THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: • Vocal Cords

- assist in sound production Maintains an

• Breathing (ventilation)
open airway
- moving air in and out of lungs
• Glottis
• External Respiration
- open when breathing; closed when talking
- gas exchange between air and blood in the lungs
or singing
- physical process in which oxygen is taken up by capillaries of
o Trachea
lung alveoli and carbon dioxide is released from blood
- transports air to and from lungs
• Internal Respiration
- also known as the “windpipe”
- gas exchange between blood and tissues
- kept open by C-shaped rings of cartilage
- about ensuring the transport of oxygen in the blood from
- lined with mucus-secreting ciliated epithelium
the lungs to cells, and the transport of metabolic carbon
o Bronchi and Bronchioles
dioxide from the tissue cells into the blood and to the lungs
- trachea branches into two airways— right and left
• Cellular Respiration bronchi
- oxygen used to produce ATP, with carbon dioxide as waste - contain ciliated epithelia, smooth muscle, cartilage
• Upper Respiratory Tract: • Bronchioles – smaller branches
o Nose - transporting air
- have receptors for smell - cleaning, warming, and humidifying of incoming air
- filter larger foreign material from air and inhaled - cleansing activity of cilia
microorganisms in mucus
• Cilia – damaged by smoking, contributing to
- cleans the air – nostrils contain tiny hairs
the development of smoker’s cough
- warms the air – the epithelial lining and turbinate
o Lungs
bones have capillaries that warm the air
- enclosed in two layers of pleural membranes
- moisture – the turbinates are lined with a thin
- area between pleural membranes (pleural cavity)
membrane that secretes a mucus that moisten the
contains fluid that reduces friction as lungs move
air coming in
- three lobes in right lung, two in left lung
o Nasal Passages
• Visceral Pleura – covers lungs
o Sinuses
• Parietal Pleura – lines ribcage and covers
o Pharynx
upper surface of diaphragm
- passageway for respiration
• Pleural Cavity – space between the two
• Lower Respiratory Tract:
pleura; covers a small amount of fluid
o Larynx – voicebox
o Alveoli
• Epiglottis
- tiny air-filled sacs clustered at end of terminal
- flexible flap of cartilage that routes air and
bronchioles
food appropriately
- walls of each alveolus are composed of only one
- open when inhaling; closed when eating
squamous epithelial cell layer
- combined surface area of alveoli: 800 ft2
 • Without Surfactant ANABOLIC VS. CATABOLIC PATHWAYS:
o Alveoli 1 and 2 have equal surface
• Anabolic
tension
- small molecules are assembled into large ones
o 1 has higher pressure (due to
- energy is required
smaller radius
• Catabolic
o 1 more likely to collapse and be
- release stored energy by breaking down complex molecules
harder to inflate
- larger molecules are broken down into small ones
• With Surfactant
- energy is released
o 1 has less surface tension (more
surfactant per are)
o 1 and 2 have equal pressure (due to
surfactant) AEROBIC VS. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
o 1 will inflate at a faster rate than 2 • Aerobic Respiration
(until equal in size) - oxygen is consumed as reactant
- considered as the most effective and most efficient
- utilize food energy with the use of oxygen
PULMONARY CIRCULATION - organic compound + oxygen = CO2 + H2O + energy
o Respiration
- pathway of deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where
- food molecules or glucose are turned into
it gets rid of CO2 and is resupplied with oxygen, back to the heart
ATP
1. Right Ventricle
- cytoplasm and mitochondria
2. Pulmonary Artery
o Photosynthesis
3. Pulmonary Arterioles
- plants use sunlight and carbon dioxide to
4. Pulmonary Capillaries
build food molecules releases oxygen as a
5. Pulmonary Venules
waste product
6. Pulmonary Veins
- chloroplast
7. Left Atrium
• Anaerobic Respiration
- uses substances other than oxygen
o Fermentation
DIAPHRAM
- partial degradation of sugars / other organic
- a dome shaped muscle fuel
- when you inhale, it flattens and the volume in the chest cavity - no oxygen
becomes higher
- when you exhale, it goes back to its dome shape, less volume in the
chest cavity, and easier to expel air
AEROBIC RESPIRATION o Product: Fructose 6-phosphate

