CULTURE NATIONALITY
- as a group of people who share the same history
- customs and traditions
- Filipinos, Chinese, Arabs Americans etc.
ETHNIC GROUPS
- Ivatans, Igorots, Ibanags, Ilocano, Bicolano Kapampangan
GENDER
- refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors and attributes
that a society considers appropriate for men and women
(WHO,2013)
- Male, Female, Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and
Intersex (LGBTQI)
SOCIOECONOMIC CLASS
- ideas associated with being poor and rich based on collective
experiences of individuals
- Mahirap, Medyo Mahirap, Sakto Lang, Mayaman (Gonzales,UCSP)
EXCEPTIONALITY/NON-EXCEPTIONALITY
- people with non-average capacity: geniuses
- people with disability and those physically challenge individuals
- All that human beings learn to do, to use, to produce, to know, and
to believe as they grow to maturity and live out their lives in the
social groups to which they belong.
CULTURE
- is the way of living – anthropologists
SOCIETY
- the product of human interactions – sociologists
- symbolizes that group within which human beings can live a total
common life
POLITICS
- arises whenever there are people living together in associations
whenever they are involved in conflicts and wherever they are
subject to some kind of power, rulership or authority
ANTHROPOLOGY
- origin 2 Greek words:
o “anthropos” = humans
o “logos” = word
- study of human kind whose concentration is on human and cultural
evolution (Jurmain, Nelson, Kilgore & Trevathan, 2000)
ANTHROPOLOGIST
- they focus on “human diversity” and translate it into understanding
between different cultures
o “Diversity” – to understand life in a community
o “Culture Universal” – pattern of similarity within the array
of difference (equal but different)
FIVE DISCIPLINES OF ANTHROPOLOGY: 3. Social Change and Disorganization
- social and cultural interactions, interruptions (deviance &
1. Archaeology
conflicts)
- ancient and human population and how they adapt to their
4. Demography
environment
- interrelationship between population with economic,
2. Cultural
political and social system
- society’s culture through their belief, practices and
5. Applied
possessions
- solve contemporary problems
3. Linguistic
- language and its relation to their culture
4. Physical
UNDERLYING IDEAS IN SOCIOLOGY (BALLANTINE AND ROBERTS, 2011):
- biological development of human and their contemporary
variations 1. People are social by nature.
5. Applied 2. People live much of their lives belonging to social groups.
- solve contemporary problems through applications of 3. Interaction between the individual and the group is a two-way
theories process in which each influences the other.
4. Recurrent social patterns, ordered behavior, shared expectations,
and common understandings among people characterize groups.
SOCIOLOGY 5. The process of conflict and change are natural and inevitable
features of groups and societies.
- scientific study of human society and social interactions (Tischler,
2007)
o “Socius” – society in interaction
SOCIOLOGY AND COMMON SENSE:
- focus is the group not the individual
- study forces that molds individuals, shape their behavior and o Common Sense – refers to the ideas that are so completely taken
determine social events for granted that they have never been seriously questioned and
seem to be sensible to any reasonable person
o Fact: Human tragedy can result from inaccurate common sense
SUBDISCIPLINES OF SOCIOLOGY: beliefs.
o Ex. Nazi genocide and the existence of slavery both have their roots
1. Social Organization
in false beliefs about racial superiority.
- social structures
o Sociology – the use of scientific methods to test the accuracy of
- institutions, social groups, social stratifications, social
common sense beliefs and ideas about human behavior and the
mobility and ethnic groups
social world
2. Social Psychology
- impact of group life to person’s nature and personality
EXAMPLE OF MAXIMS THAT PEOPLE USE AS THEIR GUIDES TO LIVE BY YET
CONTRADICT EACH OTHER:
1. Birds of the same feather flocks together – opposites attract
2. Absence makes the heart grow fonder – out of sight, out of mind
3. Look before you leap – He who hesitates is lost
4. You can’t teach an old dog new tricks – it’s never too late to learn
5. Variety is the spice of life – never change horses in midstream
6. Two heads are better than one – if you want something done right,
do it yourself
7. You can’t tell a book by its cover – the clothes make the man
8. Haste makes the waste – strike while the iron is hot
9. There’s no place like home – the grass is always greener on the
other side
POLITICAL SCIENCE
SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION (C. WRIGHT MILLS)
- The relationship between individual experiences and forces in the
larger society that shape our actions. (Charles Wright Mills, 1959)
- focuses on every aspect of society and every relationship among
individuals
- awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider
society
- quality of mind that will help us to use information and to develop
reason in order to achieve lucid summations of what is going on in
the world and of what may be happening within ourselves
- ability to view one’s own society as an outsider would, rather than
only from the perspective of personal experiences and cultural
biases
o Agent of Socialization
- people and groups that influence our self-concept,
emotions, attitudes and behavior

