Aspects of socialization

By Dr Upasana Borthakur
• Sociologists use the term socialization to refer to the lifelong social
experience by which people develop their human potential and learn
culture.
• Unlike other living species, whose behaviour is mostly or entirely set by
biology, humans need social experience to learn their culture and to
survive.
• Social experience is also the foundation of personality, a person’s fairly
consistent patterns of acting, thinking, and feeling.
• Socialisation is a process of learning rules, habits and values of a group
to which a person belongs whether it is family, friends, colleagues or
any other group.
• It is the process by which a child slowly becomes aware of her/himself
as a member of a group and gains knowledge about the culture of the
family and also the society into which she/he is born.
 Types of socialization
• Primary socialization: It is the most important type of socialization which occurs in infancy and
childhood. This phase of socialization usually takes place within the family. During this phase
infants learn language and certain basic behavior forms of the family and the society in which he/
she lives. It is through primary socialisation that the foundations for later learning are laid.
• Primary socialisation refers to the internalization of the fundamental culture and ideas of a
society; it shapes the norms, values and beliefs of the child at a time when it has little
understanding of the world and its different phenomena, and the basic socialisation agent
moulding the child is the family
• Secondary Socialization: Secondary Socialisation occurs once the infant passes into the childhood
phase and continues into maturity. During this phase more than the family some other agents of
socialisation like the school and friends’ group begin to play a role in socialising the child.
• When the child receives training in institutional or formal settings such as the school, secondary
socialisation takes shape.
• Secondary socialisation is usually carried out by institutions and people in specific roles and
positions. Further, it involves the acquisition of knowledge and conscious learning, and thus
opens for critical reflection, while primary socialisation points to the transmission of naturalised
cultural patterns
• Gender Socialization: It is the process by which different agents of socialization shape the thoughts of children and
make them learn different gender roles. Gender roles refers to social roles assigned to each sex and labelled as
masculine and feminine.
• Anticipatory socialization: This term was introduced by R.K Merton. It is a process by which someone is consciously
socialised for future occupations, positions and social relationships.
• Through anticipatory socialisation people are socialised into groups to which they wish to or have to join so that entry
into the group does not seem to be very difficult. For example, a child made to leave home to stay in a boarding school
with the anticipation of better socialisation.
• Re-socialization: It refers to the process of leaving certain behaviour patterns and roles in order to adopt new ones as
part of one’s evolution in life.
• It occurs throughout life where individuals experience radical breakthroughs from their past experiences and learn
new manners and values which are starkly different from what they had learnt previously.
• Sociologist Erving Goffman analysed resocialization in mental asylum. According to him a mental asylum is a total
institution in which almost every aspect of the resident’s life was controlled by the institution in order to serve the
goals of the institution. For example, the institution demands that every inmate obeys the rules and regulations even if
it is not very useful for the person
• Another common example is that of a girl who is about to get married is often re-socialised by suggestions and advice
from her parents on different matters so that after marriage it is easier for her to adjust in her husband’s home with
her in-laws.
• Adult socialisation: It takes place in adulthood when individuals adapt to new roles such as that of a husband, a wife
or an employee. This is related to their needs and wants. People continue to learn values and behaviour patterns
throughout life.
• Socialisation does not have any fixed time period. It begins at birth and continues till old age. In traditional societies
the older people had a significant influence in important matters related to the family. Both male and female adults
had exerted their influence with increase in age
 Agents of socialization
• Family: Parents along with the family are the most important agents of socialisation. Within the
family it is the mother who first begins to socialise the child. Socialisation in basic values such as
