Kharosthi

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Kharosthi

𐨁𐨠𐨯𐨆𐨪𐨑

Script type Abugida

Time period 4th century BCE – 3rd century CE

Direction right-to-left script 

 Gandhari Prakrit
 Pali
Languages
 Saka
 Sanskrit

Related scripts

Egyptian hieroglyphs

 Proto-Sinaitic script
Parent systems o Phoenician alphabet
 Aramaic alphabet
 Kharosthi

 Brahmi script
 Nabataean alphabet
 Syriac alphabet
Sister systems  Palmyrene alphabet
 Mandaic alphabet
 Pahlavi scripts
 Sogdian alphabet
 ISO 15924

ISO 15924 Khar (305), Kharoshthi

Unicode

Unicode alias Kharoshthi

Unicode range U+10A00–U+10A5F

Kharosthi is widely held to be a derivation of Aramaic, whereas the Semitic origins of the
Brahmic scripts are not universally agreed upon. [1][2][3][4][5]

 This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For
an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩,
see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

You may need rendering support to display the uncommon Unicode characters in this article
correctly.

Kharoshthi letters.

History of the alphabet

 v
 t
  e

Part of a series on

Numeral systems

Place-value notation

Sign-value notation

List of numeral systems

 v
 t
 e

The Kharosthi script, also spelled Kharoshthi and Kharoṣṭhī (Kharosthi: 𐨁𐨠𐨯𐨆𐨪𐨑),
was an ancient Indo-Iranian script used by various Indo-European peoples in present-
day northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. It was used in Central Asia as well.[1]
An abugida, it was introduced at least by the middle of the 3rd century BCE, possibly
during the 4th century BCE,[6] and remained in use until it died out in its homeland
around the 3rd century CE.[1]

It was also in use in Bactria, the Kushan Empire, Sogdia, and along the Silk Road.
There is some evidence it may have survived until the 7th century in Khotan and
Niya, both cities in East Turkestan.

Contents

 1 Form
 2 Vowels
 3 Consonants
 4 Additional marks
 5 Punctuation
 6 Numerals
 7 History
 8 Unicode
 9 Gallery
 10 See also
 11 Further reading
 12 References
 13 Further reading
 14 External links
Form
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The words "Dhrama-Dipi" ("Inscription of the Dharma") in Kharosthi, in Edict No.1 of the
Shahbazgarhi Major Rock Edict of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE).[7]

Kharoshthi on a coin of Indo-Greek king Artemidoros Aniketos, reading "Rajatirajasa Moasa

Putasa cha Artemidorasa".

Kharosthi (𐨌𐨁𐨛𐨿𐨮𐨆𐨪𐨑, from right to left Kha-ro-ṣṭhī) is mostly written right to left (type
A).

Each syllable includes the short /a/ sound by default[citation needed], with other vowels
being indicated by diacritic marks. Recent epigraphic evidence[citation needed] has shown
that the order of letters in the Kharosthi script follows what has become known as the
Arapacana alphabet. As preserved in Sanskrit documents, the alphabet runs:[citation needed]

a ra pa ca na la da ba ḍa ṣa va ta ya ṣṭa ka sa ma ga stha ja śva dha śa kha kṣa sta

jñā rtha (or ha) bha cha sma hva tsa gha ṭha ṇa pha ska ysa śca ṭa ḍha
Some variations in both the number and order of syllables occur in extant texts.[citation
needed]

Kharosthi includes only one standalone vowel which is used for initial vowels in
words.[citation needed] Other initial vowels use the a character modified by diacritics. Using
epigraphic evidence, Salomon has established that the vowel order is /a e i o u/, akin
to Semitic scripts, rather than the usual vowel order for Indic scripts /a i u e o/. Also,
there is no differentiation between long and short vowels in Kharosthi. Both are
marked using the same vowel markers.

The alphabet was used in Gandharan Buddhism as a mnemonic for remembering a

series of verses on the nature of phenomena. In Tantric Buddhism, the list was
incorporated into ritual practices and later became enshrined in mantras.