3. Stage 3:
o Enzyme: Phosphofructokinase
o Process: uses another ATP to transfer another
Phosphate molecule on c1
o Product: 1, 6- bisphosphate
o -1 ATP
• Cleavage
4. Stage 4:
o Enzyme: Aldolase
o Process: splits 1, 6- biphosphate (C6) into two (C3)
that are isomers to each other
o Product: Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate (DHAP) and
STEP 1: GLYCOLYSIS Glyceraldehyde Phosphate (G3P)
5. Stage 5:
• Goal: glucose into two molecules called pyruvate
o Enzyme: Triose Phosphate Isomerase
• Location: Cytosol
o Process: TPI converts DHAP to G3P
• Produced: 2 ATP
o Product: Glyceraldehyde 3- Phosphate (G3P)
• Used: 2 ATP
• Energy Harvest
• Net Yield: 2 ATP 6. Stage 6:
- first phase of aerobic respiration o Enzyme: Triose Phosphate Dehydrogenase
- release electrons from the bonds in glucose o Process 1: TPD transfers H to NAD+
o Process 2: TPD phosphorylates G3P
STEP 1: GLYCOLYSIS: o Product 1: 2 NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide)
• Investment o Product 2: 1, 3- Bisphosphoglycerate
1. Stage 1: o +2 NADH
o Enzyme: Hexokinase 7. Stage 7:
o Process: phosphorylates Glucose in the cell’s o Enzyme: Phosphoglycerokinase
cytoplasm o Process: Phosphoglycerokinase transfers a P from
o Product: Glucose 6-phosphate 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP to produce ATP,
o -1 ATP and 3- phosphoglycerate
2. Stage 2: o Product 1: 2 ATP
o Enzyme: Phosphoglucoisomerase o Product 2: (2) 3-bisphosphoglycerate
o Process: converts Glucose 6-phosphate into its o +2 ATP
isomer
 8. Stage 8: STEP 2: CITRIC ACID CYCLE
o Enzyme: Phosphoglyceromutase
1. Stage 1:
o Process: relocates the P from 3C to 2C
o Enzyme: Citrate Synthase
o Product: two 2-phosphoglycerate
o Reaction: Aldol Condensation, Hydrolysis
9. Stage 9:
o Product: Citrate
o Enzyme: Enolase
o Irreversible
o Process: H20 is removed
2. Stage 2:
o Product: Phosphoenol Pyruvate
o Enzyme: Aconitase
10. Stage 10:
o Reaction: Dehydration, Hydration (isomerization)
o Enzyme: Pyruvate Kinase
o Product: Cis-aconitate Isocitrate
o Process: PEP is dephosphorylated to Pyruvate
o Reversible
o Product: (2) Pyruvate
3. Stage 3:
o +2 ATP
o Enzyme: Isocitrate Dehydrogenase
o Reaction: Oxidative Decarboxylation (redox)
o Product: Oxalosuccinate, NADH, Α-ketoglutarate
PRE-CITRIC ACID CYCLE: PYRUVATE OXIDATION
o Reversible
- follows glycolysis 4. Stage 4:
- Pyruvate is carried from cytosol to the mitochondria via active o Enzyme: Α-ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase
transport. o Reaction: Oxidative Decarboxylation (redox)
o Product: NADH, Succinyl-COA
o Reversible
WHY DO WE NEED ACETYL COA? 5. Stage 5:
o Enzyme: Succinyl-COA Synthase
- fuel for the citric acid cycle o Reaction: Substrate-level Phosphorylation
- delivers acetyl group from pyruvate to the next stage o Product: GTP/ATP, Succinate
o Reversible
6. Stage 6:
STEP 2: CITRIC ACID CYCLE o Enzyme: Succinate Dehydrogenase
o Reaction: Redox
• Goal: furnace that oxidizes fuel derived from Pyruvate
o Product: FADH2, Fumarate
• Location: mitochondrial matrix
o Reversible
• Net Yield (x2): Three ADH, FADH2, ATP AND/OR GTP
7. Stage 7:
- “Kreb’s Cycle”
o Enzyme: Fumarase
- “Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle”
o Reaction: Hydration
o Product: Malate
o Reversible
 8. Stage 8:
o Enzyme: Malate Dehydrogenase
o Reaction: Redox PROCESS PRODUCTS NET ATP PRODUCED
o Product: NADH Oxaloacetate
o Reversible 4 ATP 2
Glycolysis
2 NADH 3 or 5*
Pyruvate Oxidation 2 NADH 5
STEP 3: OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
2 ATP 2
• Goal: ATP Generation Krebs Cycle 6 NADH 15
• Location: Inner Membrane of Mitochondria 2 FADH2 3
• Phase 1: Electron Transport Chain
TOTAL: 30 or 32
• Phase 2: Chemiosmosis