love and affection, manners and etiquettes are first taught in the family.
• Children learn their language and develop their speaking abilities in the family. The situation within
the family whether affectionate or disturbed will affect the growth of a child accordingly.
• Peer group: Peer groups usually consist of friends who are of the same age. They share a mutual
sense of understanding and cooperation with each other and also consider each of them as equals.
The influence of peers group continues throughout life from the neighbourhood to education
institutions to workplace and so on.
• School: The school is known to be the first formal agent of socialisation which shapes the ideas and
attitudes of a child. Children learn to maintain certain decorum in the class, they learn to obey rules
of discipline in the school and be diligent in learning the lessons that are taught in class.
• Mass Media: Mass media includes various agents of communication for instance, the radio,
television, newspapers, magazines, media portals and websites and the like. In this age of
electronic media, children are provided with a variety of new learning opportunities which broaden
the range of events children experience. As a consequence, it is witnessed that socialisation is no
longer primarily or secondarily dependent to the influences of family, peers or other such agencies.
 Sigmund Freud's Elements of Personality
• Sigmund Freud is a Austrian psychoanalysis and is the father of psychoanalysis.
• He has explained the process of socialization through three distinguishable parts of the personality : id, ego and superego.
• The id represents the human being’s basic drives, which are unconscious and demand immediate satisfaction. Rooted in biology, the
id is present at birth, making a new-born a bundle of demands for attention, touching, and food. But society opposes the self-
centred id.
• The “id” tries to make a person work towards achieving the selfish desires by not paying any heed to other individuals or social rules
and standards. For example, a child craving for a second helping of dessert screamed constantly until she was given another serving.
• The “ego” is the referee between the “id” and the “superego”. It tries to maintain a balance between the “id” (basic impulses) and
the “superego” (norms of the society). The “ego” tries to regulate our desires and cravings and helps us to obey the norms of society.
As a referee the “ego” tries to control our impulses according to the norms of the society.
• For example, we often get tempted by discount offers in the shopping malls and feel like purchasing as much as we can. However, we
restrict ourselves to buying just a few products because we realize that buying everything at once might not be a practical thing to
do. This process of adjustment among the “id”, “ego” and “superego” continues throughout life. This adjustment is the principle
means of socialisation.
• The “superego” refers to the principles, rules and ethics that one learns through the process of socialisation. The “superego”
comprises of the norms of a society which are internalised through socialisation.
• For example, Ruchi was eager to steal some grocery from the store without anyone noticing her. But, because she knew that stealing
is not the right thing to do so she did not steal even though she would have never got caught. The “id” and the “superego” are
always opposed to each other because neither is it always possible to fulfil all our wishes and demands nor is it easy to keep
ourselves completely away from our cravings.
• Sigmund Freud believes socialisation demands that individuals must do away with their selfish wants for the benefit of the larger
society.
• According to him socialisation is a process that directs one’s cravings and instincts in ways that are culturally accepted by the society.
 George Herbert Mead: The Social Self
• He was a American philosopher, sociologist and psychologist, primarily associated with the university of Chicago.
• His major contributions are symbolic interactionism, behaviorism, play and game stage and the generalized other.
• Mead is best known for his theory of self. His basic premise is that the theory of self emerges, not by itself but through
interaction with others. We learn to see ourselves through the eyes of others.
• There are three stages in the development of self
• 1. Imitation: In this stage, children copy the behavior of adults without understanding it. For example, a little boy might help
his parents clean the floor by imitating their parents.
• 2.Play stage: The young children begin to develop as social beings by imitating the actions of those near them. By doing so