Vowels
Vowels[8]

Initial Diacritic

Image Text Trans. IPA Image Text With 'k'

low central a /ə/ — —

𐨀 𐨐 ka
Unrounded
high front i /i/
𐨁𐨀 𐨁 𐨁𐨐 ki

Rounded high back u /u/

𐨂𐨀 𐨂 𐨂𐨐 ku

Syllabic vibrant
𐨃 𐨃𐨐 kr̥

front unrounded e /e/

𐨅𐨀 𐨅 𐨅𐨐 ke
Mid
back rounded o /o/
𐨆𐨀 𐨆 𐨆𐨐 ko

Vowel diacritic placement[9]

Vowel Position Example Applies to

horizontal
𐨀 + 𐨁 → 𐨁𐨀 a, n, h

k, ḱ, kh, g, gh, c, ch, j, ñ, ṭ, ṭh, ṭ h́ , ḍ, ḍh, ṇ, t, d, dh, b, bh, y,

-i diagonal + →
𐨐 𐨁 𐨐𐨁 r, v, ṣ, s, z

vertical
𐨠 + 𐨁 → 𐨠𐨁 th, p, ph, m, l, ś
 a, k, ḱ, kh, g, gh, c, ch, j, ñ, ṭ, ṭh, ṭ h́ , ḍ, ḍh, ṇ, t, th, d, dh, n,
attached + →
𐨀 𐨂 𐨂𐨀 p, ph, b, bh, y, r, l, v, ś, ṣ, s, z

-u independent
𐨱 + 𐨂 → 𐨂𐨱 ṭ, h

ligatured
𐨨 + 𐨂 → 𐨨𐨂 m

attached
𐨀 + 𐨃 → 𐨃𐨀 a, k, ḱ, kh, g, gh, c, ch, j, t, d, dh, n, p, ph, b, bh, v, ś, s
-r̥
independent
𐨨 + 𐨃 → 𐨨𐨃 m, h

horizontal
𐨀 + 𐨅 → 𐨅𐨀 a, n, h

k, ḱ, kh, g, gh, c, ch, j, ñ, ṭ, ṭh, ṭ h́ , ḍ, ḍh, ṇ, t, dh, b, bh, y, r,

diagonal + →
𐨐 𐨅 𐨐𐨅 v, ṣ, s, z
-e
vertical
𐨠 + 𐨅 → 𐨠𐨅 th, p, ph, l, ś

ligatured
𐨡 + 𐨅 → 𐨅𐨡 d, m

a, k, ḱ, kh, g, gh, c, ch, j, ñ, ṭ, ṭh, ṭ h́ , ḍ, ḍh, ṇ, t, th, d, dh, n,

diagonal
𐨀 + 𐨆 → 𐨆𐨀 b, bh, m, r, l, v, ṣ, s, z, h
-o
vertical
𐨤 + 𐨆 → 𐨆𐨤 p, ph, y, ś

Consonants
Occlusives[8]

VOICELESS PLOSIVES VOICED PLOSIVES

NASALS
Unaspirated Aspirated Unaspirated Aspirated

Imag Tex Tran IP Imag Tex Tran Imag Tex Tran IP Imag Tex Tran Imag Tex Tran
IPA
e t s. A e t s. e t s. A e t s. e t s.

/ /
Velar 𐨐 k 𐨑 kh 𐨒 g 𐨓 gh
k/ ɡ/

Palatal 𐨕 c /c/ 𐨖 ch 𐨗 j /ɟ/ 𐨙 ñ /ɲ/

Retrofl /
𐨚 ṭ /ʈ/ 𐨛 ṭh 𐨜 ḍ 𐨝 ḍh 𐨞 ṇ /ɳ/
ex ɖ/

/
Dental 𐨟 t /t/ 𐨠 th 𐨡 d 𐨢 dh 𐨣 n /n/
d/

/ / /
Labial 𐨤 p 𐨥 ph 𐨦 b 𐨧 bh 𐨨 m m/
p/ b/

There are two special modified forms of these consonants:[9]

Image Text Trans. Image Text Trans.

