PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON CM1
To assure
DOING PHILOSOPHY
The term "philosophy" means, "love of wisdom." In a broad
sense, philosophy is an activity people undertake when
they seek to understand fundamental truths about
themselves, the world in which they live, and their
relationships to the world and to each other. As an
academic discipline philosophy is much the same. Those
who study philosophy are perpetually engaged in asking,
answering, and arguing for their answers to life’s most
basic questions. (Department of Philosophy, Florida State
University)
A. Revealing the Whole
Discovering Philosophical Reflections
What is my purpose in life? Why do we have to die?
What is the essence of free will? These are just
examples of the questions that you might have been
thinking about for a long time, but have never tried
to discuss with anyone or have failed to look for
answers. These questions are called philosophical.
To think of an answer to these questions is to
engage in a philosophical reflection because it
compels us to look at a particular experience
from a wider perspective. For example, the
question “What is love? “is often asked but has no
conclusive or final answer. You know to yourself
that love is not something that can be expanded
in a definite definition.
We embark into reflecting in a philosophical
manner because the questions do not have a
definite answer or a ready answer yet. When we
become conscious about our struggles in this
world, we get to ask difficult questions because
we wonder about the circumstances that we lived
with. A philosophical question always rooted from a
bigger triggering problem or situation.
Unfortunately, no matter how we try to look for
answers to these uncertainties, there are no
definite and conclusive answers available to us.
you, these are the kind of questions that endure. Not
looking for its answers will leave us confused or lost. The
last resort for these questions
is to simply ask them. Thus the beginning to finding
an answer is to ask a philosophical question.
METAPHYSICS - Big ideas arising from big questions are
mostly metaphysical ones. Metaphysics is actually one of
the main branches of philosophy and it deals with the so-
called “being of beings”.
LOGIC - Another important aspect of the study of
philosophy is the arguments or reasons given for
people’s answers to their questions. To this end
philosophers employ logic to study the nature and
structure of arguments.
The Universal and the Particular
A while ago, we identified the philosophical questions that
lead us to philosophical reflection. Now, we will give
distinction to philosophical questions as to their nature
being a particular or universal. In philosophy, particular
refers to a part of the whole, while the universal pertains
to the whole. Identifying particular and universal under
logic is very important as it is concerned with valid
arguments and propositions. However, talking about
philosophical questions is working in another way. To set
an example, the question “Why am I here?” can be called a
particular question as it is just one among the other
questions, but when you start to think about that
question, you will find that it is not confined to a single
situation. It echoes other philosophical questions which
talk about the experiences which this question arises,
making it universal. Answering that question requires us to
consider other aspects of human experiences that are
relevant and connected to it. If interpreted as a question
about existence, the totality of existence is
involved. Asking our purpose is like a thread that is
@INKANDMARKS
woven through everything that happens such as who
determines our purpose. Thus, to philosophize is to
look at things in a holistic manner.
According to German philosopher Martin Heidegger, what
makes philosophy different in science is that a scientific
question is always confined to the particular, whereas a
philosophical question “leads into the totality of beings”
and “inquires into the whole” (Heidegger 2002, The
Essence of Human Freedom, 9). The goal is that from a
particular philosophical question, the wholeness of reality
is revealed. After posting a philosophical question, the next
step is how do we start to look for an answer? There are
methods and criteria in answering inquiries that we will
discuss in the next course materials. For now, you have to
understand that “every person that engages in
philosophical reflection must recognize that possible
answers to philosophical questions require adequate
justification or rational basis. “Answers to philosophical
questions must not be something that sound or seem right,
but require adequate justification or rational basis to
avoid being misled.
Plato warned as early as 360 B.C.E. that there were things
that device, confuse, or mislead in this world. Looking for
real answers requires much intellectual effort and rational
ability. We are responsible for the answers that we hold on
to. This means that no one else is to blame in case we
believed in falsehood. Humans were created differently in
a way that we are given intellect or mind (faculty of
reason) to figure things out. This is considered to be the
best tool that we have to deal with our problems in
effectively pursuing meaning and truth.
MARTIN HEIDEGGER (1889 -1976) Born in the
town of Messkirch in Germany, Heidegger initially
published articles in Catholic journals as a result of his
education in the seminary. His writings in philosophy were
influence by his readings of G.W.FHegel, Friedrich Nietzshe,
Max Scheler, to name a few. His most influential book is
Being and Time which was published in 1927.He is
responsible for the term “hermeneutics of facticity” which
means that people interpret things as they encounter
them
in different ways.
