Cardiovascular

System
Presentation by Lauren, Sean
Librero, Adrianne
Limbadan, Makki
Lino, Tweille
 Cardiovascular
• It is made up of a system of vessels that
transports blood throughout the body and
is powered by the heart. System
• MAJOR FUNCTION: TRANSPORTATION
• IT TRANSPORTS NUTRIENTS, WASTE
PRODUCTS, GASES AND HORMONES,
THROUGHOUT THE BODY.
• It plays the role in the immune response
and the regulation of the
bodytemperature.
• HEART, BLOOD and BLOOD VESSELS -
are the three major components of the
Cardiovascular System.
 Although the Heart is a single structure, it
actually has two pumps in one.

Pulmonary Systemic
1 Circulation
2 Circulation

The right side of the heart
pumps blood to the lungs
back to the left side of the
heart through vessels of the
pulmonary circulation.
The left side of the heart
pumps blood to all other
tissues of the body back to
the right side of the heart
through vessels of the
systemic circulation.
 Function of the Heart
Generating Routing Blood Ensuring one- Regulating
Blood pressure way blood flow Blood Supply
The heart separates Chages in the rate and
Contractions of the the pulmonary and The valves of the f o r s e o f h e a r t
Heart generate heart ensures a one- contractions match
systemic circulations,
blood flow throughthe
blood pressure, which ensures that way flow of blood
changing metabolic
which forces blood the blood flowing to through the heart needs of the tissues
tthrough the blood the tissues has and blood vessels. during rest, exercise
vessels. adequate level of O2. and changes in body
position.
 Blood
• River of life
• Blood transports substances such as oxygen and nutrients throughout the
body and participates in processes such as clotting and fighting infections
• It is moved through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. This
fluid contains red blood cells to carry oxygen, clotting proteins to stop
bleeding, and white blood cells to fight infections
• Transportation via blood is the only way substances can be moved to distant
body locations. In addition, clotting proteins are found only in blood - it is the
only fluid tissue in the body
 Functions of Blood
• TRANSPORT OF GASES, NUTRIENTS 2. TRANSPORT OF PROCESSED
AND WASTE PRODUCTS MOLECULES

3. TRANSPORT OF REGULATORY 4. REGULATION OF PH AND OSMOSIS

MOLECULES

6. PROTECTION AGAINST FOREIGN

5. MAINTENANCE OF BODY TEMPERATURE
SUBSTANCES

7. CLOT FORMATION
 • The blood vessels carry blood to within two or three

Blood Vessels cell diameters of nearly all the trillions of calles that
make up the body.
• Blood flow through blood vessels are regulated, so
that cells receive an adequate nutrients and so that
waste products are removed.
• When blood vessels are damaged, they repair
themselves.
• Blood vessels include veins, arteries and capillaries.

Blood vessels outside the heart is divided into 2 classes:

1.) PULMONARY VESSELS - transport blood from the
rightventricle of the heart through the lungs and the
heartand back to the left atrium.

2.) SYSTEMIC VESSELS - transport blood from the

leftventricle of the heart through all parts of the body and
back to the right atrium.
 Function of the
Blood Vessels
Exchanges nutrients, waste
Carries Blood Helps regulate Directs blood flow
products and gases with
tissues blood pressure to the tissue

Blood vessels carry Nutrients and O2 Blood transports hormones, The circulatory and the The circulatory system
blood from the diffuse from blood components of the immune heart works together to directs blood to tissues
system, molecules required regulate blood pressure when increased
heart to all the vessels to cells in
for coagulation, enzymes, within a normal range. bloodflow is required to
tissues of the body essential all areas of g a s e s a n d o t h e r maintain homeostasis.
back to the heart. the body. substances to and from all
areas of the body.
Composition of
Blood
Blood
Composition
BLOOD COMPOSITION
⚬ Living cells = Formed element
• Blood is the only fluid tissue in the ⚬ Nonliving matrix= Plasma
human body
• Blood is full of fibrous protein
• Blood classified as a connective tissue COLOR RANGE
• Blood temperature is slightly higher
than body temperature. SCARLET RED - Blood is rich in
• Comprised of formed elements, which Oxygen
are blood cells, suspended in fluid DULL RED - Blood is poor in Oxygen
called plasma.
Components of Whole
Blood
 Plasma

• Sticky fluid made mostly of (91%) water, 7% proteins, 2 other

components, such as ions, nutrients, gases, waste products,
and regulatory substances.

