Chapter 14

155

CH/
 Co ti
hapter at a lance
Interactions create the foundations
for successful actions. This chapter
ines the nature of interpersonal and exam
organizational communication as pat
ways to effective interaction in org h
anizations, As you read the chapter
in mind these study topics. , keep

THE NATURE OF COMMUNICATION

The Communication Process
Feedback and Communication
Communication Channels
Communication Directions and Flows

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Effective and Efficient Communication
Nonverbal Communication
Active Listening
Cross-Cultural Communication

COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Physical Distractions
Semantic Problems
Mixed Messages
Absence of Feedback
Status Effects

ISSUES IN ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
Electronic Communication
Workplace Privacy
Communication and Social Context

CHAPTER 14 STUDY GUIDE

 ___
___
___
___
___
___

ou may not realize it, but when you

silently,” says Ame[io, “it doesn’t
use a Lenovo to type an assign they me
’re agreeing.”
ment, you’re working on a Chin
ese- Amelio is well aware of the
made computer. The Lenovo Group Ltd. cros
cultural challenges of blending a
bought IBM’s personal computer division work
wide team of talent. In an interview
and is presently the third o
CNN he said that trust, r
largest computer maker in
spect, and compromis
the world. And who sits in
the CEO slot? It’s an
“If a Chinese are the keywords. HeaI&
colleague is claims living and workin
American, Bill Amelio,
in Asia has taught him
who was hired away from nodding silently lot, and that he has gaine
a senior position at Dell.
In an interview with it doesn’t new skills. “I work hard a
listening a lot better,” h
the Wall Street Journal, mean they’re says. “I tend to be some
Amelio was asked if he
considered Lenovo a Chi
agreeing.” what impatient at times
and it is much better to be
nese company. His reply:
patient. sometimes you
‘We’re a global company. We rotate
. .

the have to kind of let things see

headquarters between Beijing, p in for
Hong awhile.”
Kong, Singapore, Raleigh (North Car
Twenty-seven percent of Lenovo
olina), and Paris.” He says he doe is
s not owned by the Chinese governme
even have time to think about jet lag, nt. One
but of Arnelio’s fIrst tasks was to deal
he is fully aware of the challenges with a
of rumor, picked up by member
managing and communicating acro s of the
ss U.S. Congress, that the finn’s com
cultures. He points out that American pute rs
contained spy chips. He says with
and European executives tend to spe out
ak doubt that this was all politics
their minds and “make their voic and no
es substance. When asked if
heard.” The Chinese, by contrast, he spea ks
are Mandarin, Amelio replies that he
more prone to listening, and when can say
they “hello” and “thank you.” Not surp
do speak, they choose their words care risingly,
his goal is to attend an immersion
fully. “If a Chinese colleague is nodd lan
ing guage program.’

The Nature of Communication

Communication is the glue that hol
ds organizations together. It is the
share information, ideas, goals, dire way we
ctions, expectations, feelings, and
tions in the context of coordinated emo
action. But, how good are we as
nicators . .really? Respondents to a survey
.
com mu
Association, for example, gave by the American Management
their managers only a 63 percent
ing in respect to “communicating success rat
information and direction.” In ano
vey respondents rated how skil ther sur
led their managers were in “listeni
asking questions.” The managers ng and
averaged ratings of only 3.36 on
scale. Obviously, there is a lot
2 a 5-point
yet to be accomplished with resp
gerial and workplace communica ect to mana
tion.
320
 The Nature of communication 321

TheCommunication Process
id it is useful to describe communication as a process of sendin
g and receiving • Communication is the
on messages with attached meanings. The key elements in
the communication process of sending and re
re process are illustrated in Figure 14.L They include a source
, which encodes an ceiving symbols with at
intended meaning into a message, and a receiver, which
ise decodes the message into tached meanings.
a perceived meaning. The receiver may or may not give feedback
0
is to the source.
Although this process may appear to be elementary, it is not
ing quite as simple as it
looks. Noise is the term used to describe any disturbance
that disrupts commu Noise is anything that
nication effectiveness and interferes with the transference
of messages within the interferes with the effec
ed communication process.
The information source is a person or group trying to tiveness of communication.
I at communicate with some
one else. The source seeks to communicate, in part, to change
he the attitudes, know!
edge, or behavior of the receiver. A team leader, for
ne example, may want to
communicate with a division manager in order to explain
nes why the team needs more
time or resources to finish an assigned project. This involv
es encoding—the process
be of translating an idea or thought into a message consisting of
verbal, written, or non
IOU verbal symbols (such as gestures), or some combination
of them. Messages are
for transmitted through various communication channels,
such as face-to-face meet Communication
ings, e-mail and online discussions, written letters or memo
randa, and telephone channels are the pathways
communications or voice mail, among others. The choice
Dis of channel can have an through which messages
important impact on the communication process. Some
)ne people are better at using are communicated.
certain channels over others, and specific channels are
better able to handle some
tha types of messages. In the case of the team leader commu
nicating with the division
the manager, for example, it can make quite a difference whethe
r the message is sent
ters face to face, in a written memo, by voice mail, or by e-mail
.
Lout The communication process is not completed even though
a message is sent.
The receiver is the individual or group of individuals
no to whom a message is di
rected. In order for meaning to be assigned to any receive
aks d message, its contents
must be interpreted through decoding. This process of
say translation is complicated by

Channel

Feedback

we
mo
mu
ieflt
rat
sur
and
Dint
na Figure 14.1 The comxnu
nication process and pos
sible sources of ‘noise.”
322 chapter 14 Communication

many factors, including the knowledge and experience of the receiver and his or
her relationship with the sender. A message may also be interpreted with the
added influence of other points of view, such as those offered by friends, co
workers, or organizational superiors. Ultimately, the decoding may result in the
receiver interpreting a message in a way that is different from that originally in
tended by the source.