• depends on the shuttle that transports NADH

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
______________________________________________________________
1. NADH Dehydrogenase
2. Succinate Dehydrogenase
3. Cytochrome-C Oxidoreductase
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AFFECTING HEALTH
4. Cytochrome Oxidase
• Ubiquinone / Coenzyme Q
• No ATP generation yet
CLIMATE CHANGE
• 10 NADH
• 2 FADH2 - The environment plays a powerful role in the transmission of a
number of health issues, such as infectious diseases including
vector- borne diseases.
CHEMIOSMOSIS

• ATP Synthase: enzyme that makes ATP from ADP RESEARCH STUDIES

- can lead to improved vector control measures and disease

CALCULATING THE ATP prevention brought about by environmental cause
- later explore policies of health, environment, development and how
• 1 NADH = 2.5 ATP can all these concepts be best aligned
• 1 FADH2 = 1.5 ATP
• Net Yield: 30 – 32 ATP
HEALTH ISSUES CAUSED BY ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS: o Kidney Damage
o Reduced IQ
• Environmental Toxins
• Mercury Poisoning Symptoms:
- are cancer-causing chemicals and endocrine disruptors
o Inflammation of the Gums
- chemicals of most concern are those that have very low
o Upset Stomach
solubilities in water but are highly soluble in fat
o Kidney Failure
- Examples:
o Fetal brain Development
o Heavy Metals
o Numbness
o Pollution
o Rashes
o Particulates
o Mental Confusion
o Irritability
o Memory Loss
HEAVY METALS o Swelling
- naturally occurring elements that have a high atomic weight and a o Peeling of Skin
density at least five times greater than that of water • Biological Magnification
• Their Toxicity Depends: - the concentration of toxic pollutants is higher in the
o Dose tissues of organisms higher on the food chain
o Route of Exposure • Exposure to Heavy Metals
o Chemical Species - Heavy metals can enter the body through the skin,
o Age, Gender, Genetics, and Nutritional Status inhalation, or ingestion.
• Heavy Metals Poisoning - May Occur Through:
- accumulation of heavy metals, in toxic amounts, in o Diet
the soft tissues of the body o Medications
• Lead Poisoning Symptoms: o Environment
o Headaches o Work
o Irritability o Play
o Reduced Sensations
o Aggressive Behavior
o Difficulty Sleeping POLLUTION
o Abdominal Pain
• Major Concern Regarding Air Pollution:
o Poor Appetite
o Global Warming
o Constipation
o Destruction of the Ozone Layer
• Additional Complications of Lead Poisoning in Children:
o Acid Rain
o Loss of Developmental Skills
o Smog Production
o Behavior, Attention Problems
o Hearing Loss
• Excessive Greenhouse Gases leads to Global Warming • Eye and Respiratory Irritants
- It traps the heat and keep it from escaping the atmosphere • Small Oil Droplets, Wood Particle, Coal Ash,
o Causes: Human activities have increased the level of Asbestos, Lead, Animal Waste, Dust
CO2 o Major Source:
• Burning of Fossil Fuels • Burning of Fossil Fuels
- Fossil fuels are made from decomposing plants and animals. • Thermal Inversion
- These fuels are found in the Earth’s crust and contain • Plan to Control Air Pollution
carbon and hydrogen, which can be burned for energy. • Air Pollution
- Coal, oil, and natural gas are examples of fossil fuels. o Microscopic Pollutants
- Coal is one type of fossil fuel. • penetrates the respiratory and circulatory system,
- This is a nonrenewable energy source whose extraction damaging our lungs, heart, and brain
often damages the environment. • Water Pollution