Plasma proteins include:

• Albumin
• Globulins
• Fibronogen
01
ALBUMIN
-Makes up 58% of the plasma proteins
-Contributes significantly to plasma’s
osmotic pressure.

02
GLOBULIN
-Account for 38% of plasma protein.
-Plasma protein bind to molecules, and
to be transport.

03
FIBRONOGEN
-Constitutes 4% of plasma proteins.
-Clotting factor.
 Red Blood
Cells
• Normal Red Blood Cells are disk-shaped, with
edges that are thicker than center of the cell.
• No nucleus; contains hemoglobin.
• Gases enter and leave red blood cells often
in small blood vessels called capillaries.
• Because of the biconcave shape, red blood
cells can bend and fold around their thin
centers, thereby decreasing in size and
passing more through small vessels.
 White Blood
Cells
• -Spherical cells with a nucleus.
• -When the components of blood are separated from
one another, white blood cells as well as platelets
make up buffy coat.
• -Larger than red blood cells.
• -White blood cells can leave the blood and travel by
ameboid movement through the tissues.
• -Produced by leucopoiesis.
 Two Types of
Leukocytes
1.) Granulocytes - Granulocytes work together to rid
your body of infection or allergens.

Neutrophils - kills bacteria

Eosinophils - kills parasitic worms

Basophils - attracts other White

Blood Cells.
2.) Agranulocytes - Mediate immunological response to foreign
pathogens, cancerous and tumor cells, and remove dead cells
from the body.

• Agranulocytes on the other hand can be:

⚬ Lymphocytes - that fight viruses and tumors, also give rise

to plasma cells.
⚬ Monocytes - which become macrophages, eat up intruders.
 Platelet • The body stops
bleeding by
hemostasis
• This are fragments called
megakaryocytes. • Once the vessel has
• This fragments are essential healed the clot is
during blood clotting. removed through
• They flow to the blood stream in fibrinolysis.
an inactive state unless needed.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VSVYgivfs9c
 Blood Grouping
If large quantities of blood are lost during surgery or due to injury, a patient can go into
shock and die unless red blood cells are replaced to restore the blood’s oxygen-carrying
capacity.

• TRANSFUSION
It is the transfer of blood or blood components
from one individual to another.
• The surfaces of red blood cells have
• INFUSION molecules called Antigens, and the
It is the introduction of a fluid other than blood, plasma includes proteins called
Antibodies.
such as saline or glucose solution, into the blood.

Early attempts to transfuse blood were often unsuccessful

because they resulted in transfusion reactions characterized by
clumping or rapture of blood cells and clotting within the blood
vessels.
Page 10

The ABO Blood Group

ANTIGENS
01 -There are 2 types of antigens that may appear on the surface of the red
blood cell:

(1)Type A antigen and (2) Type B antigen

• Type A blood has type A antigen.

• Type B blood has type B antigen.
• Type AB blood has type A and B antigens.
• Type O blood has neither A or B antigens.

ANTIBODIES
02 -Antibodies are present in the plasma of blood.
-Antibodies are part of the body’s defense system and interact with
specific antigen.
When a blood transfusion is performed, the
donor is the person who gives blood, and
the recipient is the person who receives it.

-Historically, people with type O blood

type have been called universal donors.
Agglutination Reaction

-Blood transfusion is
safe only as long as the
recipient’s serum
doesn’t have antibodies
for donor’s RBC antigens.