the child is able to develop the ability to understand the action of the person with whom he is interacting.
• ‘Play’ is one of the ways by which children often imitate what adults do. The play stage begins around the third year during
which the child begins to adopt different roles of adults in her/ his life. Mead refers to these others as “significant others
"who generally includes people such as parents, who have special importance for socialization.
• According to Mead, the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the other.
• 3. Game Stage: Gradually when the child grows they learn to take the role of several others at once. Whereas in the play
stage, the child takes the role of significant others, in the game stage, the child also learns to take the role of generalised
others.
• Mead used the term generalized other to refer to widespread cultural norms and values we use as references in evaluating
ourselves.
• As life goes on, the self continues to change along with our social experiences. But no matter how much the world shapes us,
we always remain creative beings, able to react to the world around us. Thus, Mead concluded, we play a key role in our own
socialization.
 I and Me
• Mead made significant contribution to the development of the concept of social self in
differentiating that portion of the self that develops through the internalization of the
attitudes of others from that portion which never becomes completely predictable.
• Me is considered the socialized aspect of the individual. The me represents learned
behaviors, attitudes and expectations of others.
• I represents the individual’s identity based on response to the me.
• Me is the part of the self that is an organization of the internalized attitude of others. Me
represents the conventional part of self. Its an objective part of self.
• I is the acting part of self. I is the subjective part of self.
• I is the psychological aspect of the self referring to individual’s own impulses, desires,
emotions etc. Whereas me is the social aspect which is evaluative and keeps control of I.
• The complex operation of me and I leads to the development of self.
• Thus each person participates in the social process and develops a self taking others into
account.
 Erik Erikson
• Erik Erikson was a German psychologist who theorized that there's a specific psychological struggle that takes place through the eight stages
of a person's life. These struggles, he believed, contribute to your personality throughout your development.‌
• Stage 1: Infancy—the challenge of trust (versus mistrust). Between birth and about eighteen months, infants face the first of life’s
challenges: to establish a sense of trust that their world is a safe place. Family members play a key part in how any infant meets this
challenge.
• Stage 2: Toddlerhood—the challenge of autonomy (versus doubt and shame). The next challenge, up to age three, is to learn skills to cope
with the world in a confident way. Failing to gain self-control leads children to doubt their abilities.
• Stage 3: Preschool—the challenge of initiative (versus guilt). Four- and five-year-olds must learn to engage their surroundings—including
people outside the family—or experience guilt at failing to meet the expectations of parents and others.
• Stage 4: Preadolescence—the challenge of industriousness (versus inferiority). Between ages six and thirteen, children enter school, make
friends, and strike out on their own more and more. They either feel proud of their accomplishments or fear that they do not measure up.
• Stage 5: Adolescence—the challenge of gaining identity (versus confusion). During the teen years, young people struggle to establish their
own identity. In part, teenagers identify with others, but they also want to be unique. Almost all teens experience some confusion as they
struggle to establish an identity.
• Stage 6: Young adulthood—the challenge of intimacy (versus isolation). The challenge for young adults is to form and maintain intimate
relationships with others. Falling in love (as well as making close friends) involves balancing the need to bond with the need to have a
separate identity.
• Stage 7: Middle adulthood—the challenge of making a difference (versus self-absorption). The challenge of middle age is contributing to
the lives of others in the family, at work, and in the larger world. Failing at this, people become self-centred, caught up in their own limited
concerns.
• Stage 8: Old age—the challenge of integrity (versus despair). As the end of life approaches, people hope to look back on what they have
accomplished with a sense of integrity and satisfaction. For those who have been self-absorbed, old age brings only a sense of despair over
missed opportunities.
Stages Conflict Age Important Desired outcome
events