- study of the state in all its elements, aspects and relationships

(Ayson-Reyes, 2000)
SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE (BALLANTINE AND
- study of the polis
ROBERTS, 2011):
- Laswell mentioned that politics is the hows, whens and wheres of
getting power and influence o Fosters greater self-awareness, which can lead to opportunities to
o Power- the ability to make a person do what he will not do improve one’s life
otherwise (Dahl) o Encourage a more complete understanding of social situations by
o State – territory, government, people and sovereignty looking beyond individual explanations to include group analyses of
behavior
o Helps people understand and evaluate problems by enabling them
POLITICAL SCIENCE SUBDISCIPLINES: to view the world systematically and objectively rather than in
strictly emotional or personal terms
1. Political Theory
o Cultivates an understanding of the many diverse cultural
2. Comparative Politics
perspectives and how cultural differences are related to behavioral
3. International Relations
patterns
4. Political Behavior
o Provide a means to assess the impact of social policies
5. Public Policy
o Reveals the complexities of social life and provides method of
6. Public Administration
inquiry to study them
 o Provides useful skills in interpersonal relations, critical thinking, data - Social Darwinism – Survival of the Fittest – most ambitious,
collection and analysis, problem solving, and decision-making most intelligent rise to the top
- most of his work has been discredited
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY:
4. Karl Marx (1818-1883)
- Beginning in the 19th century, European theorists made pioneering - “The means of production/economic sector is most
contributions to the development of science of Human Behavior important in any society.”
- “Historical change occurs through class conflict between
owners and workers.”
SOCIAL FORCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY 5. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
(RITZER): - Social Integration – bonds/functions hold society together
- S**cide – social forces impact lives
1. Political Revolutions ( the French Revolution in 1789) - Types of S**cide:
2. The Industrial Revolution and the Rise of Capitalism o Egoistic – see themselves as alone or an
3. The Rise of Socialism outsider; receives little or no care
4. Urbanization (urban life and problems) o Altruistic – social involvement is too high;
5. Religious Change sacrifice for the group
6. The Growth of Science o Anomic – lack of social regulation, see
7. The Enlightenment su**ide as a means of escape from stress
and frustration that came from an
unexpected and sudden change in
PIONEERS OF SOCIOLOGY: situations
1. Auguste Comte (1798-1857) o Fatalistic – kept under tight regulation;
- Used “sociology” – Greek/Latin: study of society extreme rules and high expectations
- Belief: need to understand society as it was, rather removes a person’s sense of self and
what ought to be individuality
- Positivism – path to understanding the world based - “Society is held together by mechanical solidarity (a social
on science moral consensus) and by organic solidarity (a dependency of
2. Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) roles among people)”
- Mother of Sociology 6. Max Weber (1864-1920)
- How To Observe Manners And Morals - “Verstehen or insight is important to understanding
- Theory and Practice (1837) – wherein she compared the behavior.”
European Society to the American Society - “Religion powerful in creating in economic system.”
- believed that scholars should not simply offer observations - “Rationality is more pervasive through development of
but should also use their research to bring about social bureaucratic structures.”
reform
3. Herbert Spencer (1620-1903)

MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE:
o Structural Functionalism
- emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are
structured to maintain stability
- a macro perspective which views society as a living
organism in which each part of the organism contributes to
its survival
- ex. Government provides education for the children of the
family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state depends
to keep itself running.
- Society is stable and well-integrated
- Social order is maintained through cooperation and
consensus
- major proponents were Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton
o Conflict Perspective
- assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of
conflict or tension between competing groups
- a macro perspective which views that society is
characterized by tension and struggle between groups
- Society is maintained through force and coercion
- some of the proponents were Karl Marx, Ralph Dahrendorf,
W.E.B. Du Bois
- Ex. Competition between groups within society over
LIMITED resources
o Symbolic Interactionism
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
- Human beings are viewed in a world of meaningful objects
- People manipulate symbols and create their social worlds
through interaction
- a micro perspective which views society as active in
influencing and affecting everyday social interaction
- Social order is maintained by shared understanding of
everyday behavior
- some of proponents include George Herbert Mead, Charles
Horton Cooley, and Erving Gofman
- Ex. symbols for male and female, heart to represent love,
thumbs up to say yes
o Evolutionary Perspective
- proponents view that the world was growing progressively
better therefore, it should be left alone
- a macro theory that views society as moving towards the
direction of greater progress
- “Survival of the Fittest” occur in the social world – people
who are ‘fit’ would survive and proliferate (would be
successful) whereas ‘unfit’ would die out (deserve to fail)
- Government should not interfere against natural selection
- some of the proponents include Herbert Spencer and
William Graham Sumner
o Exchange Theory
- Its concern is not only with individual behavior but also with
interaction between people involving an exchange of
rewards and costs.
- a micro perspective that focuses on reinforcement patterns,
the history of rewards and costs that lead people to do what
they do
- proponents include George Homans and Peter Blau
- Ex. You asked someone out on a date. If the person says
yes, you have gained a reward and are likely to repeat the
interaction by asking that person out again.
o Scientific Method
- a systematic, organized series of steps that ensures
maximum objectivity and consistency in researching
problem (Schaefer, 2007)
- for a better evaluation of an information (not be fooled
easily)
 - a sociologist’s tool in studying/ understanding society (the
sociologist has commitment to use scientific method)
PIONEERS OF ANTHROPOLOGY

1. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
- Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
- “Species change was influenced by environmental change.”
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD (STEPS):
2. Charles Darwin
1. Defining the problem. - Theory of Natural Selection – “survival of the fittest”
2. Reviewing the literature - Transmutation - the change of one species to another
3. Formulating: 3. Franz Boaz
o hypothesis – an intelligent guess or a speculative statement - Father of Modern American Anthropology
about the relationship between two or more factors known - Anti-evolutionary
o variables – a measurable trait or characteristic that is - Historical Particularism – each society has a unique culture
subject to change under different conditions that cannot be subsumed under an overall definition of
o independent – cause or influence another general culture
o dependent – its action depends on the influence of 4. Bronislaw Kasper Malinowski
the independent variable - Participant Observation - requires anthropologists to
4. Selecting the research design and then collecting and then collecting participate and blend with the group of life of a given group
and analyzing data - Ethnography – practice of writing about people
5. Developing the conclusion 5. Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown
- “Individuals are mere products of structures.”
- Structural-functionalist Paradigm
MAJOR RESEARCH DESIGN:

o Survey POLITICAL SCIENTISTS

- a study, generally in the form of an interview or
questionnaire, that provides researchers with information 1. Alfred Boyer
about how people think and act - “Politics is the interaction between civil society and the govt
- quantitative in the governance.”
o Observation 2. Max Weber
- collections of information through direct participation and/ - “Politics is the exercise of power within the state.”
or by closely watching a group or community 3. David Easton
- qualitative - “Politics is the authoritative allocation of scarce value.”
o Experiment
- an artificially created situation that allows the researcher to
manipulate variables SOCIETY
 - involves anthropology, sociology and political science can change 2. race/ethnicity
the way we see things, change people’s perspectives 3. gender – language
o Not Visible
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4. body language – sense of self
5. notions of modesty – concept of cleanliness
6. emotional response patterns – rules for social interactions
7. family practices – decision-making processes
CULTURE 8. approaches to problem
9. concept of justice – values and fairness
- totality learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material 10. perceptions of mental health, health, illness, disability
objects, and behavior 11. patterns of superior and subordinate roles in relation to
- includes ideas, values, customs, and artifacts of groups of people status by age, gender, class
o Adorno: worldwide culture industry limits people choices
- implies that each society has its own way of life shared by most of
its members ELEMENTS OF CULTURE:
- has a powerful effect on a person’s daily as it influences his mode of
thinking, feeling and acting o Material Culture – consists of human technology – all things that
humans make or use
o Non-material Culture – consists of totality of knowledge, beliefs,
SOCIETY values and rules for appropriate behavior
- Norms, Folkways, Language
- large number of people in same territory 1. Language
- independent of people outside that area - an abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all
- has common culture aspects of culture
o Adorno: worldwide culture industry limits people choices - includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and
non-verbal gestures and expressions
- According to Saphir and Worf, since people can
CULTURE AS AN ICEBERG: conceptualize the world only through language, language
precedes thought.
o Visible
o Nonverbal Communication
- Behavior
- use of gestures, facial expressions, and
o Not Visible
other visual images to communicate;
- Perceptions
learned – differs by cultures
- Attitude
o Symbols
- Values
- gestures, objects, and words that form basis
- Beliefs
of human communication
o Visible
2. Norms
1. dress – age
- established standards of behavior maintained by a society o Cannibalism – except Korowai tribe
o Formal Norms of south-east Papua and Aghoris of
- generally written; specify strict punishments India
- Law – government social control o Incest – except Turkey etc.
- School Rules o Food/Drinks – Hindus – beef, Jews
- and Muslims – pork, Jains – meat
o Informal Norms and even some plants, Muslims –
- generally understood but not precisely consuming alcohol, Sikhs – smoking
recorded - Acceptance of Norms:
- Proper Dress o People do not follow norms in all situations
- Attitudes towards Late - behavior that appears to violate society’s
- Types of Norms: norms may represent adherence to a
o Mores (Formal) particular group’s norms (teenage drinkers)
- norms deemed highly necessary to the - Norms may be violated because they
welfare of a society conflict with other norms – acceptance of
o Folkways (Informal) norms is subject to change
- norms governing everyday behavior o Conflict
- exist to reinforce patterns of male - Norms are often violated when they conflict
dominance - Acceptance of Change:
- eating behavior, appropriate dress, shaking o Political Situation
hands etc. o Economic Climate
o Sanctions o Social Conditions
- penalties and rewards for conduct - As support for a culture’s traditional norms
concerning social norm weakens, people start to feel free to violate
o Positive Sanctions – pay raises, them and when identified as doing so, these
medals, and words of gratitude people are less likely to receive serious
o Negative Sanctions – fines, threats, negative sanctions, which in turn creates a
imprisonment, and stares of “catch 22,” – momentum for change
contempt 3. Values
o Taboos and Rituals - collective conceptions of what is good, desirable, and
- a very strong negative norm; proper – or bad, undesirable, and improper
- a strict prohibition of behavior that results - influence people’s behavior
in extreme disgust or expulsion from the - criteria for evaluating actions of others
group or society - may change
- considered unfit to live in that society 4. Beliefs and Ideologies
o Philippines Taboo
 - The religion and the beliefs of the people in a civilization - information about how to use material resources of
play an important role in shaping up of the culture as well the environment to satisfy human needs and
- Sociology of Religion – the study of the beliefs, practices desires (Nolan and Lenski)
and organizational forms of religion using the tools and o McDonaldization
methods of the discipline of sociology - According to Ritzer, the
5. Status and Roles McDonaldization of society is a
- Status – describes the position a person occupies in a phenomenon that occurs when