Rh Factor
-2nd most significant blood
group system for blood
transfusion.
-“Rh” stands for “Rhesus”
-Involves 50 antigens.
-Most significant Rh antigen is
the D antigen- most likely to
trigger immune response.
• If you have D antigen, there’s a “+” after the ABO
blood type.
• If you don’t have D antigen, there’s a “-“ after your
ABO blood type.
• It’s common for someone who is D- to not have anti-
D antibodies.
• But this people can develop these antibodies after
sensitization event.
￭ During blood transfusion
￭ Or during Fetomaternal transfusion – This can
result in the development of Rh disease.
• A D- patient without sensitization to D+ RBCs can
receive a transfusion Of D+ blood once.
• Then, they become sensitive to D antigen, so a future
transfusion of D+ blood would result in a dangerous
transfusion reaction.
• In the case of D- females without prior sensitization, receiving D+ blood results in a
risk of hemolytic disease of the newborn.
• Hence D+ blood is not given to D- women of childbearing age.
• Meanwhile D+ patient do not react to D- blood.

Plasma Compatibility

Red Blood Cell Compatibility

Table
Anatomy of the
Heart, Arteries and
Veins
Size, Form and Location of
the Heart
-approximately the size of a person’s fist
-snugly enclosed within the inferior mediastinum - the
medial section of the thoracic cavity, the heart is
flankedon each side by the lungs

-its pointed apex is directed toward the left hip and

rests on the diaphragm, approximately at the level of
the fifth intercostal space
-its broad posterosuperior aspect, or base, from which
the great vessels of the body emerge, points toward the
right shoulder and lies beneaththe second rib.
 • Pericardium
-a sac which enclosesthe heart
• consists of two componenets

Coverings
⚬ Fibrous Pericardium
⚬ Serous Pericardium

and Walls • Fibrous pericardium

-loosely fitting superficial part of this sac

of the
-a fibrous layer that helps protect the heart and anchors it to
surrounding structures, such as the diaphragm and sternum

• Serous pericardium

Heart. -a slippery, two-layered which is deep to the fibrouspericardium

-parietal layer of the serous pericardium, or parietal pericardium,
lines the interior of the fibrous pericardium.
• Composed of 2 parts:
￭ Parietal Pericardium - lines the fibroud pericardium
￭ Visceral Pericardium - or epicarium/ covers the heart
Pericardial Fluid surface.
-produced by the serous pericardium. membranes and collects in the pericardial cavitybetween these serous layers
-allows the heart to beat easily in a relatively frictionless environment as the serous pericardial layers slide smoothlyacross each other
 normal postero-anterior (PA) chest x-ray

External Anatomy of
the Heart
• Superiorly, the great vessels and
bronchi.
• Inferiorly, the diaphragm.
• Laterally, the pleurae and lungs.
• Anteriorly, the thymus.
• Posteriorly, the oesophagus

1. arch of aorta/aortic knuckle;

2. clavicle;
3. left atrial appendage;
4. left dome of diaphragm;
5. left lung;
6. left hilum;
7. left ventricular border;

8. pulmonary trunk;
9. right atrial border;
(Courtesy of Professor Dame M Turner-Warwick, Dr M Hodson, Professor B Corrin and Dr I Kerr.)
10. right dome of diaphragm;
 The anterior interventricular sulcus - is
on the anterior surface of the heart.

Internal Anatomy and

Posterior Interventricular Sulcus - is on
the posterior surface of the heart.

Heart Chambers
ATRIA
-superior atria are primarily receiving chambers
-functions as reservoir where blood returning from
veins collects before it enters the ventricles.
-they assist with filling the ventricles. Blood flows into
the atria under low pressure from the veins of the
body and then continues on to fill the ventricles

VENTRICLES
-the inferior, thick-walled ventricles are the
discharging chambers, or actual pumps of the heart.
-when they contract, blood is propelled out of the
heart and into circulation
-right ventricle forms most of the heart’s
anteriorsurface
-left ventricle forms its apex
HEART VALVE
Heart is equipped with four valves, which allow blood to flow in only one direction through the heart
chambers—from the atria through the ventricles and out the great arteriesleaving the heart.

