TITLE- THE PRENATAL PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT

Term Paper submitted as a partial fulfilment for the degree of B. A. Hons. Applied Psychology,
Batch

Submitted By – Aakarshi Rawal Supervisor- Prof Ramya Dwivedi

Student Designation- Associate professor

A1506921100 AIPS, AUUP

AMITY INSTITUTE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND ALLIED SCIENCES

Amity University, Sector 125, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India – 201301

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Aakarshi Rawal , student of Amity university, Noida has carried out this
Term Paper in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of BA(Hons) applied
psychology on the topic- The prenatal period of development

This embodies the original work of the candidate and no part of this term paper has been
submitted for any other degree of any other university to the best of our knowledge.

DATE- 28/07/2022

Name of Supervisor: Prof Ramya Dwivedi

Designation: Associate professor

AIPS, AUUP
 DECLARATION

I, Aakarshi Rawal D/o Mr Pranav Rawal certify that the work embodied in this Term Paper was
carried out by me under the supervision of Prof. Ramya Dwivedi at Amity University, Uttar
Pradesh. The work embodied in this project has not been submitted for the award of any other
degree or diploma except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text. I, hereby
declare that I have faithfully acknowledged, given credit to and refereed to the research workers
wherever their works have been cited in the text and the body of dissertation. I further certify that
I have not wilfully lifted up some other’s work, para, text, data, results, etc. reported in the
journals, books, magazines, reports, dissertations, thesis etc. or available at websites and
included them in this dissertation and cited as my own work.

Name – Aakarshi Rawal

Date – 28/07/2022

Place – Amity University Noida

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Many people have played an important role in the compilation of my major project,
either directly or indirectly.

I would like to thank Prof. (Dr) Ranjana Bhatia HOI, Amity Institute of behavioural
health and Allied Sciences, Amity University, Noida for giving me the opportunity to
do research work in this upcoming field. Without her encouragement and support, it
would not have been possible.  

I am grateful to Ramya Dwivedi my guide, for having faith in me, helping me,
teaching me and securing feedback throughout my dissertation process so as to make
me eligible and competent enough in my skills. With her constant guidance and
support, I was able to finish my work well on time.

Lastly, I would like to extend a heartfelt gratitude to my family and friends who have
been a constant source of support and encouragement.  

BA. (hons). Applied Psychology  

Batch …, AIPS 
Amity University, Noida
 THE PRENATAL PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT
(DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY)
AIM
To study the development of fetus in Prenatal period.

INTRODUCTION
Prenatal development encompasses a wide range of changes that begin with conception, when
the sperm cell of the father combines with an ovum (egg) of the mother. This results in a
zygote, which has only 1 cell and 23 chromosomes from both parents. From zygote to foetus,
there are three stages of development. The germinal, embryonic, and foetal periods are as
follows:

•The first and second weeks of the gestational period begin with conception. The zygote
contains 100-150 cells after one week and many cell divisions. By the end of week 2, the cell
mass has attached to the uterine wall of the mother.

• Cell differentiation rates accelerate during the embryonic period (third to eighth weeks).
Cellular support systems emerge, and organs begin to form. The neural tube begins to form by
week three. It will eventually give rise to the spinal cord. The neural tube forms and gets
attached the embryo within the first four weeks. The heart begins to beat at the end of the
embryonic period, the arms and legs have become more defined, the face has begun to form,
the intestinal tract has begun to develop.

• Fetal period—from the ninth week to the end of the ninth month—by week 9, the foetus has
grown to the size of a kidney bean and has started moving. long and weighs about 142 gm at
the fourth month. The weight is approximately 680 gm at the sixth month. During the last 3
months of pregnancy, organ functions increase, weight and size increase, and baby fat
develops. The foetus gets more vulnerable to the the environment outside the mother's body
because it is floating within the uterus. Environmental factors may interfere with normal
development.

TERATOGENS

Teratogens are substances that cause embryonic or foetal malformations. The use of illicit
drugs (such as marijuana, cocaine, amphetamines, heroin, methadone, lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD), and opioids) and licit drugs (such as nicotine, alcohol, and caffeine) during
pregnancy may have an impact on maternal and infant outcomes. Placental abruption,
premature labour, microcephaly, congenital anomalies including cardiac and genito-urinary
abnormalities, necrotizing enterocolitis, cognitive disabilities, and CNS strokes have all been
linked to prenatal drug exposure. Sweating, irritability, hypertonia, jitteriness, diarrhoea, and
seizures are common withdrawal symptoms in infants after in utero drug exposure.