Truth and Dialectics
Dialectics is a technique to resolve philosophical questions.
Dialectics dates back to ancient Greek which is considered
an art of refutation. Philosophical discovery is considered
as a result of collaboration with partners in dialogue or
conversation. Through dialogues, dialectics become an
effective means of examining and evaluating truth claims.
The philosopher Socrates is much known in his use of
dialectics. His method in answering philosophical questions
demonstrates consistency and clarity. This questioning and
answering subject to Athenians draw out underlying
assumptions. A claim must be supported by a proof and
logical argument to be considered true. You have to give
good reasons as the basis of your claim to withstand further
scrutiny and examination. These dialectics grew more in
the modern era which is in the form of thesis, antithesis,
and synthesis. The German philosophers G.W.F. Hegel and
Karl Marx proposed the dialectical pattern in history. Thus,
the interplay of opposing ideas is needed for growth. With
the use of dialectics as one of the earliest and tested
forms in answering a philosophical question, a
development or progress in thought happens. It may not
find a definite answer to the question, but it contributes in
understanding the nature of the question and finding a
plausible answer that may qualify. Philosophy then will
teach us how to argue and defend our ideas and beliefs,
but at the same time being open to other possibilities as
we progress in time, collaboration with others, and truth
confrontation.
PLATO (427 –347 B.C.E.) One of the most famous
philosophers who ever lived, this Greek Athenian
philosopher was a student of Socrates and teacherto
Aristotle. He wrote numerous dialogues in whichSocrates is
the main character. His most famous works are the
Apology (where he gives an account of Socrates’ trial)
and the Republic (where he presents his famous Theory of
Forms
SOCRATES (469 –399 B.C.E.) Socrates’ life is a puzzle
because even three recognized sources (Plato, Xenophon,
and Aristophanes) on his life presented differing
accounts. He left no writings, but conversed with people
from all walks of life using question and answer as a
concrete living outof his famous advice – “Know thyself.”
His
@INKANDMARKS
commitment to philosophy was the reason he was
condemned to death.
QUESTIONS
1.These are significant questions posed by human
persons and do not have definite answers. –
Philosophical Question 2. It is the best tool humans have
in their pursuit of truth andmeaning. – Intellect, Mind
3. He is known for introducing the concept of
historical materialism. – Karl Marx
4. The philosopher who claimed that a
philosophical question inquiry into the whole.
– Martin Heidegger
5. The philosopher who warned us of deceptionsof this
world – Plato
6. He engaged Athenians in the marketplace withhis
series of questions. – Socrates
7. A rational activity that teaches us to search for
truth and hold on to beliefs we can defend. -
Philosophical Reflection
B. The Philosophical Enterprise Wonder,Knowledge,
Ignorance
Plato claimed that “philosophy begins in wonder.” To
wonder about a thing is to be more than curious. Wonder
stimulates us to venture into philosophy. For instance, in a
new gadget, curiosity is when you think of how to use it, on
the other hand wonder is to ask whether one can live
without the new gadget. Since we are already aware that
philosophy is the love of wisdom, to be wise is to know the
truth. Philosophy is considered as the pursuit of wisdom.
According to Aristotle, wisdom can be classified as
theoretical and practical.
A. Theoretical Wisdom: To know the necessary truths and
its logical consequences.
B. Practical Wisdom: Knowledge in the realm of action
Example: Politics and ethics
These philosophers believe that to be wise is the best that
we can be. Our views, beliefs, or opinions (intuitions) must
be scrutinized by the faculty of reason. This allows us to
answer philosophical questions and to combat ignorance.
These philosophers will be our guide in our search for the
answers. As we explore and read their thoughts, we are
given the opportunity to rethink certain views, to learn
from, to refute, to modify, or to develop. We have all the
freedom to ask and seek for answers to
our philosophical questions. Aside from looking for the
answer and engaging oneself in philosophical reflection,
Socrates says the one must admit that he is not wise. It is
ignorance that makes philosophy possible. We cannot
proceed to philosophy if we already think that what we
know is the only right and correct answer, also if we do not
allow our views to be subject to change from others‟
perspectives.
ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.E) He was born in
Stagira, Greece and studied in Plato’s Academy. He
surpassed his teacher by the number of works he wrote
and diverse fields he studied (philosophy,biology, politics,
psychology, and art). He tutored athirteen-year-old boy
who came to be known as Alexander the Great. Aristotle
also put up a schoolin Athens called Lyceum.
Philosophical Thought in Three Views
I. Cosmocentric View (Ancient Philosophy600 B.C. –600
A.D.): Ancient philosophers wonderedthe world (kosmos
in Greek) or the origin of the universe (the arche –
„starting point in Greek‟).
They want to understand the ultimate nature of theworld.
In Western philosophy, Thales was the first to wonder
about the origin of the universe that led him to the view
the water is the underlying principleof all things.
II. Theocentric View (Medieval Period): It is the time
where the church sustained man’s intellect inwhich the
world became secondary to God (theosin Greek).
Philosophers such as Avicenna. St.
Augustine, and St. Thomas Aquinas existed. III.
Anthropocentric View (Modern View 1500-
1900): It is a time of subjectivity and individualism –
centered on man (anthropos in Greek). It is the result of
rising modern science and the diminished power of the
church in the 17th century.
C. The Value of Philosophical Reflection
A. Socratic Legacy From different views in philosophy
that tackles the value of philosophicalreflection, we will
examine the views attributed toSocrates to persuade you.
Here are the three claims of Socrates from Plato’s
dialogues in Apology and Protagoras:
1. Know thyself;
2. The unexamined life is not worth living; and
3. Virtue is knowledge of good and bad.
@INKANDMARKS
Socrates method of philosophizing is through a series of
questioning and answering which we call today as the
Socratic method. Socrates compelled people to think, to
defend their views, and to account for what they know
and do not know. Being compelled to what we believe in is
necessary since we are accountable to our thoughts
leading to actions –we have to know ourselves in order to
be fully aware of what we think. The second claim about
unexamined life is not worth living happens when we fail
to examine what we think. We missed the opportunity to
know ourselves better. Engaging in philosophical reflection
makes us realize what we really believe in once we
are challenged to defend our claims. This does not reveal
things that we do not know, but also guide us to more
questions we want to answer and ideas that have yet to
be figured out. The third claim, virtue is knowledge of good
and bad is the result of asking philosophical questions
upon knowing ourselves‟ thoughts and actions. Virtue is
considered knowledge because to truly know what is good
necessarily leads to the actual doing of something good.
To put it simply, if a person knows what is good, he or she
will do what is good. On the other hand, one who pretends
to know what is good does not choose to do what is good.
His/her ignorance
is revealed in his/her actions. Philosophical
questions then, enlighten us and make us better persons.
B. “Pilosopo” as a Social Critic
Normally, we hear the word “Pilosopo” as a negative
connotation that means someone is reasoning out poorly.
However, looking from philosophy‟s perspective, a pilosopo
or a philosopher is a lover of wisdom. Sample situation in the
Philippine context of Pilosopo is when asked with the
philosophical question, “Why am I here? “answers back
“...because I am not there.” Sometimes, we find it
entertaining, but in this sense, this person is only evading
the argument by pretending to address them. This
reasoning under logic is called fallacy. Under philosophy,
this is an important study of arguments so we can create
reasoning that is mindful and not to deceive. There are a
lot of fallacies that we have to know so we can create valid
reasons for philosophical questions.Let us try to look at
another context of Pilosopo in Rizal‟s Noli Me
Tangere novel. We have there the character of Pilosopong
Tasyo who walks around the public places conversing
about politics and society. He expressed views that are
deep and consequently difficult to process or even to take
seriously. This kind of Pilosopo character is what is near to
our philosophers. They are uncommon in our society and
have been considered as fools. Due to their wisdom, they
proclaim thoughts that are disturbing and radical. While
other people prefer comfort in mere acceptance of the
status quo, Socrates and Pilosopo Tasyo seek wisdom.A
philosopher or Pilosopo is someone who observes, thinks,
sees clearly, and speaks the truth. What the world needs
are people who speak truth and help in making necessary
reforms for a better future.
PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON CM2
DOING PHILOSOPHY: PART II
As we age, we broaden our knowledge of the things that we
see around us. We constantly engage with truth-making as
we encounter different ideas and opinions. And so, we take
responsibility in verifying each claim of reality and
knowledge. We engage in developing meaning. It takes
philosophical reflection to enable us to see through the
things that we do and see the person that we become
because of what wedo.