There are two types of heart valves: 1) ANTRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) and SEMILUNAR VALVE.

• ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) VALVES

⚬ are located between the atria and ventricles on each side
⚬ these valves prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles contract

01 BICUSPID/ MITRAL VALVE

• left AV valve
• consists of two flaps, or cusps, of endocardium

02 TRICUSPID VALVE
• -right AV valve
• -has three cusps, or flaps of tissue

CHORDAE TENDINEAE - Tiny white cords; tendinous cords (“heart strings”)

- anchor the cusps to the walls of the ventricles
HEART VALVE
2. SEMILUNAR VALVES
• located between each ventricle and its associated great artery.
• guards the bases of the two large arteries leaving the ventricular chambers:
• pulmonary semilunar valve
• aortic semilunar valve

CARDIAC SKELETON
• A plate of connective tissue
• consist mainly of fibrous rings that surround the atrioventricular and semilunar valves and give
them solid support.
• provides a rigid attachment site for cardiac muscle.

ATRIOVETRICULAR VALVE SEMILUNAR VALVES

• open during heart relaxation • closed during heart relaxation

• closed when the ventricles are • forced open when the ventricles
contracting contract
Pulmonary and
S y s t e m i c
Circulation Flow

Oxygen - poor Blood

Oxygen - rich Blood
On the
right side
• Oxygen-poor blood from all over your body enters your
right atrium through two large veins, your inferior vena
cava and superior vena cava.
• Your tricuspid valve opens to let blood travel from your
right atrium to your right ventricle.
• When your right ventricle is full it squeezes, which closes
your tricuspid valve and opens your pulmonary valve.
• Blood flows through your pulmonary artery to your lungs,
where it gets oxygen.

1 SUPERIOR VENA CAVA & 2 INFERIOR VENA CAVA

3 RIGHT ATRIUM
4 TRICUSPID VALVE
5 RIGHT VENTRICLE
6 PULMONARY VALVA
7 PULMONARY ARTERIES
 On the left
side
• Oxygen-rich blood travels from your lungs to your left
atrium through large veins called pulmonary veins.
• Your mitral valve opens to send blood from your left
atrium to your left ventricle.
• When your left ventricle is full it squeezes, which closes
your mitral valve and opens your aortic valve.
• Your heart sends blood through your aortic valve to
your aorta, where it flows to the rest of your body.

8 PULMONARY VEINS
9 LEFT ATRIUM
10 MITRAL VALVE
11 LEFT VENTRICLE
12 AORTIC VALVE
13 AORTA
 The Heart Wall
1 Epicardium
• also called visceral
pericardium
• a thin serous membrane
forming the smooth outer
surface of the heart.
• consist of simple squamos
epithelium overlying a layer
of loose connective tissue
and adipose tissue.
2 Myocardium
• it is the thick, middle layer of
the heart.
• composed of cardiac
muscle cells
• responsible for contraction
of the heart chambers.
3 Endocardium
• smooth inner surface of the
heart.
• consist of simle squamos
epithelium over a layer of
connective tissue.
• allows blood to move easily
through the heart.
• The heart valves are formed
by folds of endocardium
that include a thick layer of
connective tissue.
CORONARY ARTERIES

CARDIAC MUSCLE - The cardiac

muscle in the wall of the heart
is thick and metabolically very
active; requires an ample
amount of blood supply.
 Cardiac Muscle

Cardiac muscle cells are elongated, branching cells,

that contain one, or occasionally two, centrally located
1 nuclei.