Modified form 𐨲 ḱ 𐨳 ṭh́

Original form 𐨐 k 𐨛 ṭh

Sonorants and fricatives[8]

Palatal Retroflex Dental Labial

Imag Tex Trans IP Imag Tex Trans IP Imag Tex Trans IP Imag Tex Trans
IPA
e t . A e t . A e t . A e t .

Sonorant
𐨩 y /j/ 𐨪 r /r/ 𐨫 l /l/ 𐨬 v /ʋ/
s

Sibilants 𐨭 ś /ɕ/ 𐨮 ṣ /ʂ/ 𐨯 s /s/

Other

𐨰 z ?

𐨱 h /h/

Additional marks

Various additional marks are used to modify vowels and consonants:[9]

Mark Trans. Example Description

◌̄ The vowel length mark may be used with -a, -i, -u, and -r̥ to indicate
𐨌 𐨨 + 𐨌 → 𐨌𐨨 the equivalent long vowel (-ā, -ī, -ū, and r̥ ̄ respectively). When used
 with -e it indicates the diphthong -ai. When used with -o it
indicates the diphthong -au.

The vowel modifier double ring below appears in some Central

[10]
◌͚
𐨍 𐨍 Asian documents with vowels -a and -u. Its precise phonetic
𐨯+𐨍→𐨯
function is unknown.

An anusvara indicates nasalization of the vowel or a nasal segment

𐨎 ṃ + →
𐨀 𐨎 𐨎𐨀 following the vowel. It can be used with -a, -i, -u, -r̥, -e, and -o.

A visarga indicates the unvoiced syllable-final /h/. It can also be

ḥ
𐨏 𐨐 + 𐨏 → 𐨏𐨐 used as a vowel length marker. Visarga is used with -a, -i, -u, -r̥, -e,
and -o.

A bar above a consonant can be used to indicate various modified

◌̄
𐨸 𐨗 + 𐨸 → 𐨸𐨗 pronunciations depending on the consonant, such as nasalization
or aspiration. It is used with k, ṣ, g, c, j, n, m, ś, ṣ, s, and h.

The cauda changes how consonants are pronounced in various

◌́ or ◌̱
𐨹 𐨒 + 𐨹 → 𐨹𐨒 ways, particularly fricativization. It is used with g, j, ḍ, t, d, p, y, v, ś,
and s.

The precise phonetic function of the dot below is unknown. It is

𐨺 ◌̣ + →
𐨨 𐨺 𐨺𐨨 used with m and h.

{{{1}}}
A virama is used to suppress the inherent vowel that otherwise
𐨐 + 𐨿+ 𐨮 → occurs with every consonant letter. Its effect varies based on
situation:
𐨮𐨿𐨐 When not followed by a consonant the virama causes the
preceding consonant to be written as a subscript to the left of the
(n/a)
𐨿 𐨯 + 𐨿+ 𐨩 → letter before that consonant.
When the virama is followed by another consonant, it will trigger a
𐨩𐨿𐨯 combined form consisting of two or more consonants. This may be
a ligature, a special combining form, or a combining full form
depending on the consonants involved.
𐨐 + 𐨿+ 𐨟 →
The result takes into account any other combining marks.
𐨟𐨿𐨐

Punctuation

Nine Kharosthi punctuation marks have been identified:[9]

Sign Description Sign Description Sign Description

 𐩐 dot 𐩓 crescent bar 𐩖 danda

𐩑 small circle 𐩔 mangalam 𐩗 double danda

𐩒 circle 𐩕 lotus 𐩘 lines

Numerals

Kharosthi included a set of numerals that are reminiscent of Roman numerals.[citation

needed]
The system is based on an additive and a multiplicative principle, but does not
have the subtractive feature used in the Roman numeral system.[11]

Numerals[9]

Value 1 2 3 4 10 20 100 1000

Image

Text 𐩀 𐩁 𐩂 𐩃 𐩄 𐩅 𐩆
𐩇

The numerals, like the letters, are written from right to left. There is no zero and no
separate signs for the digits 5–9. Numbers in Kharosthi use an additive system. For
example, the number 1996 would be written as 1000 4 4 1 100 20 20 20 20 10 4 2
(image: , text: 𐩁𐩃𐩄𐩅𐩅𐩅𐩅𐩆𐩀𐩃𐩃𐩇).