Fetal alcohol syndrome refers to birth defects in babies whose mothers drank heavily while
pregnant. These characteristics include a smaller-than-normal head size, heart and limb
defects, and poor intelligence. Even moderate drinking can lead to serious problems.

Alcohol should be avoided by pregnant or planning to become pregnant women in order to

have a normal, healthy baby.

Sexually transmitted infections can also endanger a foetus (STIs). Exposure to a STI increases
the risk of stillbirth, gonorrhoea, eye infections, and blindness. Premature births are becoming
more common as a result of STIs. A preterm infant is one born before the 37th week of
pregnancy.

Premature births are linked to an increase in risk of developing a variety of severe mental
disorders in adulthood. Nonaffective psychosis, depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder are
examples of these. Premature birth is also associated with an increased risk of adult psychiatric
hospitalisation. Those born before 32 weeks gestation were 2.5 times more likely to have
nonaffective psychosis, 2.9 times more likely to have depressive disorder, and 7.4 times more
likely to have bipolar disorder than those born at full term.

CITED LITERATURE

1. Hepper,P (2015) conducted a study on Behavior During the Prenatal Period: Adaptive for
Development and Survival.The aim of the study was to to study fetal behavior which promotes
survival in the womb . Various behaviours which were studied are- fetal breathing movements,
isolated head rotation , leg and arm twitches etc.
2. Cornejo,Irene; Gomez,David; Pinero,Jose et al (2015) conducted a study on Maternal physical
activity before and during the gestation period and the offspring's academic performance in
youth. The aim of the research was to study the correlation between physical exercise of mother
during pregnancy and how it affects academic performance . The conclusion was that being
active during pregnancy is directly proportional to better academic performance in youth.
3. Huizink,AC (2014) conducted a study on Prenatal cannabis exposure and infant outcomes. The
aim of the study was to find the difference between the brain structure development, cognition
etc when the mother is exposed to cannabis during pregnancy.The findings of the study were
inconsistent but beyond infancy slight changes in terms of behavior and cognition were seen.
4.Khandaker, G.M ; Zimbron,J;Lewis,G et al(2012) conducted a study on Prenatal maternal infection,
neurodevelopment and adult schizophrenia. The study aims to study affect on foetus in relation with
neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia . The results were inconsistent because of various non
specific infections in mothers like herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) increases the risk by 5 times .

5. Ningjian Wang, Jing Cheng, Bing Han, et al (2016) conducted a study on Exposure of severe famine in
the prenatal period and the development of diabetes in adulthood. The aim of the study was to measure
the co relation between diabetes in adults and exposure to famine in prenatal period of development.
The result indicated that individuals exposed to famineshad significantly higher odds estimates as
compared to people with less exposure.

6. F. MACTUTUS, Charles; LAURENCE D. FECHTER (2013)conducted a study on Prenatal Exposure to CO:

Memory Deficits . The aim was to find deficits in learning when the rats were exposed to carbon
monoxide. The studies found that there was slight reduction in weight of the pups and behavioural
analysis showed that there was functional deficit in the CNS.

7. Megan L. Brady,Andrea M. Allan,Kevin K. Caldwell (2011) conducted a study on Prenatal Alcohol

Exposure that Produces Lasting Deficits in Hippocampal-Dependent Learning . the aim of the study was
to find the effects of drinking alcohol during gestational period on hippocampus. The results
demonstrated that there were delay in fear conditioning- a major function of hippocampus.

8. Roojide, sussane; Wouters , H. ; Yonker, Julie et al (2010) conducted a research on Effects of prenatal
exposure on Cognitive function in late adulthood . The aim was to study effects of malnutrition in both
sexes on cognition in adulthood. The results found that people who were exposed to famines as foetus
performed worse with selective attention tasks .

9. Church,Michael; Crossland, William ; Holmes, Pamela et al (2013) conducted a research on Use of

Cocaine on Hearing , growth and behaviour during gestation. The aim was to see how effects of cocaine
exposure leads to placental abruption , congenital malformations . The conclusion shows that cocaine
effects utreo growth retardation which can lead to behavioural, visual and language disorders.