Cardiac muscle cells contain actin and myosin

2 myofilaments organized to form sarcomeres, which are
joined end-to-end to form myofibrils.

ACTIN and MYOSIN MYOFILAMENTS are responsible for

3 muscle contraction, and their organization gives the
cardiac muscle striated appearance.

Gap Junctions - are specialized cell membrane that

4 allow cytoplasm to flow freely between cells.
The movement of blood through the heart is determined by a coordinated
sequence of cardiac muscle contractions: atria contract first, followed by
ventricular contraction.
 Action Potentials in Cardiac Muscle
SA (sinoatrial) nodes - functions as the heart's pacemaker; generates an electrical signal that causes the upper
heart chambers (atria) to contract; located in the superior wall of the right atrium and initiates contractions
Depolarization - Depolarization is caused when positively charged sodium ions rush into a neuron with the opening
of voltage-gated sodium channels.
Repolarization - Repolarization is caused by the closing of sodium ion channels and the opening of potassium ion channels.
Ca2+ - calcium cation, is a divalent metal cation and a monoatomic dication. It has a role as a human
metabolite and a cofactor.
K+ - potassium ion

1. Action potentials in
cardiac muscle are
prolonged compared
to those in skeletal
muscle and have a
depolarization phase,
a plateau phase, and
a repolarization phase.
2. The depolarization is due 3. The prolonged 4. The SA node located
mainly to opening of the action potential in in the upper wall of the
voltage-gated Na+ channels, cardiac muscle right atrium is the
and the plateau phase is due e n s u r e s t h a t normal pacemaker of
to opened voltage-gated contraction and the heart, and cells of
Ca2+ channels. Repolarization relaxation occur and the SA node have more
at the end of the plateau prevents tetany. voltage-gated Ca2+
phase is due to the opening of channels than do other
K+ channels for a brief period.
areas of the heart.
Conduction System of the Heart
CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF THE HEART - a cardiac muscle cell in the heart wall that is responsible for contraction of
the atria and ventricles.

All cells of the conduction system can produce spontaneous action potentials. The conduction system of the
heart includes

• The sinoatrial 2. Antrioventricular 3. Antrioventricular 4. The bundle 5. Purkinje

node node Bundle branches Fibers
1.) Action potentials originate in the SA node and
spread through the myocardium of the right
and left atrium, causing atrial contraction.

2.) Action potentials reach the atrioventricular

(AV) (AY-tree-oh-ven-TRIK-you-lar) node,
located in the lower portion of the right atrium.
When action potentials reach the AV node, they
spread slowly through it and then into the
atrioventricular (AV) bundle, a group of
specialized cardiac muscle cells in the
interventricular septum. The slow rate of action
potential conduction in the AV node allows the
atria to complete their contraction before action
potentials are delivered to the ventricles.
3. The AV bundle then divides into two
branches of conducting tissue, called the left
and right bundle branches. Action potentials
pass down the bundle branches toward the
apex of the heart

4. At the tips of the left and right bundle

branches, the conducting tissue forms many
small bundles of Purkinje fibers. The Purkinje
fibers pass to the apex of the heart and then
extend to the cardiac muscle of the ventricle
walls.
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
• ECG is a record of electrical events of the heart
and is not a direct measurement of mechanical
events.
• Each deflection in the ECG record indicates an
electrical event within the heart and correlates
with a subsequent mechanical event.
• The ECG is extremely valuable tool for diagnosing
a number of cardiac abnormalities, partially
because it is painless, easy to record, and
nonsurgical.
• Analysis of ECG can reveal abnormal heart rates
or rhythms; problems in conduction pathways,
such as blockages; hypertrophy or atrophy of
portions of the heart; and the approximate
location of damaged cardiac muscle.
 • The normal ECG consists of a (1) P wave, (2) a QRS complex, and (3) a T
ELECTRO wave.