History

Routes of ancient scripts of South Asia traveling to other parts of Asia (Kharosthi shown in
blue)

The script was earlier also known as "Indo-Bactrian", "Kabul script" and "Arian-Pali".
[12][13]
Scholars are not in agreement as to whether the Kharosthi script evolved
gradually, or was the deliberate work of a single inventor. An analysis of the script
forms shows a clear dependency on the Aramaic alphabet but with extensive
modifications.

Kharosthi seems to be derived from a form of Aramaic used in administrative work

during the reign of Darius the Great, rather than the monumental cuneiform used for
public inscriptions.[14] The name Kharosthi may derive from the Hebrew kharosheth, a
Semitic word for writing,[14] or from Old Iranian *xšaθra-pištra, which means "royal
writing".[15]

One model is that the Aramaic script arrived with the Achaemenid conquest of the
Indus Valley in 500 BCE and evolved over the next 200+ years to reach its final form
by the 3rd century BCE where it appears in some of the Edicts of Ashoka. However,
no intermediate forms have yet been found to confirm this evolutionary model, and
rock and coin inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE onward show a unified and
standard form. An inscription in Aramaic dating back to the 4th century BCE was
found in Sirkap, testifying to the presence of the Aramaic script in present-day
Pakistan. According to Sir John Marshall, this seems to confirm that Kharoshthi was
later developed from Aramaic.[16]

The study of the Kharosthi script was recently invigorated by the discovery of the
Gandhāran Buddhist texts, a set of birch bark manuscripts written in Kharosthi,
discovered near the Afghan city of Hadda just west of the Khyber Pass in Pakistan.
The manuscripts were donated to the British Library in 1994. The entire set of British
Library manuscripts are dated to the 1st century CE, although other collections from
different institutions contain Kharosthi manuscripts from 1st century BCE to 3rd
century CE,[17][18] making them the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered.

While the derived Brahmi scripts remained in use for centuries, Kharosthi seems to
have been abandoned after the 2nd-3rd Century AD. Because of the substantial
differences between the Semitic-derived Kharosthi script and its successors,
knowledge of Kharosthi may have declined rapidly once the script was supplanted by
Brahmi-derived scripts, until its re-discovery by Western scholars in the 19th Century.
[14]

The Kharosthi script was deciphered separately almost concomitantly by James

Prinsep (in 1835, published in the Journal of the Asiatic society of Bengal, India)[19]
and by Carl Ludwig Grotefend (in 1836, published in Blatter fur Munzkunde,
Germany),[20] with Grotenfend "evidently not aware" of Prinsep's article, followed by
Christian Lassen (1838).[21] They all used the bilingual coins of the Indo-Greek
Kingdom (obverse in Greek, reverse in Pali, using the Kharosthi script). This in turn
led to the reading of the Edicts of Ashoka, some of which were written in the
Kharosthi script (the Major Rock Edicts at Mansehra and Shahbazgarhi).[14]

Unicode
Main article: Kharoshthi (Unicode block)

Kharosthi was added to the Unicode Standard in March, 2005 with the release of
version 4.1.