10. Erhard,Hans , Boissy,Alain , Rae, M et al (2015) conducted a study on how prenatal undernutrition on
cognitive flexibility and emotions in adult sheep . The aim was to study emotional reactivity in both
sexes due to poor nutrition. The results were impaired cognitive flexibility in males and increased
emotional reactivity .

11. Rooj,Susanne (2019) conducted a research on Prenatal Undernutrition and ageing . The aim was to
find how prenatal undernutrition increases of ageing associated diseases. The results show that prenatal
undernutrition leads to accelerated ageing .

12. Maeno , Yasuki; Himeno, Waako , fujino Hiroshi et al (2012)conducted a study on Progression of
congenital heart disease in prenatal period . The aim was to study cardiac anatomy of foetus and
chamber size. The result that ventricles and vessels grow which lead to ventricular outflow obstruction.
13. Corno , giulia,; Etchemendy, Ernestina; Espinoza , Macarena (2012)conducted a study on Positive
psychology intervention on prenatal well being . The aim was to examine how web based positive
psychology interventions improve women’s prenatal well being . The result suggests that online positive
psychology interventions decreases depressive episodes in pregnant women.

14. Titze,karl; Koch, Sabine; Helge,Hans (2008) conducted a study on Prenatal and Family risks of
children born to mothers with epilepsy . The aim of the study was to see the risk associated with
maternal seizures and adverse social familial conditions in epileptic mother’s children. The results
showed that children of experimental group had low IQ scores but showed long lasting effects of
environmental support than control children.

15. Nijland, MarkFord, Stephen ; Nathanielsz, W (2008)conducted a study on Prenatal origins of

diseases in adulthood . The aim of the study was to develop better understanding of gene environment
interactions leading to adult diseases. The result epigenetic factors play major roles in development of
phenotype and predisposition to disease in later life.

DISCUSSION
The focus of the study was to understand how critical prenatal period is to subsequent diseases or poor
cognition in adulthood. There are number of critical periods in development of fetus . For example – if
there is intrauterine bacterial infection in first trimester , then it can lead to deafness or the child can
become visually impaired (adam,F.; 2003).

Hepper P (2015) in his study talks about various fetal movements which helps surviving in the womb
like head rotations and hiccups which are usually observed in about 24-28 weeks of gestation. Theses
movements also help foetus build reflexes and that is the reason Physical exercises in pregnant women
is encouraged and Cornejo , Irene et al (2015) aimed to study how intelligence along with reflexes is
affected by physical activities undertaken by pregnant women. It was found that children whose mother
had excercised regularly had scored better grades than the children in control group. Use of cannabis
leads to brain structure alterations Huizink , Ac (2015) and prenatal infections can lead to
neurodevelopmental causes of schizophrenia .

A Chinese study concluded that being exposed to hunger in prenatal period can cause diabetes in
adulthood ,Ningjin wang et al (2016). Elucidating the above ,Sussane (2019)found that malnutrition
leads to early ageing in both sexes.

World Health Organisation recommends the following for a healthy pregnancy

Intake of atleast 400gm of acid with folic content along with other prenatal vitamins to reduce risk of
neural tube defects

Intake of alcohol, marijuana, smoking can lead to FASDs, stillbirths and other neurodevelopmental
disorders.

High Caffeine intake should be avoided because studies suggest that it can lead to miscarriage. Switching
to teas or decaf is recommended.

Certain bacterial infections like influenza leads to congenital abnormalities, important steps should be
taken to prevent those.

Certain foods have content of methylmercury like deli meat, raw fish and unpasteurized cheeses which
can lead to poor development of CNS.

CONCLUSION
Prenatal period of development is critical time for both mother and the fetus , prenatal exposure to
range of teratogens like cocaine, marijuana or famine can increased the risk of various disorders in
adulthood.There is a need of larger samples , new models to investigate ”sensitive” period of
development and the pre- dispositions it causes , both genetically and environmentally.
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LINKS

https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cdep.12104

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/14767058.2015.1049525

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0278584613002030

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/abs/prenatal-
maternal-infection-neurodevelopment-and-adult-schizophrenia-a-systematic-review-of-
populationbased-studies/16A33FBE1245E2EA234933B4FB4BB9F2