- Oil is originally found as a solid material between layers of o Human activities have three major detrimental effects on
sedimentary rock, like shale. water quality and availability:
- Natural gas is usually found in pockets above oil deposits. • Humans use excessive water, depleting freshwater
- Natural gas is primarily made up of methane. supplies
• Deforestation • Building roads / parking lots prevents rainwater
- Deforestation is due to indiscriminate logging for wood and from soaking in, causing runoff
widespread burning of forests to create a new cropland. • Human activities pollute water sources
- Deforestation by burning is doubly damaging- not only are o Organic Pollutants
there fewer trees to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere but • Sewage
all of the carbon in the burned wood is immediately
• Industry
released back in the atmosphere.
o Inorganic Pollutants – may result in Eutrophication
• Destruction of the Ozone (O3) Layer
• Nitrates
o Troposphere – O3 is an air pollutant
• Phosphate Fertilizers
o Stratosphere – O3 is actually beneficial. It helps shield UV
• Sulfates from Detergents
rays.
o Toxic Pollutants
• Pollutants Produce Acid Rain
• Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB)
- The major source of acid in the atmosphere is sulfur dioxide.
• Oil and Gasoline
- A secondary source is nitrogen oxide in automobile exhaust.
• Pesticides
- Sulfuric Dioxide + Nitric Oxide + Water Vapor = Sulfuric Acid
• Herbicides
and Nitric Acid, dissolve in raindrops, which fall as acid rain.
• Heavy Metals
• Smog
o Components of Smog • Groundwater Pollution may Impair Human Health
- contaminates drinking water supplies, it can slow the
• Nitrogen Oxides
exchange of the groundwater pool, cleans slowly
• Hydrocarbons
 o Common Contaminants: • Soot
• Organics (Carbon Tetrachloride, Pesticides, • Smoke
Fertilizers, Nitrates, Radioactive Waste) • Liquid Droplets
o Suspected Effects: • Chemical Compounds
• Miscarriages, Skin Rashes, Nervous • How Particulate Matter Enters the Body:
Disorders, Birth Defects 1. Particulate matter enters the body through the nose and
• Garbage are Damaging Oceans and Human Health mouth when we breathe.
- Garbage primarily plastic that degrades very slowly 2. The body eliminates most of the larger particles we inhale.
o styrofoam cup = 50 years Smaller particles like PM2.5 continue to the lungs.
o plastic water bottle = 400 years 3. PM2.5 can penetrate deep into the lungs, having serious
- Floating garbage ends up in floating “rafts” in the open health consequences for the lungs and heart.
ocean • Exposure to Particulate Matter:
- ex: Pacific Trash Vortex - The size of Particles is directly linked to their potential for
• Plastic Garbage causing health problems.
- Toxic chemicals leach out of plastic and are found in the - Exposure to small particles less than 10 micrometers in
blood and tissue. diameter causes:
- Exposure is linked to cancers, birth defects, impaired o Nonfatal Heart Attacks
immunity, endocrine disruption and other ailments. o Irregular heartbeat
• Overuse Damage the Land o Aggravated Asthma
- desertification, erosion and drought o Decreased Lung Function
• Pollution and Urbanization o Increased Respiratory Symptoms, such as Irritation
• Hydropower and Environment of the Airways, Coughing, or Difficulty Breathing
• Humans Strip Mountains and Cut Forests o Premature death in People with Heart or Lung
Disease
o Cancer
PARTICULATES

• also called PM INFECTIOUS DISEASES BY ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES

• the term for tiny particles found in the air
• formed in the atmosphere because of chemical reactions between • Infectious Diseases (DOH, 2019)
pollutants o Acute Respiratory Infections
• commonly enters the body through breathing or inhalation o Influenza A (H1N1)
• can contribute to the development of heart and lung disease, o Bird Flu (Avian Influenza)
asthma attacks, and lung cancer o Chickenpox
• include: o Cholera
• Dust o Dengue
• Dirt o Diarrhea
 o Diptheria - Pneumonia is the most serious of these infections
o Ebola but often can be treated with affordable medicines.
o Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease o Cause:
• Multiple Types of Virus and Bacteria
o Mode of Transmission:
BACTERIAL • Person-to-Person by Coughing or
Sneezing
1. Contamination
o Signs and Symptoms:
- gain access to the host
• Cough accompanied by Short Rapid
2. Adherence
Breathing, Fever, Difficulty of
- adherence to the host
Breathing, etc.
3. Colonization
- replicate on the host
4. Invasion
VIRAL
- invade tissues
5. Produce toxins or other agents that cause host harm (damage) • Bird Flu (Avian Influenza)
• Cholera - a contagious disease of livestock (chicken, ducks, birds)
- is an intestinal infection caused by ingestion of food which may also cause severe infection in humans
or water contaminated with the bacterium Vibrio o Cause:
cholerae • Influenza Viruses A (H5N1)
- short incubation period less than 1 to 5 days o Mode of Transmission:
- the bacterium produces an enterotoxin that causes • Transmitted to Humans through Inhalation
its symptoms, in extreme cases the patient may die or Contamination with Infected Discharges
within 2-3 hours if no treatment is provided or Feces of Chicken
o Mode of Transmission: o Signs and Symptoms:
• Eating Food with Human Waste • Fever, Body Weakness or Muscle Pains,
infected with Vibrio cholerae Sore Throat, Cough, Diarrhea, Difficulty of
Bacteria Breathing in Severe Cases
o Signs and Symptoms: • Dengue Fever
• Sudden Onset of Frequent Painless - is a mosquito-borne disease caused by any one of four
Watery Stools closely related dengue viruses
• Vomiting o Mode of Transmission:
• Rapid Dehydration • Bite of an Aedes Mosquito Infected with a
• Acute Respiratory Infection Dengue Virus.
- leading cause of death in children under the age of • The Mosquito becomes infected when it
5 in developing countries Bites a Person with dengue virus in their
blood.
 o Signs and Symptoms:
- usually begins 4-6 days after infection and
last for up to 10 days, may include:
• Sudden High Fever and Severe
Headaches
• Pain Behind the Eyes
• Severe Joint and Muscle Pain
• Fatigue, Nausea, Vomiting, Skin
Rash, which appears 2-5 days after
the Onset of Fever
• Mild Bleeding (such as Nose Bleed,
Bleeding Gums, or Easy Bruising)
• Coronavirus and Acute Respiratory Syndromes
- First discovered in domestic poultry in the 1930s, cause
respiratory, gastrointestinal, liver, and neurologic diseases
in animals.
- Three of the 7 coronaviruses cause much more severe, and
sometimes fatal, respiratory infections in humans than
other coronaviruses and have caused major outbreaks of
deadly pneumonia in the 21st century.
o SARS-CoV-2
- is a novel coronavirus identified as the
cause of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-
19) that began in Wuhan, China in late 2019
and spread worldwide
o MERS-CoV
- was identified in 2012 as the cause of
Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)
o SARS-CoV
- was identified in 2003 as the cause of an
outbreak of severe acute respiratory
syndrome (SARS) that began in China near
the end of 2002
• COVID 19
o Causes:
• Infection with the new coronavirus (severe acute
respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, or SARS-CoV-2)
causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID 19):Data
has shown that it spreads from person to person
among those in close contact (within about 6 feet,
or 2 meters).
o Transmission:
• The virus spreads by respiratory droplets released
when someone with the virus coughs, sneezes or
talks. These droplets can be inhaled or land in the
mouth or nose of a person nearby.
FUNGAL
• Aspergillosis
- caused by Aspergillus that lives indoors or outdoors
- people with weakened immune systems or lung diseases
are at a higher risk of developing health problems
o Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA)
• similar to asthma symptoms: wheezing,
shortness of breath, cough, fever (in some
cases)
o Allergic Aspergillus Sinusitis
• stuffiness, runny nose, headache, reduced
ability to smell
o Aspergilloma
• cough, coughing up blood, shortness of
breath
o Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis
• weight loss, cough, coughing up blood,
fatigue, shortness of breath
o Invasive Aspergillosis
• fever, chest pain, cough, coughing up,
blood, shortness of breath
• Blastomycosis
- caused by a fungus called Blastomyces
- found in moist soil and in decomposing matter such as
wood and leaves
 o Symptoms:
• Fever
• Cough
• Night Sweats
• Muscle Aches or Joint Pain
• Weight Loss
• Chest Pain
• Fatigue
• Coccidioidomycosis (Valley Fever)
- caused by the fungus Coccidioides
- known to live in the soil in the southwestern United States
and parts of Mexico and Central and South America; was
also recently found in south-central Washington
o Symptoms of a Yeast Infection Include:
• Fatigue
• Cough
• Fever
• Shortness of Breath
• Headache
• Night Sweats
• Muscle Aches or Joint Pain
• Rash on Upper Body or Legs