CARDIOGRAM • The P wave results from depolarization of the atrial myocardium, and the
beginning of the P wave precedes the onset of atrial contraction.
• The QRS complex consists of three individual waves: the Q, R, and S waves.
• The QRS complex results from depolarization of the ventricles, and the
beginning of the QRS complex precedes ventricular contraction.
• The T wave represents repolarization of the ventricles, and the beginning
of the T wave precedes ventricular relaxation.
• A wave representing repolarization of the atria cannot be seen because it
occurs during the QRS complex.
• The time between the beginning of the P wave and the beginning of the
QRS complex is the PQ interval, commonly called the PR interval because
the Q wave is very small.
• During the PQ interval, the atria contract and begin to relax. At the end of
the PQ interval, the ventricles begin to depolarize. The QT interval extends
from the beginning of the QRS complex to the end of the T wave and
represents the length of time required for ventricular depolarization and
repolarization.
 Cardiac Cycle
• Atrial systole is contraction of the atria, and ventricular
systole is contraction of the ventricles. Atrial diastole is
relaxation of the atria, and ventricular diastole is relaxation of
the ventricles.
• During atrial systole, the atria contract and complete filling
of the ventricles.
• During ventricular systole, the AV valves close, pressure
increases in the ventricles, the semilunar valves are forced
open, and blood flows into the aorta and pulmonary trunk.
• At the beginning of ventricular diastole, pressure in the
ventricles decreases. The semilunar valves close to prevent
backflow of blood from the aorta and pulmonary trunk into
the ventricles.
• When the pressure in the ventricles is low enough, the AV
valves open, and blood flows from the atria into the
ventricles.
 Heart
STETHOSCOPE - was originally to developed to listen to
the sounds of the lungs and the heart and is now used to
listen to other parts of the body as well.

Sounds
• The first heart sound can be
• The second heart sound
represented by the syllable
can be represented by the
lubb.
syllable dupp.
• Itt has a lower pitch than the
• The second heart sound
second.
occurs at the beginning of
• The first heart sound occurs
ventricular diastole and,
at the beginning of
results from closure of the
ventricular systole and,
semilunar valves.
results from closure of the AV
valves.

INCOPETENT VALVES - a heart valve that does not close completely

MURMURS - are abnormal heart sounds that results in faulty valves.
The pink circles are the sites where the sound of the
valves are best heard with stethoscope.
 Regulation of the
Heart Function

a. b.
Intrinsic Regulation of the Extrinsic Regulation of the
Heart Heart
 INTRINSIC REGULATION
a. OF THE HEART

Intrinsic regulation refers to regulation mechanisms contained

1 within the heart.

As venous return to the heart increases, the heart wall is stretched,

2 and the increased stretch of the ventricular walls is called preload.

3 A greater preload causes the cardiac output to increase because

stroke volume increases (Starling's law of the heart).

4 Afterload is the pressure against which the ventricles must pump

blood.
 EXTRINSIC
b. REGULATION OF THE
HEART
1 Extrinsic regulation refers to nervous and chemical mechanisms.

Sympathetic stimulation increases stroke volume and heart rate;

2 parasympathetic stimulation decreases heart rate.

The baroreceptor reflex detects changes in blood pressure. If blood

pressure increases suddenly, the reflex causes a decrease in heart rate
3 and stroke volume; if blood pressure decreases suddenly, the reflex causes
an increase in heart rate and stroke volume.

4 Emotions influence heart function by increasing sympathetic stimulation of

the heart in response to exercise, excitement, anxiety, or anger and by
increasing parasympathetic stimulation in response to depression.

5 Alterations in body fluid levels of CO,, pH, and ion conceniriitions, as well as
changes in body temperature, influence heart
Blood Circulation and
Effects of Aging in the
Cardiovascular System
Veins tend to develop patchy thickenings in their
walls, resulting in narrowing in these areas. The
tendency to develop varicose veins increases with
age, as does the tendency to develop hemorrhoids
(varicose veins of the rectum or anus) because
some veins increase in diameter due to weakening of
the connective tissue in their walls.