Feedback and Communication

Feedback comrnuni
cates how one feels about
something another person
has done or said.
360-degree feedback
provides performance feed
back from peers, co-work
ers, and direct reports as
well as from the supervisor.
Formal channels fol
low the official chain of
command.
Informal channels do
not follow the chain of
command.
OB SAVVY 14.1
How to Give
Feedback
• Give it directly and in a spirit of mutual trust.
• Be specific, not general; use clear examples.
Most receivers are well aware of the potential gap between the intended message
of the source and the perceived meaning assigned to it by the recipient. One way
in which these gaps are identified is feedback, the process through which the re
ceiver communicates with the sender by returning another message. The ex
change of information through feedback can be very helpful in improving the
communication process, and the popular advice to always “keep the feedback
channels open” is good to remember.
In practice, giving feedback is often associated with one or more persons com
municating an evaluation of what another person has said or done. An example is
the process of 360-degree feedback discussed in Chapter 7 as a setting in which
not only a supervisor but also one’s peers, co-workers, and direct reports provide
feedback on performance. Just as in any feedback situation, all parties must engage
in the 3600 feedback situation carefully and with interpersonal skill.
3
As pointed out in OB Savvy 14.1, there is an art to giving feedback so that the
receiver accepts it and uses it constructivel y. Words that are intended to be polite
and helpful can easily end up being perceived as unpleasant and even hostile.
This risk is particularly evident in the performance appraisal process. A manager
or team leader must be able to do more than just complete a written appraisal to
document another person’s performance for the record. To serve the person’s de
velopmental needs, feedback regarding the results of the appraisal—both the
praise and the criticism—must be well communicated.
Communication Channels
Information flows through both formal and informal communication channels in
organizations. Formal channels follow the chain of command established by an
organization’s hierarchy of authority. For example, an organization chart indicates
the proper routing for official messages passing from
one level or part of the hierarchy to another. Because
formal channels are recognized as authoritative, it is
typical for communication of policies, procedures,
Constr uctive and other official announcements to adhere to them.
On the other hand, much “networking” takes place
— through the use of informal channels that do not
adhere to the organization’s hierarchy of 4 authority.
They coexist with the formal channels but frequently
-

diverge from them by skipping levels in the hierarchy

• Give it when receiver is most ready to accept.
or cutting across vertical chains of command. Infor
• Be accurate; check its validity with others.
mal channels help to create open communicati ons in
• Focus on things the receiver can control.
• Limit how much the receiver gets at one time. organizations and ensure that the right people are in
contact with one 5 another.
 The Nature of Communicaijon
323
his or A common informal communication channel is
ith the the grapevine, or network of A grapevine transfers
friendships and acquaintances through whic
h rumors and other unofficial infor
ds, co mation get passed from person to person. Grapevin information through net
es have the advantage of be works of friendships and
in the ing able to transmit information quickly and efficientl
ally in y. Grapevines also help fulfill acquaintances.
the needs of people involved in them. Being part
of a grapevine can provide a
sense of security that comes from “being in the know Blogs are individual
” when important things are
going on. It also provides social satisfaction as infor web sites that communicate
mation is exchanged inter
personally. The primary disadvantage of grapevin personal accounts of events
es occurs when they transmit in
correct or untimely information. Rumors can be very and opinions.
dysfunctional, both to people
essage and to organizations. One of the best ways to avoi
d rumors is to make sure that Wilds are collaborative
ne way key persons in a grapevine get the right information
to begin with. web sites to which individ
• the re Today, the traditional communication grapevin
e in organizations is often tech uals contribute material
(‘he ex nology assisted. The most common form is prob
ably the e-mail message, but as and edit previous postings
•ing the technology continues to evolve, so, too, does
the grapevine. In more and more by others.
edback organizations people are communicating offic
ially and unofficially by blogs—
which are individual web sites that post perso Channel richness
nal accounts of events and situa
tis corn tions as well as opinions and stories, and wild indicates the capacity of
s—which are collaborative web
tmple is sites to which individuals contribute material and a channel to convey
edit material previously posted by
i which others. As evidence of the power of technolog information.
y in this regard, the U.S. military set
Pr strict regulations on blogs after becoming conc
erned about the
:en e messages being communicating by a proliferat
ion of bloggers
from personnel stationed in Iraq. On the othe
r hand, reports in
that the dicate that by 2009 wilds will be used by at
least 50% of organ
)C polite izations world-wide as a communications impr
ovement 6 tool.
hostile. More than ever before, computer technolog
y plays a ma
tanager jor role in how information is shared and
used in organizations.
raisal to Research in the area of channel richness
examines the capac
;on’s de ity of communication media in a channel to
convey informa-
)Oth the don. It lends insight into how the technolog ‘