particular setting society, its institutions, and its
- Role – the set of norms, values, behaviors, and personality organizations are adapted to have
characteristics attached to a status the same characteristics that are
6. Cultural Variations found in fast food chains
- includes the degree of harmony or integration within the - includes efficiency, calculability,
various elements of culture predictability and standardization,
- includes elements like sub-cultures, local cultures and the and control
difference between historical and cultural traditions - but workers in these conditions
engage in repetitive, routinized,
highly focused and
PROCESS OF CULTURAL CHANGE AND EXPANSION: compartmentalized tasks that are
quickly and cheaply taught, and
1. Development of Culture Around the World
thus easy to replace
o Innovation – process of introducing a new idea or object to
- devalues labor and takes away
a culture workers' bargaining power
o Discovery – making known or sharing existence of an aspect o Material Culture
of reality - physical or technological aspects of daily lives
o Invention – existing cultural items combined into form that - food item, houses, factories, raw materials
did not exist before
2. Globalization, Diffusion, and Technology o Non-Material Culture
o Diffusion - ways of using material objects
- process by which cultural item spreads from group - customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments,
to group patterns of communication
- can be variety of means, among them exploration, o Culture Lag
military conquest, missionary work, and the - period of maladjustment when nonmaterial culture
influence of the mass media, tourism, and the struggles to adapt to new material conditions
internet o Limitations of The Global Theory
o Technology
- Global culture is much more advanced in some
parts of the world than in others.
 - Many people cannot afford to participate in the
material aspects of a global culture.
- Different people attribute different meanings to
various aspects of the global culture.
o Is Technology Promoting a Global Culture?
- new and emerging communications, computer, and
other technologies
- Bio Tech:
o It provides a set of concepts that both
material and non-material culture need to
adapt to.
o It can span the globe, but not all cultures
will accept or adopt to these technologies
and the changes they cause/impose at the
same rate.
o East and West have different bases and
adopt at different rates.
3. Virtual Culture
o Today’s children are bombarded with virtual culture, images
that spring from the minds of contemporary culture-makers
and that reach them via a screen. Some of these cultural
icons embody values that shape our way of life. But few of
them have any historical reality and almost all have come
into being to make money.
CULTURAL VARIATIONS:
1. Subculture
- exist within a dominant culture that follow the dominant
cultures norms and values while still following a different
set of norms and values
- coexist with the dominant culture
- ex. conyos, jologs, UP students, INC members, cosplayers,
jejemon, Jpop, Kpop, otaku
2. Counter Culture
- exist within a culture with different norms and values, just
like subcultures
- often oppose the dominant culture, forming from a conflict
a social group may have with the dominant culture
- Homeschooling families, rebels
- ex. The Hippie movement, (1960-70) Skinheads, cults,
punks.
3. Pop Culture
- the latest trend
4. High Culture
- museum, art gallery, opera, etc.
5. Culture Shock
- feeling disoriented, uncertain, out of place, or fearful when
immersed in an unfamiliar culture
6. Culture Lag
- period of maladjustment when nonmaterial culture
struggles to adapt to new material conditions
ATTITUDES TOWARD CULTURAL VARIATION:
1. Ethnocentrism
- tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life
represents the norm or is superior to others
o Conflict Theorists – ethnocentric value judgments
serve to devalue groups and to deny equal
opportunities
o Functionalists – ethnocentrism maintains sense of
solidarity
2. Cultural Relativism
- views people from the perspective of their own culture
- places priority on understanding other cultures, rather than
dismissing them as “strange” or “exotic
- promoted by anthropologists as an approach to
understanding diversity
- the principle that an individual human's beliefs and
activities make sense in terms of his or her own culture
 - when it comes to matters of right or wrong, there is no fixed
truth but rather all is relative
3. Xenocentrism
- refers to the tendency to assume that a foreign cultural
element is superior compared to his/her own culture
4. Cultural Universal
- certain common practices and beliefs that all societies have
developed
- Murdoch compiled list of cultural universals but they are
expressed differently from culture to culture
- ex. – marriage, sports, cooking, medicine and sexual
restrictions

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE:

1. Culture is Learned Through Enculturation and Socialization

2. Culture is Transmitted
- orally and by writing
- consciously or unconsciously
- from one generation to another or within the same
generation in an endless number of ways
- conditioning, imitation, suggestion, identification, reward
and punishment, formal instruction, and mass
communication
3. Culture is Shared in which Common Experiences Unify People
4. Culture is Adaptive and Maladaptive
- No culture is static and each individual or generation makes
adjustments.
5. Culture is Diverse

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