There is a related increase in the development of

thromboses and emboli, especially in veins that are
dilated or those in which blood flow is sluggish.
 Blood Vessels of the Systemic Circulation:
Arteries
Aorta
The aorta leaves the left ventricle to form the ascending aorta, the aortic arch, and the
descending aorta, which consists of the thoracic aorta and the abdominal aorta.

Arteries of the Head and Neck

1. The brachiocephalic, left common carotid, and left subclavian arteries branch from the
aortic arch to supply the head and the upper limbs.
2. The common carotid arteries and the vertebral arteries supply the head. The common
carotid arteries divide to form the external carotids (which supply the face and mouth)
and the internal carotids (which supply the brain).
ARTERIES OF THE UPPER LIMBS
The subclavian artery continues as the axillary
artery and then as the brachial artery, which
branches to form the radial and ulnar arteries.
THORACIC AORTA AND ITS BRANCHES
The thoracic aorta has visceral branches, which
supply the thoracic organs, and parietal
branches, which supply the thoracic wall.
ABDOMINAL AORTA AND ITS BRANCHES
The abdominal aorta has visceral branches,
which supply the abdominal organs, and parietal
branches, which supply the abdominal wall.
ARTERIES OF THE PELVIS
Branches of the internal iliac arteries supply the
pelvis.
Arteries of the Lower Limbs
The common iliac arteries give rise to the
external iliac arteries, and the external iliac artery
continues as the femoral artery and then as the
popliteal artery in the leg. The popliteal artery
divides to form the anterior and posterior tibial
arteries.
 Blood Vessels of the Systemic Circulation:
Veins
The superior vena cava drains the head, neck, thorax, and upper limbs.
The inferior vena cava drains the abdomen, pelvis, and lower limbs.
Veins of the Head and Neck
1. The internal jugular veins drain the brain, anterior head, and anterior neck.
2. The external jugular veins drain the posterior head and posterior neck,
VEINS OF THE UPPER LIMBS
The deep veins are the brachial, axillary, and
subclavian; the superficial veins are the cephalic,
basilic, and median cubital.
Veins of the Thorax
The left and right brachiocephalic veins and the Veins of the Lower Limbs
1. The deep rems course will the deep arteries
azygos veins return blood to the superior vena cava.
and have similar names
2. The superficial veins are the great and small
Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis
saphenous veins
1. Posterior abdominal wall veins join the azygos
veins.
2. Veins from the kidneys, adrenal glands, and
gonads directly enter the inferior vena cava.
3. Veins from the stomach, intestines, spleen, and
pancreas connect with the hepatic portal vein,
which transports blood to the liver for processing.
The hepatic veins from the liver join the inferior vena
cava.
 PHYSIOLOGY
OF
CIRCULATION
The circulatory system (cardiovascular
system) pumps blood from the heart to
the lungs to get oxygen. The heart then
sends oxygenated blood through
arteries to the rest of the body. The
veins carry oxygen-poor blood back to
the heart to start the circulation
process over.

blood pressure
BLOOD PRESSURE
• Blood pressure is a measure of
the force exerted by blood against
the blood vessel walls.
• Blood pressure moves blood
through vessels.
• Blood pressure can be measured
by listening for Korotkoff sounds
produced as blood flows through
arteries partially constricted by a
blood pressure cuff.
PRESSURE AND RESISTANCE

• In a normal adult, blood pressure fluctuates between 120 mm Hg (systolic) and 80

mm Hg (diastolic) in the aorta. If blood vessels constrict, resistance to blood flow
increases, and blood flow decreases.

PULSE PRESSURE

• Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic and diastolic pressures. Pulse
pressure increases when stroke volume increases.
• A pulse can be detected when large arteries are near the body surface.

CAPILLARY EXCHANGE

• Most exchange across the wall of the capillary occurs by diffusion.