y used in various
channel alternatives varies in implications
for communication
effectiveness.
7
As indicated in Figure 14.2, the richest chan -

nels are face to

face. Next are telephone, video conferences,
and instant mes
rnnels in saging, followed by e-mail, written mem
os, and letters. The
ed by an leanest channels are posted notices and
bulletins. When mes
indicates sages get more complex and open ende
d, richer channels are necessary to
;ing from achieve effective communication. Leaner
channels work well for more routine and
Because straightforward messages, such as announci
ng the location of a previously sched
.tiv is uled meeting.
)cedures,
to them.
ces place
at do not
uthority.
4 Low
Richness High
requefltlY • Impersonal Richness
hierarchy • One-way • Personal
• Fast • Two-way
d. Infor
• Slow
:ations in
DIe are in Richness of Communication Channel
Figure 14.2 Richness of communication channels.
 324 Chapter 14 Communication

Communication Directions and Flows

Communication among members of an organization, as well as between them and
external customers, suppliers, distributors, alliance partners, and a host of out
Organizational corn- siders, provides vital information for the enterprise. Organizational comxnuni..
munication is the many cation is the specific process through which information moves and is exchanged
ways information moves throughout an organization.
8 Information flows through both the formal and in-
through and is exchanged formal channels just described, and it flows downward, upward, and laterally.
in organizations. Within organizations, downward communication follows the chain of com
mand from top to bottom. One of its major functions is to achieve influence
through information. Lower-level personnel need to know what those in higher
levels are doing and to be regularly reminded of key policies, strategies, objec
tives, and technical developments. Of special importance is feedback and infor
mation on performance results. Sharing such information helps minimize the
spread of rumors and inaccuracies regarding higher-level intentions. It also helps
create a sense of security and involvement among receivers, who believe they
know the whole story. Unfortunately, a lack of adequate downward communica
tion is often cited as a management failure. On the issue of corporate downsiz
ing, for example, one sample showed that 64 percent of employees did not
believe what management said, 61 percent felt uninformed about company plans,
and 54 percent complained that decisions were not well explained.
The flow of messages from lower to higher organizational levels is upward
communication. As shown in Figure 14.3, it serves several purposes. Upward com
munication keeps higher levels informed about what lower-level workers are do
ing, what their problems are, what suggestions they have for improvements, and
how they feel about the organization and their jobs. The employee surveys used by
Sun Microsystems and mentioned in the chapter opener are examples. Scott G. Mc
Nealy, CEO of Sun Microsystems, Inc., is well known for his unique vision of a high-
tech future based on computer networking. He harnesses computing power at Sun

Figure 14.3 Directions

for information flows in
and around organizations.
 Interpersonal Communication 325

to drive a comprehensive organizational communication program that includes e

irlail questionnaires or polls to gather information on employee perceptions of such Qn1ine •i i
nd things as “performance inhibitors” that make it hard for them to do a good job. At :AreBig
Ut.. Sun, top management recognizes that information and communication are keys to
Di continued organizational 9 development. Even so, at Sun and elsewhere, status ef
ed fects can potentially interfere with the effectiveness of upward communication. -

in The importance of lateral communication in the new workplace has been

a
recurrent theme in this book. Today’s customer-sensitive organizations need What started as a hobby is turn
rn timely and accurate feedback and product information. To serve customer needs ing into big business for some
ice they must get the right information—and get it fast enough—into the hands of social networking entrepreneurs.
ler workers. Furthermore, inside the organization, people must be willing and able Quentin English started with an
ec to communicate across departmental or functional boundaries and to listen to one e-mail list of 25 friends; now his
or- another’s needs as “internal customers.” New organization designs are emphasiz site, quentinsfriends.com, links
the ing lateral communication in the form of cross-departmental committees, teams, thousands of New Yorkers in an
‘PS or task forces as well as matrix structures. There is also growing attention to or electronic marketplace. Erik
iey ganizational ecology—the study of how building design may influence comm
u Wachtmeister started aSmall
ca nication and productivity by improving lateral communications. Other World net to keep in touch with
5iZ- developments include the innovations in information technology that continue
to a few global friends; it now links
1ot make it possible to move, share, and access information in new and timely ways. professionals worldwide. Andra
ns, Wikis, for example, are a form of mass collaboration that is helping organi
zations Davidson created
operate in less hierarchical and more lateral fashions. Participation in a wiki MothersClick.com as a site
ard al
lows people from different functions, locations, and positions to share inform where new parents can share in
a
tion, brainstorm, discuss problems and their solutions, and otherwise build formation. Perhaps there are
1o- a
knowledge base that is accessible throughout the organization and at some tips here for better com
Lnd any time.
munication within organizations.
by
Has social networking arrived at
Interpersonal Communication your employer?

Our organizations are information rich and increasingly high tech. But
even with
the support provided by continuing developments in information techno
logy, it
is important to remember that people still drive organizational system
s and per
formance. People who are willing and able to work together well
and commit
their mutual talents and energies to the tasks at hand are the founda
tions of any
high-performance organization. And to create this foundation, people
must excel
in the processes of interpersonal communication.