The Unicode block for Kharosthi is U+10A00–U+10A5F:

 Kharoshthi[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

U+10A0x 𐨀  𐨁  𐨂  𐨃  𐨅  𐨆  𐨌  𐨍  𐨎  𐨏
U+10A1x 𐨐𐨑𐨒𐨓 𐨕𐨖𐨗 𐨙𐨚𐨛𐨜𐨝𐨞 𐨟
U+10A2x 𐨠𐨡𐨢𐨣𐨤𐨥𐨦𐨧𐨨𐨩𐨪𐨫𐨬𐨭𐨮 𐨯
U+10A3x 𐨰𐨱𐨲𐨳𐨴𐨵  𐨸  𐨹  𐨺  𐨿 
U+10A4x 𐩀𐩁𐩂𐩃𐩄𐩅𐩆𐩇𐩈
U+10A5x 𐩐𐩑𐩒𐩓𐩔𐩕𐩖𐩗𐩘
Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0

2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Gallery

Kharoshti script on a wooden plate in the National Museum of India in New

Delhi


Kharoshti script on a wooden plate in the National Museum of India in New

Delhi

Kharoshti script on a wooden plate in the National Museum of India in New

Delhi

 Kharoshti script on wood from Niya, 3rd century CE



Double-wedged wooden tablet in Gandhari written in Kharosthi script, 2nd to

4th century CE


Wooden tablet inscribed with Kharosthi characters (2nd–3rd century CE).

Excavated at the Niya ruins in Xinjiang, China. Collection of the Xinjiang
Museum.

Wooden Kharosthi document found at Loulan, China by Aurel Stein

 Fragmentary Kharosthi Buddhist text on birchbark (Part of a group of early

manuscripts from Gandhara), first half of 1st century CE. Collection of the
British Library in London

Silver bilingual tetradrachm of Menander I (155-130 BCE). Obverse: Greek

legend, ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ (BASILEOS SOTEROS
MENANDROU), literally, "Of Saviour King Menander". Reverse: Kharosthi
legend: MAHARAJA TRATARASA MENADRASA "Saviour King
Menander". Athena advancing right, with thunderbolt and shield. Taxila mint
mark.


Coin of King Gurgamoya of Khotan (1st century CE). Obverse: Kharoshthi

legend "Of the great king of kings, king of Khotan, Gurgamoya. Reverse:
Chinese legend: "Twenty-four grain copper coin".

Coin of Menander II Dikaiou Obverse: Menander wearing a diadem. Greek

legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ "King Menander the Just".
Reverse: Winged figure bearing diadem and palm, with halo, probably Nike.
The Kharoshthi legend reads MAHARAJASA DHARMIKASA
MENADRASA "Great King, Menander, follower of the Dharma, Menander".

The Indo-Greek Hashtnagar Pedestal symbolizes bodhisattva and ancient

Kharosthi script. Found near Rajar in Gandhara, Pakistan. Exhibited at the
British Museum in London.


Mathura lion capital with addorsed lions and Prakrit inscriptions in Kharoshthi
script

Fragments of stone well railings with a Buddhist inscription written in

Kharoshthi script (late Han period to the Three Kingdoms era). Discovered at
Luoyang, China in 1924.

Portion of Emperor Ashoka's Rock Edicts at Shahbaz Garhi

 

Portion of Emperor Ashoka's Rock Edicts at Shahbaz Garhi

Document on Wooden Stick written in Kharoshthi script, 3rd-4th century CE.

See also

 Brahmi
 History of Afghanistan
 History of Pakistan
 Pre-Islamic scripts in Afghanistan

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kharoshthi.

 Kaschgar und die Kharoṣṭhī (1903)

References

1.
 R. D. Banerji (April 1920). "The Kharosthi Alphabet". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 52 (2): 193–219. doi:10.1017/S0035869X0014794X.
JSTOR 25209596. S2CID 162688271.
  Bühler, Georg (1895). "The Origin of the Kharoṣṭhī Alphabet". Wiener Zeitschrift für die
Kunde des Morgenlandes. 9: 44–66. JSTOR 23860352.

  "Kharosthi Script". World History Encyclopedia.

  "Kharoshti: writing system". Britannica.

  Salomon 1998, p. 20.

  Salomon 1998, pp. 11–13.

  Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch (in Sanskrit). 1925. pp. 56–57.

  Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William, eds. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford
University Press, Inc. pp. 373–383. ISBN 978-0195079937.