PARASITIC
• Cestodes
- Taenia saginata; Asian Tapeworm
o Epidemiology (Environment)
- Raw or Undercooked Beef or Pork
o Clinical Manifestations (Diseases)
- Abdominal Pain, Loss of Appetite, Weight
Loss, and Upset Stomach
• Parasitic Insects: Diptera (Flies and Mosquitoes)
- Glossina spp; Tsetse Fly
o Epidemiology Environment
- lakes in arid terrain and in dense, wet
heavily forested rainforest
o Clinical Manifestations (Diseases)
- Human Sleeping Disease, Animal
Trypanosomiasis
- Chancre, Fever, Severe Headache,
Irritability, Extreme Fatigue, Swollen Lymph
Nodes, Aching Muscles and Joints
• Blood and Tissue Dwelling Protozoa
- Trypanosoma cruzi; Chagas' Disease; Trypanosoma Spp
o Epidemiology (Environment)
- found only in the America (particularly in
rural areas of Latin America)
o Clinical Manifestations (Diseases)
- Chagas' Disease, American Trypanosomiasis
no symptoms or mild ones, such as fever,
fatigue, body aches, headache, rash, loss of
appetite, diarrhea, and vomiting.
• Malaria
- Malaria is a serious and sometimes fatal disease caused by a
parasite that commonly infects a certain type of mosquito
which feeds on humans.
- People who get malaria are typically very sick with high
fevers, shaking chills, and flu-like illness.
- Four kinds of malaria parasites infect humans:
o Plasmodium falciparum
o P. vivax
o P. ovale
o P. malariae
o P. knowlesi
• Diarrhea
- characterized by loose, watery stools or a frequent need to
have a bowel movement
 - Types:
o Acute Diarrhea
- occurs when the condition lasts for one to
two days
- diarrhea as a result of a viral, bacterial
infection, or food poisoning
o Chronic Diarrhea
- lasts for at least four weeks
- results of an intestinal disease or disorder,
such as celiac disease or Crohn’s disease,
irritable bowel syndrome or inflammatory
bowel disease
• Potential Causes Include:
o Food Tolerance (Lactose
Intolerance)
o Food Allergy
o Adverse Reaction to a
Medication
o Intestinal Disease
o Parasitic Infection
o Viral Infection
o Rotavirus – common cause
of childhood diarrhea
• Signs and Symptoms:
o Nausea
o Abdominal Pain
o Cramping
o Bloating
o Dehydration
o Fever
o Bloody Stools
o Frequent Urge to Evacuate
your Bowels
o Large Volume of Stools
______________________________________________________________
ECOSYSTEM
- the basic unit study of ecology
- comprised of a community of organisms and the physical
environment around them
- not just a living organism around it, but even the organic and non-
organic matter, even the energy of specific places
- forms a hierarchy that includes population, community, and the
physical environment
POPULATION
- a group of individuals of the same species that occupies the same
geographic area and interacts with each other
- human species living here on Earth also forms a population with
variety of needs, which are all satisfied by the environment
POPULATION ECOLOGY
- the branch of ecology that studies the structure and dynamics of
population
- influences of biotic and abiotic factors:
• Population Density
- number of individuals per unit area or volume
- changes as individuals are added to or remove from
- ex: births, immigration, deaths
• Population Distribution
- pattern of spacing among individuals within the
boundaries of the population
o Clumped Dispersion
- individuals aggregate in patches
- may be influenced by resource
availability and behavior
- ex: Sea Stars group together where
food is abundant.
 o Uniform Dispersion survival is
- individuals are evenly distributed independent of
- may be influence by social each
interactions such as territoriality - Small Mammals,
- ex: The nesting albatrosses Rodents
o Random Dispersion • Type III
- position of each individual is - depict individuals
independent of other individuals that mostly die in
- occurs in the absence of strong the early stages of
attractions of repulsions their lives
- ex: Dandelion grows from - Marine
windblown seeds that land at Invertebrates
random and later germinate
• Population Size
• Age Structure POPULATION GROWTH RATE TENDS TOWARD BIOTIC POTENTIAL
• Demography
- study of vital statistics of a population and how they
change over time BIOTIC POTENTIAL
- birth rates and death rates are of particular interest
o Reproductive Rates or Fertility Schedule - maximum rate of growth of a population under ideal conditions,
- age-specific summary of the enough food supply, no predators, and lack of disease
reproductive rates in a population - determined by:
- describes reproductive patterns of a • Number of offspring produced by each member
population • Length of time for individuals to reach reproductive
o Survivorship Curves maturity
- a graphic way of representing the • Ratio of males to females
data in a life table • Number of reproductive-age individuals
• Type I - follows an:
- depict individuals • Exponential Growth
that have a high - a repeated doubling of population over similar time
probability of periods
surviving to - For any species, the steepness of the growth curve,
adulthood which represents its biotic potential, is determined
- Humans by the previous four factors.
• Types II - The G-shaped curve reflects the fact that under
- depict individuals ideal conditions, populations would double again
whose chance of
 and again over similar time periods, which is why it • Disease
is very steep. • Environmental Toxins
- Because of our biotic potential and environmental resistance, we
maintain equilibrium. Because of this, we now have a steady state.