Effective and EffidentCorhmuncation

When people communicate with one another, at least two import
ant things are at
issue. One is the accuracy of the communication—an issue of effecti
veness; the
other is its cost—an issue of efficiency.
Effective communication occurs when the intended meaning of the
source Effective communica
and the perceived meaning of the receiver are virtually the same.’
° Although this tion is when the intended
should be the goal in any communication, it is not always achieved.
Even now, we meaning equals the per
worry about whether or not you are interpreting these written words
exactly as we ceived meaning.
intend. Our confidence would be higher if we were face-to-face
in class together,
and you could ask clarifying questions. Opportunities to offer
feedback and ask
questions are important ways of increasing the effectiveness of commu
nication. - Efficient communica
Efficient communication occurs at minimum cost in terms of
resources tion is low cost in its use
expended. Time, for example, is an important resource. Picture
your instructor of resources.
326 Chapter 14 Communication
- Nonverbal communi
cation occurs through fa
cial expressions, body
motions, eye contact, and
other physical gestures.
-.
I,
ETHICS IN OB
-
IT’S HARD TO COMMUNICATE WHEN YOU CAN’T
.1,,
READ
J
4 — lj’ John Wood is a social entrepreneur. Once comfortably im
mersed in an executive career with Microsoft, his life
.‘.
changed on a vacation to.the Himalayas of Nepal. Wood
was shocked at the lack of schools. And he discovered a
N-\ - passion that determined what he calls the “second chap
ter” in his life: to provide the lifelong benefits of education
to poor children. He quit his Microsoft job and started a
nonprofit organization called Room to Read. So far the or
1 ganization has built over 220 schools and 3,300 libraries in
places like Cambodia, India, Nepal, Vietnam, and Laos.
Some 850 million people in the developing world can’t
read or write—one-seventh of the global population. Wood
says: “I don’t see how we are going to solve the world’s
problems without literacy.” The Room to Read model is so efficient that it can build schools
for as little as $6,000. Time magazine has honored Wood and his team as “Asian Heroes,”
and Fast Company magazine nominated his organization for a Social Capitalist Award.”
Question: How can Wood’s,commitment to betterliteracy apply in your local com
munity? Do some organizations suffer because they have internal literacy problems
and don’t know it?
taking the time to communicate individually with each student in your class
about the course subject matter. It would be virtually impossible to do so. Even
if it were possible, it would be very costly in terms of time. People at work of
ten choose not to visit one another personally to communicate messages. Instead,
they rely on the efficiency of written memos, posted bulletins, group meetings,
e-mail, or voice mail.
An efficient communication is not always effective. A change in policy posted
by efficient e-mail may save time for the sender, but it may not achieve the de
sired interpretations and responses. Similarly, an effective communication may not
be efficient. For a business manager to visit each employee and explain a new
change in procedures may guarantee that everyone understands the change, but
it nay also be prohibitively expensive in terms of the required time expenditure.
Nonverbal Communication
We all know that people communicate in ways other than the spoken or written
word. Indeed, nonverbal communication that takes place through facial ex
pressions, body position, eye contact, and other physical gestures is important
both to understand and to master. It is the act of speaking without using words.
Kinesics, the study of gestures and body postures, has achieved a rightful place
in communication theory and research.’
2
The nonverbal side to communication can often hold the key to what someone
is really thinking or meaning. It can also affect the impressions we make on others.
Interviewers, for example, tend to respond more favorably to job candidates whose
 Interpersonal Communication
327

)Od

ap
ation
a
3 or-
es in
“.1 amthe bossr
Os.
“Forget I’m the boss, lees talk
”
ood Figure 14.4 Furniture placement and
nonverbal communicatio
n in the office.
‘ols
nonverbal cues, such as eye
Contact and erect posture,
displaying negative nonver are positive than to those
bal cues, such as looking
of impression management dur dow n or slouching. The art
ing interviews and in oth
ful attention to both verbal er situations requires care
and nonverbal aspects of
one’s dress, timeliness, and communication, including
demeanor.
Nonverbal communication
can also take place throug
ment of space or workspac h the physical arrange
e designs, such as that fou
Proxemics, the study of the nd in various office layouts.
lass way space is used, is im
Figure 14.4 shows three dif portant to 3 communication.’
yen ferent office arrangements
communicate to visitors. and the messages they ma
of- Check the diagrams agains y
your office or that of you t the furniture arrangement
ad, r instructor or a person in
What are you or they say with whom you are fam
gs, ing to visitors by the cho iliar.
ice of furniture 1 placeme4 nt?
ted Active Listening
1e- Active listening en
‘ot The ability to listen well courages people to say
is a distinct asset to anyone
whose job success dep what they really mean.
ends on communicating wit
>ut other people. After all, the h
re are always two sides to
re. the communication pro
cess: (1) sending a messa 08 SAVVY 14.2
or “telling,” and (2) rec ge,
eiving a message, or “lis
ing.” And as you know, ten Guidelines for Active Li
too many of us emphasiz stening
the telling and neglect the e
listening.’
5
Everyone in the new wo 1. Listen for content—try to hea
rkplace should develop r exactly what is being
good skills in active list said.
ening—the ability to
the source of a messa help 2. Listen for feelings—try to iden
ge say what he or she rea tify how the source
means. The concept com lly feels about things.
es from the work of coun
selors and therapists, wh 3. Respond to feelings—let the sou
o are trained to help peo rce know that his or
express themselves and ple her feelings are recognized.
talk about things that are
portant to 6 them) Take a moment im 4. Note all cues—-be sensitive to
to review the both verbal and non
guidelines for active list verbal expressions.
ening shown in OB Sav
14.2. Then read the conver vy 5. Reflect back—repeat in your own
sations below. How would words what you
you feel as the group think you are hearing.
leader in each 7 case?’
328 Chapter 14 Communication

Example 1
Group leader: Hey, Sal, I don’t get this work order. We can’t handle this today.
What do they think we are?

