated with each coordinate
axis, for example σxx , σxy .
C.2 Dyadic/Vector Notation
5 Uses bold face characters for tensors of order one and higher, σ, ε. This notation is indepen-
dent of coordinate systems.
Draft
C–2
6
TENSOR NOTATION
Since scalar operations are in general not applicable to vectors, we define
A+B = B+A (3.1-a)

A×B = −B×A (3.1-b)
A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k (3.1-c)
A·B = |A||B| cos(A, B)
= Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (3.1-d)
¯ ¯
¯ i j k ¯¯
¯
¯ ¯
A⊗B = ¯ Ax Ay Az ¯ (3.1-e)
¯ ¯
¯ Bx By Bz ¯
∂A ∂A ∂A
grad A = ∇A = i +j +k (3.1-f)
∂x ∂y ∂z
µ ¶
∂ ∂ ∂
div A = ∇·A = i +j +k ·(iAx + jAy + kAz )
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
= + + (3.1-g)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ A ∂ A ∂2A
2 2
Laplacian ∇2 = ∇·∇ = + + (3.1-h)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
(3.1-i)
C.3 Indicial/Tensorial Notation

This notation uses letter appended indices (sub or super scripts) to the letter representing the
tensor quantity of interest. i.e. ai ; τij ; εij , where the number of indices is the rank of the tensor
(see sect. A.4).
7 The following rules define tensorial notation:
1. If there is one letter index, that index goes from i to n. For instance:
 

 a1 

ai = ai = b a1 a2 a3 c = a
2 i = 1, 3 (3.2)

 a 
3
assuming that n = 3.
2. A repeated index will take on all the values of its range, and the resulting tensors summed.
For instance:
a1i xi = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 (3.3)
3. Tensor’s order:
• First order tensor (such as force) has only one free index:
ai = ai = b a1 a2 a3 c (3.4)

Draft
C.3 Indicial/Tensorial Notation
• Second order tensor (such as stress or strain) will have two free indeces.
C–3
 
D11 D22 D13
 
Dij  D21 D22 D23  (3.5)
D31 D32 D33
• A fourth order tensor (such as Elastic constants) will have four free indeces.
4. Derivatives of tensor with respect to xi is written as , i. For example:
∂Φ ∂vi ∂vi ∂Ti,j
∂xi = Φ,i ∂xi = vi,i ∂xj = vi,j ∂xk = Ti,j,k (3.6)
Usefulness of the indicial notation is in presenting systems of equations in compact form.

For instance:
xi = cij zj (3.7)
this simple compacted equation (expressed as x = cz in dyadic notation), when expanded would
yield:
x1 = c11 z1 + c12 z2 + c13 z3

x2 = c21 z1 + c22 z2 + c23 z3 (3.8-a)
x3 = c31 z1 + c32 z2 + c33 z3
Similarly:
Aij = Bip Cjq Dpq (3.9)
A11 = B11 C11 D11 + B11 C12 D12 + B12 C11 D21 + B12 C12 D22
A12 = B11 C11 D11 + B11 C12 D12 + B12 C11 D21 + B12 C12 D22
A21 = B21 C11 D11 + B21 C12 D12 + B22 C11 D21 + B22 C12 D22
A22 = B21 C21 D11 + B21 C22 D12 + B22 C21 D21 + B22 C22 D22 (3.10-a)

Draft
C–4 TENSOR NOTATION

Draft
Appendix D
INTEGRAL THEOREMS
1 Some useful integral theorems are presented here without proofs. Schey’s textbook div grad
curl and all that provides an excellent informal presentation of related material.
D.1 Integration by Parts

The integration by part formula is
Z b Z b
u(x)v 0 (x)dx = u(x)v(x)|ba − v(x)u0 (x)dx (4.1)
a a
or
Z b Z b
udv = uv|ba − vdu (4.2)
a a
D.2 Green-Gradient Theorem

Green’s theorem is
I Z µ ¶
∂S ∂R
(Rdx + Sdy) = − dxdy (4.3)
Γ ∂x ∂y
D.3 Gauss-Divergence Theorem
2 The general form of the Gauss’ integral theorem is
Z Z
v.ndΓ = divvdΩ (4.4)
Γ Ω
or
Z Z
vi ni dΓ = vi,i dΩ (4.5)
Γ Ω
Draft
D–2
3 In 2D-3D Gauss’ integral theorem is

INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Z Z Z Z Z
div qdV = qT .ndS (4.6)
V S
or
Z Z Z Z Z
vi,i dV = vi ni dS (4.7)
V S
4 Alternatively
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
φdiv qdV = φq .ndS −
T
(∇φ)T qdV (4.8)
V S V
5 For 2D-1D transformations, we have
Z Z I
div qdA = qT nds (4.9)
A s
or
Z Z I Z Z
φdiv qdA = φq nds −
T
(∇φ)T qdA (4.10)
A s A

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Lecture Notes in:

Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

I Matrix Structural Analysis of Framed Structures 1–11

2 ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX 2–1

3 STIFFNESS METHOD; Part I: ORTHOGONAL STRUCTURES 3–1

4 TRANSFORMATION MATRICES 4–1

5 STIFFNESS METHOD; Part II 5–1

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

6 EQUATIONS OF STATICS and KINEMATICS 6–1

7 FLEXIBILITY METHOD 7–1

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

7.4 Stiffness Matrix of a Curved Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–9

8 SPECIAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURES 8–1

II Introduction to Finite Elements 8–5

9 REVIEW OF ELASTICITY 9–1

10 VARIATIONAL AND ENERGY METHODS 10–1

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

10.1.7.1 Potential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–11

10.1.7.2 Potential of External Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–11

11 INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS 11–1

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

11.3.2 C 1 : Hermitian Interpolation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–10

11.4 Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial Series . . . . . . . . . 11–10

12 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION 12–1

13 SOME FINITE ELEMENTS 13–1

14 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 14–1

15 GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY 15–1

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

15.1.2.1 Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A REVIEW of MATRIX ALGEBRA A–1

B SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS B–1

C TENSOR NOTATION C–1

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

1.1 Global Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–6

2.1 Example for Flexibility Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–2

3.1 Problem with 2 Global d.o.f. θ1 and θ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–2

4.1 Arbitrary 3D Vector Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–3

5.1 Frame Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–1

5.9 Program Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.1 Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Determinate Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–2

7.1 Stable and Statically Determinate Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–5

8.1 Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Rigid Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–1

9.1 Stress Components on an Infinitesimal Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–1

10.1 Strain Energy and Complementary Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–2

11.1 Axial Finite Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–2

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

11.6 Solid Trilinear Rectangular Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–10

15.1 Level of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–1

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

1.1 Example of Nodal Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–4

2.1 Examples of Influence Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–1

4.1 3D Transformations of Linear Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–7

10.1 Possible Combinations of Real and Hypothetical Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . 10–12

11.1 Characteristics of Beam Element Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11–5

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

a Vector of coefficcients in assumed displacement field

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures

lc: Local Coordinate system

Victor Saouma Finite Element I; Framed Structures