Infancy Trust vs Birth to 12 to 18 Feeding A sense of trust and security

Mistrust months

Early childhood Autonomy vs. Toilet Training Feelings of independence lead to belief in
shame & doubt 18 months to 3 yourself and your abilities
years

Pre School Initiative vs. Exploration Self-confidence; the ability to take the
3 to 5 years
guilt initiative and make decisions
School age Industry vs. Feelings of pride and accomplishment
5 to 12 years School
inferiority
Adolescence Identity vs. Social A strong sense of identity; a clear picture of
12 to 18 years your future
confusion relationships
Young Intimacy vs. Relationships Safe relationships filled with commitment and
Adulthood 18 to 40 years love
isolation
Middle Work and The desire to give to family and community,
Adulthood Generativity vs. Parenthood and to succeed at work
40 to 65 years
stagnation

Maturity Reflection on life

Integrity vs. Over 65 years Pride in what you’ve achieved leads to feelings
despair of satisfaction
 Social Interaction in everyday life
• Social interaction is the process by which people act and react in relation to others.
• In every society, people build their everyday lives using the idea of status.
• Status is the social position that a person occupies in society.
• Status is part of our social identity and helps define our relationship to others. George Simmel
pointed out that before we can deal with anyone, we need to know who the person is.
• Status set: In a lifetime an individual occupies different statuses on the lines of age, gender,
class, occupation, and education. A person can have several statuses at a point of time such as
being a daughter, social worker, member of a book-reading club, guitarist, and a manager in a
company. A combination of all the statuses that a person holds is called status set.
• Master status: Some statuses matter more than others. A master status is a status that has
special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life. For most people, a
job is a master status because it reveals a great deal about a person’s social background,
education, and income. In a few cases, name is a master status; being in the Bush or Kennedy
family attracts attention and creates opportunities.
 Ascribed and achieved status
• Ascribed statuses are “those which are assigned to individuals without reference to their
innate differences or abilities”
• The universally used criteria for ascription of status are age, sex, kinship, and race.
• Birth of an individual in a particular social category such as class and caste also become
criteria for ascription of statuses in several but not all societies.
• Achieved statuses: Achieved statuses are those that are “left open to be filled through
competition and individual effort”. These are acquired over an individual’s lifetime.
• Occupation and education are thus called achieved statuses. Marital statuses of a wife or a
husband are also achieved statuses.
• However, the line distinguishing between the two are not as clear as they seem. For
example, although the ascribed statuses seem fixed at birth they are not immutable. Some
people also undergo sex (gender) change later in life. For a long time gender was bifurcated
into categories that is male and female however now a third broad category of transgender
which includes homosexuals, transsexuals (to name a few) is also recognized in many parts
of the as an outcome of struggle for recognition.
 Role
• Role is the expected behaviour of someone who holds a particular status. A person holds a status and
performs a role.
• For example, holding the status of student leads you to perform the role of attending classes and
completing assignments.
• Role set: R.K Merton introduced this term role set. Merton argues that each status has an array of roles
associated with it.
• Merton offered the example of a medical student whose status as a student is not only related to teachers
but to the roles of other status occupants like nurses, physicians, social workers and so on.
• We occupy different status in society and each status has its own role set.
• Suppose a person occupies four statuses, each status is linked to a different role set. First, as a professor,
this woman interacts with students (the teacher role) and with other academics (the colleague role).
Second, in her work as a researcher, she gathers and analyses data (the fieldwork role) that she uses in her
publications (the author role). Third, the woman occupies the status of “wife,” with a marital role (such as
confidante and sexual partner) toward her husband, with whom she shares household duties (domestic
role). Fourth, she holds the status of “mother,” with routine responsibilities for her children (the maternal
role), as well as toward their school and other organizations in her community (the civic role).
Role conflict and role strain
• Role strain occurs due to various responsibilities and duties attached
to a single role.
• Role strain in only one at one point of time.
• It is different from role conflict.
• Role conflict occurs when demands or expectations associated with
two or more statuses are incompatible.
Erving Goffman: Presentation of self in
everyday life
• His approach to symbolic interactionism is in the form of dramaturgical approach.
• He views life as a drama and social interactions as a performance by social actors, each playing
a role.
• He says that the day we are born, we are thrust onto a stage called everyday life.
• Socialization is the learning on how to play our assigned roles from other people.
• Goffman described each individual’s “performance” as the presentation of self, a person’s
efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of others. This process, sometimes called
impression management, begins with the idea of personal performance
• In consonance of his theoretical analogy, he talked of a front stage and a back stage.
• All the performances that we perform in front of others is the front stage and when we retreat
to the back stages of life it is called the back stage.
• In the back stage or the private areas of our life we don’t have to act. We can be our real selves.
• When people act in social settings, they are constantly engaged in the process of impression
management which refers to our desire to manipulate others impressions of us on the front stage.
• According to Goffman, we use various mechanisms, called sign vehicles, to present ourselves to
others. The commonly applied sign vehicles are the following:
• Social setting: The setting refers to the physical scene that ordinarily must be there if the actors
are to perform.
• For example: a surgeon generally requires an operating room, a taxi driver a cab, a teacher a
classroom.
• Personal front: It consists of those items of expressive equipment that the audience identifies with
the performers and expects them to carry with them into the setting. A surgeon is expected to
dress in a medical gown, have certain instruments and so on.
• Goffman then subdivided the personal front into appearance and manner.
• Appearance includes those items that tell us the performer’s social status (for instance the
surgeon’s medical gown).
• Manner tells the audience what sort of role the performer expects to play in the situation (for
example; the use of physical mannerism).
• So appearance tells the performer status and the manner and appearance should be consistent
with each other.