Branch manager: But that’s the order. So get it out as soon as you can. We’re
under terrific pressure this week.

Group leader: Don’t they know we’re behind schedule already because of that
software problem?

Branch manager: Look, I don’t decide what goes on upstairs. I just have to see
that the work gets out, and that’s what I’m going to do.

Group leader: The team won’t like this.

Branch manager: That’s something you’ll have to work Out with them, not me.

Example 2
Group leader: Hey, Kelley, I don’t get this work order. We can’t handle this to
day. What do they think we are?

Branch manager: Sounds like you’re pretty sore about it.

Group leader: I sure am. We’re just about getting back to schedule while fight
ing that software breakdown. Now this comes along.

Branch manager: As if you didn’t have enough work to do?

Group leader: Right, I don’t know how to tell the team about this. They’re under a
real strain today. Seems like everything we do around here is rush, rush, rush.

Branch manager: I guess you feel like it’s unfair to load anything more on them.

Group leader: Well, yes. But I know there must be plenty of pressure on every
body up the line. If that’s the way it is, I’ll get the word to them.

Branch manager: Thanks. If you’ll give it a try, I’ll do my best to hold with the
schedule in the future.

The second example shows active listening skills on the part of the branch
manager. She responded to the group leader’s communication in a way that
increased the flow of information. The manager learned more about the situ
ation, while the group leader most likely felt better after having been able to
really say what she thought—after being heard. Compare, by contrast, these
outcomes with those in the first example where the manager lacked active lis
tening skills.

Cross-Cultural CommunicaUon
We all know that outsourcing is big business these days. What we might not re
alize is that the success of international outsourcing often rests with the quality of
cross-cultural communication. And all is not well. A recent study of large firms by
 Interpersonal Commurncation 329

that the biggest challenge in working with

Accenture reports that 92 percent find
tsourcing providers is 8
0 communication.’ People must always exercise caution
communication—whether between per
when they are involved in cross-cultural
groupings within one country, or between
sons of different geographic or ethnic
persons of different national cultures. Ethnocentrism is the
on is ethnocentrism,
A common problem in cross-cultural communicati tendency to believe one’s
and its values are superior to those of
the tendency to believe one’s culture culture and its values are
ingness to try to understand al
others. It is often accompanied by an unwill superior to those of others.
represent seriously. An
ternative Points of view and to take the values they Parochialism assumes
on arises from parochialism—
other problem in cross-cultural communicati the ways of your culture
ways of doing things. It
assuming that the ways of your culture are the only are the only ways of doing
sswoman to insist that all of her
is parochial for a traveling American busine things.
entric for her to think
business contacts speak English, whereas it is ethnoc
a knife and fork lacks
that anyone who dines with a spoon rather than
proper table manners.
s most obvious
The difficulties with cross-cultural communication are perhap
es, for example, may work
in respect to language differences. Advertising messag
into the language of
well in one country but encounter difficulty when translated
European model, the
another. Problems accompanied the introduction of Ford’s
es may also be used
“Ka,” into Japan. (In Japanese, ka means “mosquito.”) Gestur
le, crossed legs
quite differently in the various cultures of the world. For examp
Arabia if the
are quite acceptable in the United Kingdom but are rude in Saudi
ne to get their at
sole of the foot is directed toward someone. Pointing at someo
inappropriate
tention may be acceptable in Canada, but in Asia it is considered
and even 19offensive.
nal and
The role of language in cross-cultural communication has additio
d T. Hall notes
sometimes even more subtle sides. The anthropologist Edwar
and he sug
important differences in the ways different cultures use language,
gests that misunderstood communications are often caused by them. ° Mem
2
culture s are very explici t in using the spoken and In low-context
bers of low-co ntext
a, and the cultures messages are
written word. In these cultures, such as those of Australia, Canad
ne uses, expressed mainly by the
United States, the message is largely conveyed by the words someo
contrast, spoken and written word.
and not particularly by the “context” in which they are spoken. In
limited part
members of high-context cultures use words to convey only a In high-context
t,
of the message. The rest must be inferred or interpreted from the contex cultures words convey
nships —
which includes body language, the physical setting, and past relatio only part of a message,
g to what is being said. Many Asian and Middle East
all of which add meanin while the rest of the mes
ered high contex t, accord ing to Hall, wherea s most
ern cultures are consid sage must be inferred from
Western cultures are low contex t. body language and addi
to gain
International business experts advise that one of the best ways tional contextual cues.
l differe nces is to learn at least some of the langua ge
understanding of cultura
ing
of the country that one is dealing with. Says one global manager: “Speak
avoid
and understanding the local language gives you more insight; you can
Ameri can membe r of the board of a Germa n
misunderstandings.” A former
mem
multinational says: “Language proficiency gives a [non-German) board
is going on not just the facts and figures but
ber a better grasp of what . . .