  Glass, Andrew; Baums, Stefan; Salomon, Richard (2003-09-18). "L2/03-314R2: Proposal

to Encode Kharoshthi in Plane 1 of ISO/IEC 10646" (PDF).

  Glass, Andrew; Baums, Stefan; Salomon, Richard (2003-09-29). "L2/02-364: Proposal to

add one combining diacritic to the UCS" (PDF).

  Graham Flegg, Numbers: Their History and Meaning, Courier Dover Publications, 2002,
ISBN 978-0-486-42165-0, p. 67f.

  "When these alphabets were first deciphered, scholars gave them different names such
as 'Indian-Pali' for Brahmi and 'Arian-Pali' for Kharosthi, but these terms are no longer in
use." in Upāsaka, Sī Esa; Mahāvihāra, Nava Nālandā (2002). History of palæography of
Mauryan Brāhmī script. Nava Nālanda Mahāvihāra. p. 6. ISBN 9788188242047.

  Kharosthi. Great Russian Encyclopedia.

  Dias, Malini; Miriyagalla, Das (2007). "Brahmi Script in Relation to Mesopotamian

Cuneiform". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka. 53: 91–108. JSTOR 23731201.

  Bailey, H. W. (1972). "A Half-Century of Irano-Indian Studies". Journal of the Royal

Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 104 (2): 99–110.
doi:10.1017/S0035869X00157466. JSTOR 25203366. S2CID 163349913.

  A Guide to Taxila, John Marshall, 1918

  Richard, Salomon (2018). Buddhist Literature of Ancient Gandhara: An Introduction with

Selected Translations. Simon and Schuster. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-61429-185-5. …Subsequent
studies have confirmed that these and other similar materials that were discovered in the
following years date from between the first century BCE and the third century CE…
  University of Washington. "The Early Buddhist Manuscripts Project": "...These
manuscripts date from the first century BCE to the third century CE, and as such are the
oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts as well as the oldest manuscripts from South Asia..."
Retrieved 18 September 2021.

  Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol IV 1835. pp. 327–348.

  Grote, Hermann (1836). Blätter für Münzkunde. Hannoversche numismatische

Zeitschrift. Hrsg. von H. Grote (in German). Hahn. pp. 309–314.

21.  Salomon 1998, pp. 210–212.

Icon for Wikipedia links to pages in the Prakrit Languages

Further reading
 Dani, Ahmad Hassan. Kharoshthi Primer, Lahore Museum Publication Series - 16, Lahore,
1979

 Falk, Harry. Schrift im alten Indien: Ein Forschungsbericht mit Anmerkungen, Gunter Narr
Verlag, 1993 (in German)

 Fussman's, Gérard. Les premiers systèmes d'écriture en Inde, in Annuaire du Collège de

France 1988-1989 (in French)

 Hinüber, Oscar von. Der Beginn der Schrift und frühe Schriftlichkeit in Indien, Franz Steiner
Verlag, 1990 (in German)

 Nasim Khan, M.(1997). Ashokan Inscriptions: A Palaeographical Study. Atthariyyat

(Archaeology), Vol. I, pp. 131–150. Peshawar

 Nasim Khan, M.(1999). Two Dated Kharoshthi Inscriptions from Gandhara. Journal of
Asian Civilizations (Journal of Central Asia), Vol. XXII, No.1, July 1999: 99-103.

 Nasim Khan, M.(2000). An Inscribed Relic-Casket from Dir. The Journal of Humanities and
Social Sciences, Vol. V, No. 1, March 1997: 21–33. Peshawar

 Nasim Khan, M.(2000). Kharoshthi Inscription from Swabi - Gandhara. The Journal of
Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. V, No. 2. September 1997: 49–52. Peshawar.

 Nasim Khan, M.(2004). Kharoshthi Manuscripts from Gandhara. Journal of Humanities and
Social Sciences. Vol. XII, Nos. 1 & 2 (2004): 9-15. Peshawar

 Nasim Khan, M.(2009). Kharoshthi Manuscripts from Gandhara (2nd ed.. First published in
2008.
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