CARRYING CAPACITY

- population size that the environment can support indefinitely

- Even if conditions are ideal in the first place, eventually, every
growing population reaches a point where environmental resistance
begins to increase. There is always something that challenges the
perfect scenario that we have. Although we do not know how or
when it will happen, but definitely, it will happen. In a way,
environmental resistance is vital because a population cannot just
produce and produce, it needs something to regulate the number of
species at hand in order for that species to not overpopulate.

POPULATION GROWTH REGULATION

RULE OF 72
- refers to biological processes that counterbalance destructive
- Example: events
- the change in population / year is 4% • Density-independent Populations
- 72 / 4 = 18 - the birth rate and death rate do not change the
- So, the population is likely to double its size in 18 years. population density
- If the population now is 20,000, by year 2038, the population would - ex: earthquake, storm
be 40,000 assuming the change in population is 4%. • Density-dependent Populations
- birth rates fall and death rates rise with population
density
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE - ex: Competition for resources – In crowded
- opposing force in the world of competition populations, increasing population density
- limits any species’ ability to consistently realize its biotic potential intensifies competition for resources and results in
- consist of factors that kill organisms and/or prevent them from a lower birth rate. Competition can occur between
reproducing different or same species
• Limitations on nutrients, energy, space
• Predation by other species
 • Territoriality MORE INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES (MICs)
- In many vertebrates and some invertebrates,
- Europe, North America, Australia, Japan
competition for territory may limit density.
- roughly the same number of people are in pre-reproductive,
• Disease
reproductive and post-reproductive groups
- Population density can influence the health and
- predicts a more stable population
survival of organisms.
- nations with established industry-based economies
- Many respiratory diseases are easily passed
- bulged on middle-aged people
especially in crowded areas.
- problems with few workers to support too many old people in the
• Predation
next several decades
- As a prey population builds up, predators may feed
preferentially on that species.
• Toxic Waste
LESS INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES (LICs)
- Accumulation of toxic waste can contribute to
density-dependent regulation of population size - Africa, Latin America, Asia
- Factors that reduced environmental resistance and / or increased - pyramid shape of age structure
biotic potential: - much of the population is younger than reproductive age
• Agricultural Development - predicts a population continuing to expand
• Improved Medical Care - countries that haven’t reach a significant level of economic
• Improved Transportation development yet
• Improved Housing - bulged on the young-aged individuals or below the reproductive age
• Advances in Communication

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

- the movement from high birth and death rates toward low
birth and death rates
- occurs as a country undergoes industrial and economic
development
- associated with the increase in the quality in health care
and improved access to education especially for women

AGE STRUCTURE

- number of people in each age group within a population