.” Althou gh the prospe ct of learnin g anothe r lan

also texture and 2 nuance
’
the
guage may sound daunting, there is little doubt that it can be well worth
22
effort.
330 Chapter 14 Communication

Leaders on Leadership
PEPSI’S NEW CEO SPEAKS HINDI.
When Indra Nooyi was ap
pointed CEO of PepsiCo, India
celebrated, and the Economic
Times proclaimed: “Nooyi has
unfurled the Indian tricolor
right on top of Pepsi’s head
quarters.” Born in India and just
50 years old, her credits during
a 12-year Pepsi career include
acquisitions—Tropicana
and Quaker Oats—and
divestitures—selling off Pizza
Hut and Kentucky Fried
Chicken. A company press re
lease reported that she was
“driving critical cross-business
initiatives.” But Nooyi brings
more than solid executive expe
rience to the new role; she’s a
unique personality as well. She
was part of an all-female rock
band in college. Does it sur
prise you that she once broke
spontaneously into the song
‘Day-O” after introducing Harry
Belafonte as guest speaker at a
Pepsi diversity event?
Nooyi is considered a trans
formational leader and a great
strategist. And she knows how
to communicate. When the
company’s board chairmanship
was added to her CEO title,
Nooyi said: “I’m incredibly hon
ored by the board’s confidence,
and extraordinarily fortunate to
follow in the footsteps of Steve
Reinemund and all my illustri
ous predecessors.” Her success
story is one to watch.
23

Question: When Nooyi praised

herpredecessors when taking
over as board chairman, what
was she tlying to communicate?
Will Nooyi’s cross-cultural back
ground be a leadership asset for
Pepsi that Coke mightfind hard
to match?

Conimiinicatiori Barriers f
In all interpersonal communication, it is important to understand the sources of
noise that can easily cause problems in the communication process. As shown
earlier in Figure 14,1, potential noise comes from the cultural differences just dis
cussed, as well as from physical distractions, semantic problems, mixed messages,
absence of feedback, and status effects.

Physical Distractions
Any number of physical distractions can interfere with the effectiveness of a com
munication attempt. Some of these distractions are evident in the following con
versation between an employee, George, and his manager.
24
 Communication Barriers 331

Okay, George, let’s hear your problem (phone rings, boss picks it up, promises
to deliver the report “just as soon as I can get it done”). Uh, now, where were
we— oh, you’re having a problem with marketing. They (the manager’s secretary
brings in some papers that need immediate signatures; he scribbles his name and
the secretary leaves) . .you say they’re not cooperative? I tell you what, George,
.

why don’t you (phone rings again, lunch partner drops by). uh, take a stab at
. .

handling it yourself. I’ve got to go now.

Besides what may have been poor intentions in the first place, George’s manager al
lowed physical distractions to create information overload. As a result, the commu
nication with George suffered. Setting priorities and planning can eliminate this
mistake. If George has something to say, his manager should set aside adequate time
for the meeting. In addition, interruptions such as telephone calls, drop-in visitors,
and the like should be prevented. At a minimum, George’s manager could start by
closing the door to the office and instructing his secretary not to disturb them.

5emantic Problems
Semantic barriers to communication involve a poor choice or use of words and
mixed messages. When in doubt regarding the clarity of your written or spoken
messages, the popular KISS principle of communication is always worth re The KISS principle
membering: “Keep it short and simple.” Of course, that is often easier said than stands for “keep it short
done. The following illustrations of the “bafflegab” that once tried to pass as ac and simple.”
tual “executive communication” are a case in point.
25
A. “We solicit any recommendations that you wish to make, and you may be as
sured that any such recommendations will be given our careful consideration.”
B. “Consumer elements are continuing to stress the fundamental necessity of a
stabilization of the price structure at a lower level than exists at the present time.”

One has to wonder why these messages weren’t stated more understandably:
(A) “Send us your recommendations; they will be carefully considered.” (B) “Con
sumers want lower prices.”

Mixed Mess.e
Mixed messages occur when a person’s words communicate one thing while his • Mixed messages occur
or her actions or body language communicate quite another. They are important to when words say one thing
spot since nonverbal signals can add insight into what is really being said in face-to- while nonverbal cues say
face 26
communication. For instance, someone may voice cautious agreement during something else.
s of a business meeting at the same time that her facial expression shows stress, and she
)Wfl begins to lean back in her chair. The body language in this case may suggest the ex
dis istence of important reservations, even though the words indicate agreement.
ges,
Absence of Feedback
One-way communication flows from sender to receiver only, as in the case of a
written memo or a voice-mail message. There is no direct and immediate feed
om back from the recipient. Two-way communication, by contrast, goes from sender
:on to receiver and back again. It is characteristic of the normal interactive conversa
tions in our daily experiences.
 332 Chapter 14 Communication