• Blood pressure, capillary permeability, and osmosis affect movement of fluid
across the wall of the capillaries. There is a net movement of fluid from the blood
into the tissues. The fluid gained by the tissues is removed by the lymphatic
system.
 LOCAL CONTROL OF BLOOD FLOW

• Blood flow through a tissue is usually proportional to the metabolic

Control
needs of the tissue and is controlled by the precapillary sphincters.

of Blood
NERVOUS AND HORMONAL CONTROL OF BLOOD FLOW

Flow in
• The vasomotor center (sympathetic division) controls blood vessel
diameter. Other brain areas can excite or inhibit the vasomotor

Tissue
center.
• Vasomotor tone is the state of partial constriction of blood vessels.
• The nervous system is responsible for routing the flow of blood;
except in the capillaries, and for maintaining blood pressure.

• Epinephrine and norepinephrine released by the adrenal medulla

alter blood vessel diameter.
REGULATION OF ARTERIAL PRESSURE
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is proportional to cardiac output
times the peripheral resistance.

BARORECEPTOR REFLEXES
1. Baroreceptors are sensitive to stretch.
2. Baroreceptors are located in the carotid sinuses and the aortic
arch.
3. The baroreceptor reflex changes peripheral resistance, heart
rate, and stroke volume in response to changes in blood pressure.

CHEMORECEPTOR REFLEXES
1. Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in blood O,, CO,, and
pH.
2. Chemoreceptors are located in the carotid bodies and the aortic
bodies.
3. The chemoreceptor reflex increases peripheral resistance in
response to low O, levels, high CO, levels, and reduced blood pH.
The walls of all arteries undergo changes as people age. The most significant effects of aging occur in
the large, elastic arteries, such as the aorta; in large arteries carrying blood to the brain; and in the
coronary arteries.

Arteriosclerosis is the changes in arteries that make them less elastic, mostly occur in nearly every
individual and become more severe with advancing age. Atherosclerosis (ATH-er-oh-skier-OH-sis)
results from the deposition of material in the walls of arteries that forms plaques. The material is
composed of a fatlike substance containing cholesterol. The fatty material can eventually be
dominated by the deposition of dense connective tissue and calcium salts.

Several factors influence the development of atherosclerosis.

• Lack of exercise
• smoking
• obesity, and a diet high in cholesterol and fats

with those habits, it helps increase the severity of atherosclerosis and the rate at which it develops.
We do know that there are things that can positively impact cardiovascular health, such
as:

Healthy diet
- eating a nutrient, dense diet of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins and limited
sugar, sodium and saturated that can help maintain a healthy heart.
- Eat a heart-healthy diet with reduced amounts of saturated fat and cholesterol, and
control your weight. Follow your health care provider's recommendations for treating high
blood pressure, high cholesterol or diabetes. Reduce or stop smoking.

Get more exercise:

- Physical activity and exercise are good for the cardiovascular system
- Exercise may help prevent obesity, and it helps people with diabetes control their blood
sugar.

Have regular check-ups for your heart:

- Have your blood pressure checked every year. If you have diabetes, heart disease, kidney
problems, or certain other conditions, your blood pressure may need to be monitored more
closely.
Severe atherosclerosis is more prevalent in some families than in others, which
suggests a genetic influence. Some evidence suggests that a low-fat diet, mild
exercise, and relaxation activities slow the progression of atherosclerosis and may
even reverse it to some degree.

Atherosclerosis greatly increases resistance to blood flow because the deposits

narrow the inside diameter of the arteries. The added resistance hampers normal
circulation to tissues and greatly increases the work the heart must perform.
Furthermore, the rough atherosclerotic plaques attract platelets, which adhere to
them and increase the chance of thrombus formation.

Capillaries narrow and become more irregular in shape with age. Their walls become
thicker, and consequently the efficiency of capillary exchange decreases.
Thank
You!
Juliana Silva