Research Insight
Workplace Identities and Office Decor
Research conducted by Kimberly D. Elsbach and/or affirm a person’s workplace identity.”
offers insight on how office decor can influ Also, physical markers independent of the per
ence co-workers’ perceptions of son—such as the apparent quality
the officeholder’s workplace SAMPLE OFFICE DECOR or expensiveness of office furni
identity—defined as “an individ IDENTITY MARKERS ture—were found to relate more
ual’s central and enduring status to perceived workplace status
Family photos—say family
and distinctiveness categoriza than to distinctiveness. The re
oriented, balanced, not work
tions in the workplace.” Using a suits help to confirm that such
focused
qualitative research design, Els physical markers —office decor
Hobby photos, artifacts—
bach interviewed two samples of and things like personal dress—
say ambitious, outgoing, well
employees in corporate offices. act along with behavioral markers
rounded
She questioned them on how as important influences on the
Conversation pieces—say
they interpreted variations in per ways people acquire identities at
funny, off-beat, approachable
manent office decor—things like work. In respect to practical im
Awards, diplomas—say
furniture, photos, artifact decora plications, Elsbach points out that
hard-working, successful,
tions, art, personal mementos, employees working in certain set
pretentious
and neatness. Findings showed tings may want to choose office
Professional products—
that these types of “physical iden décors that communicate a de
say “company person,”
tity markers” are used to “cue sired workplace ’
26
identity.
functional expert

Research indicates that two-way communication is more accurate and effective

than is one-way communication, even though it is also more costly and time con
suming. Because of their efficiency, however, one-way forms of communication—
memos, letters, e-mail, voice mail, and the like—are frequently used in work settings.
One-way messages are easy for the sender but often frustrating for the receiver, who
may be left unsure of just what the sender means or wants done.

• The mum effect
occurs when people are
reluctant to communicate
bad news.
Status Effects
Status differences in organizations create potential communication barriers be
tween persons of higher and lower ranks. On the one hand, given the authority
of their positions, managers may be inclined to do a lot of “telling” but not much
“listening.” On the other hand, we know that communication is frequently biased
when flowing upward in organizational hierarchies7 Subordinates may filter in
formation and tell their superiors only what they think the bosses want to hear.
Whether the reason is a fear of retribution for bringing bad news, an unwilling
ness to identify personal mistakes, or just a general desire to please, the result is
the same: the higher-level decision maker may end up taking the wrong actions
because of biased and inaccurate information supplied from below. This is some
times called the mum effect, in reference to tendencies to sometimes keep
“mum” from a desire to be polite and a reluctance to transmit bad news.
28
 __

Issues in Organizitional Communicalion 333

To avoid such problems, managers and group leade
rs must develop trust in
their work relationships with subordinates and team members,
and take advan
tage of all opportunities for face-to-face communications. Man
agement by wan
dering around, or MBWA, is now popularly acclaimed
as one way to achieve this MBWA involves getting
trust. It simply means getting out of the office and talking
regularly to people as out of the office to cornxnu
they do their jobs. Managers who spend time walking around
can greatly reduce nicate directly with others.
the perceived “distance” between themselves and their subo
rdinates. It helps cre
ate an atmosphere of open and free-flowing communicati
on between the ranks.
As a result, more and better information is available for decis
ion making, and the
relevance of decisions to the needs of operating workers
increases. Of course, in
today’s electronic offices one can get out of the office and
practice MBWA through
online discussions, instant messaging, blogs, wikis, and
more.

One of the greatest changes in organizations and in ever

yday life in recent years has
been the great explosion in new communication techn
ologies. We have moved from
the world of the telephone, mail, photocopying, and face-
to-face meetings into one
of voice mail, e-mail, instant messaging, blogs, wikis,
video conferencing, computer-
mediated conferencing, and more. Indeed, the ability
to participate effectively in all
aspects of the electronic office and workspace is well
established as an essential ca
reer skill. The pace and extensiveness of these chan
ges, along with the ever-present
dynamics of social context, mean that everyone mus
t keep themselves up to date
with the issues and challenges of communication
in organizations.
When Scott Dockter started
Electronic Communication sending e-mail to his assistant,
just a few steps away, he recog
The impact of the new technologies is discussed throu
ghout this book with respect nized a problem. As CEO of PBD
to job design and the growth of telecommuting
, organizational design and the Worldwide Fulfillment Services,
growth of network organizations, and teamwork
and the availability of software his response was an order: “No
e-mail Fridays.” He told the 275
employees of his firm to talk in
person on Fridays and reduce e
DON’T LET YOUR BLACKBERRY GET YOU DOW mail exchanges the rest of the
N
Look around in the airports, in meetings, on the street,
or wherever: Blackberrys are taking week. He believes the result is
over our time. And the sad fact is that it isn’t just the improved and faster decision
amount of time spent dealing with
that never-sleeping e-mail carrier that’s the problem; makin g and problem solving, as
the quality of the time is often in
question. It’s time to get better at managing your e-mail well as better teamwork and
and, by default, managing your
time. Here are some tips gleaned from corporate 30 training. client relatio ns. One customer
• Read e-mail items once, only once. says: “You can’t get to know
• Take action immediately to answer, move to folders someone through e-mail.”
, or delete.
• Regularly purge folders of outdated messages.
• Send group mail and use “reply to all” only when really
necessary.
• Get off distribution lists that don’t offer value to your
work.
• Send short messages in the subject line, avoiding a full-tex
t message.
• Put large files on Web sites, instead of sending as
attachments.
• Don’t send confidential, personal, or embarrassing
messages by e-mail.
• Turn off the sound indicating arrival of a new e-mail.
334 Chapter 14 Communication
Flaming is expressing
rudeness when using e
mail or other forms of elec
tronic communication.
for electronic meetings and decision making, among many other applications. Ad
vances in information technology are allowing organizations to (1) distribute infor
mation much faster than before; (2) make more information available than ever Tl
before; (3) allow broader and more immediate access to this information; (4) en za
courage participation in the sharing and use of information; and (5) integrate systems flit
and functions, and use information to link with environments in unprecedented ways. le2
The potential disadvantages of electronic communications must also be rec dif
ognized: The technologies are largely impersonal; people interact with machines, en
not with one another. In addition, electronics removes nonverbal communications mc
from the situation and thereby loses aspects that may otherwise add important roi
context to an interaction. Studies now show that recipients are accurate less than fur
50 percent of the time in identifying the tone or intent of an e-mail.
’
3 in
One of the problems in the electronic media lies in difficulties with under
standing the emotional aspects of communication. In this respect, little smiley or
frowning faces and other symbols often do not carry the message. Another prob La
lem is a failure in the electronic medium to control one’s emotions, a skill consid tha
ered essential in interpersonal communications. 32 Some argue, for example, that it cat
is far easier to be blunt, overly critical, and insensitive when conveying messages als
electronically rather than face-to-face. The term flaming is sometimes used to de soc
scribe rudeness in electronic communication. In this sense, the use of computer me mu
diation may make people less inhibited and more impatient in what they say. cor
Another risk of the new communication technologies is information overload. len
In some cases, too much information may find its way into the communication suc
networks and e-mail systems and basically overload the systems—both organiza cus
tional and individual. Individual users may have difficulty sorting the useful from zati
the trivial and may become impatient while doing so. Even the IT giant Intel ex
periences e-mail problems. An employee once commented: “We’re so wrapped tior
up in sending e-mail to each other, we don’t have time to be dealing with the out mo
side.” Estimates are that close to 200 billion e-mails will be sent this year, and the ref
number grows by about 20 percent annually.
33 amj
terr
and
Workplace Priva.c of s
star
Among the controversies in organizational communication today is the issue of pri ture
vacy. An example is eavesdropping by employers on employee use of electronic
messaging in corporate facilities. A study by the American Management Association
found that electronic monitoring of employee performance increased by more than
45 percent in a year’s time. You may be surprised to learn that the most frequently
reported things bosses watch are the number of telephone calls and the time spent
on telephone calls (39 percent), e-mail messages (27 percent), computer files (21 per
cent), telephone conversations (11 percent), and voice-mail messages (6 percent).
Many organizations are developing internal policies regarding the privacy of
employee communications, and the issue is gaining attention from legislators. A
C]
state law in Illinois now makes it legal for bosses to listen in on employees’ tele
phone calls. But the law leaves the boundaries of appropriateness unclear. Such Wh
eavesdropping is common in some service areas such as airline reservations,
where union concerns are sometimes expressed in the context of “big brother is
watching you!” The privacy issue is likely to remain controversial as communica
tion technologies continue to make it easier for employers to electronically mon s(
itor the performance and communications of their workers. ir
 Summary 335

_c..mmunication and Social Context

There are lots of communication issues in the complex social settings of organi
zations today. One of continuing interest is the study of male and female com
munication styles. In Talking 9 to 5 Deborah Tannen argues that men and women
learn or are socialized into different styles; as a result, they often end up having
35 She sees women as being more on-
difficulties communicating with one another.
ented toward relationship building in communication, for example, while men are
36 Because people tend to sur
more prone to seek status through communications.
round themselves with those whose communication styles fit with their own, a
• further implication is that either women or men may dominate communications
in situations where they are in the majority.
37
More and more people are asking a question related to the prior discussion:
“Are women better communicators than men?” A study by the consulting firm
Lawrence A. Pfaff and Associates suggests they may well be. The survey shows i- -

that supervisors rank female managers higher than male managers on communi
• cation, approachability, evaluations, and empowering others; the subordinates
• r also rank women higher on these same items. A possible explanation is that early
socialization and training better prepare women for the skills involved in com
munication and may make them more sensitive in interpersonal relationships. In
contrast, men may be more socialized in ways that cause communication prob
39 In considering
lems—such as aggression, competitiveness, and individualism.
such possibilities, however, it is important to avoid gender stereotyping and to fo
cus instead on the point of ultimate importance—how communication in organi
zations can be made most effective.
40
In addition, our society also values the political correctness of communica
tions in the workplace. The vocabulary of work is changing, and people are ever
more on guard not to offend others by their choices of words. When you hear
references to “people of color,” the “physically challenged,” and “seniors,” for ex
ample, the intent is to communicate with respect for individual differences. The
terminology we use and prefer today is often different from that heard in the past,
and it will likely be different again in the future. People in organizations are aware
of such issues, and many employers offer training to help their members under-
stand and best deal with the importance of language that supports norms and cul
tures of inclusion, tolerance, and sensitivity to individual differences.

Chapter 14 Study uide

what is the nature of communication in organizations?
Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages with attached meanings.
Summary
The communication process involves encoding an intended meaning into a message,
sending the message through a channel, and receiving and decoding the message
• into perceived meaning.