A. An Exercise of Truth Making Reality as
Phenomenon
Phenomenon is investigated by philosophical reflection in
which the world is constituted as lived,experienced,
thought of, and understood. It is studied by examining it
in relation to other phenomena.
One distinct difference between philosophy and science is
their method of deriving truth. Unlike science, which
narrows its analysis in order to develop conclusion and
understanding, philosophy broadens its analysis to
uncover wisdom and truth. Its approach to truth-making is
by examining it along with another phenomenon that it
relates to. Going back to the example, the way we
personally come up with the understanding of love is
rooted upon our personal experience of the said
phenomenon. It will also be influenced by what we see in
our environment: may it be media or the values imparted to
us by our family or friends. This is truth-making.
@INKANDMARKS
Immanuel Kant discussed that our truth is based on how we
perceived something through our five basic senses. These
are things ‘as-they-appear-to-us’: in a ‘empirical’ manner.
Furthermore, how we process it in our mind, is our process
of ‘rationalism’ to understand the phenomenon.
EMPIRICISM AND RATIONALISM
In truth-making we use empiricism to see things-as-they-
appear-to-us. On the other hand, how we process the data
in our mind is the process of rationalism.
Seeing the World in a Wider Perspective
Let’s try talking about the phenomenon of the internet.
Living in the time of the digital era, it seems like knowledge
is literally one click away. We can boldly say that there is
no excuse to be ignorant. The search portals and social
media have become a floodway of data and information.
However, this vastness of information doesn’t necessarily
equate that we, humans will automatically be more
knowledgeable or wise. Furthermore, it doesn’t necessarily
better us as mankind. Why? The internet called for the
democratization of information. And the sense of liberty of
knowledge that it brought to humans has been very
beneficial. In contrast, misinformation has also arisen in
this ‘democratization’.
As truth and facts become readily available, so is the
widespread of lies and misinformation. And sometimes it
led to the misuse of data. As modes of learning have also
shifted, plagiarism and instant gratification are becoming
much more apparent. Being instant and quick can be an
asset, yet our physical world often requires more time,
involvement and simulation. Another good example is the
“selfie”. Selfie is part of the social media culture wherein
millions of status and photos are shared all around the
world every second of every day. This culture eventually
re-defined the meaning of keeping in touch or connecting
without fellow humans. ‘Quality’ was a defeated quantity
being posted. The Internet has its own share of pros and
cons. Moreover, there will always be gaps, waiting to be
filled by the human mind. Humanity requires a sense of “all-
togetherness”. We have the field of science, arts, religion,
sociology or philosophy. This is something that is not
readily handed to us by the internet. Yet
these components of our humanity will be the filler tothe gap
mentioned.
It takes philosophical reflection to enable us to see
beyond what we initially perceive and better ourselves.
From this conscious realization we can decide to continue
or divert from the path that we are taking. Fads and
popularity will not entirely sway us in our choices of
what is good for us. We can have a sound and conscious
decision that willhopefully bring us happiness. We can
know ourselves better when we philosophize.
Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) Immanuel Kant is a German
philosopher known for his contributions in epistemology,
ethics, metaphysics and logic which stays relevant up to
today. His contributions and hisstand in regards of the
empiricist and rationalist debate- ‘the synthetic priori
knowledge’. Unlike his predecessor Plato, he thought that
noumena (things as they really are) is not accessible to us.
We can only know phenomena as they appear tous.
B. Journey to Truth: Doxa and Episteme
One facet of determining of truth and deception is that
there is a clear line of distinction between knowledge and
opinion. Every time we interact with different people, we
encounter different claims of truth. This sometimes causes
confusion. On this part we will attempt to figure out how we
journey towards truth. There is different truth presented to
us every day. Whether it be from the media, the classroom,
the churches the streets, etc. These claims needed to be
filtered from the truth to the false, the illusion from the
real. Philosophers like Plato has devoted most of their time
setting apart the mere appearance to reality. Episteme or
knowledge and doxa or opinion doesn’t equate to one
another. This is an important thought in philosophy that
epistemology, abranch of philosophy dwells entirely.
Diversity entails that there is variation of beliefs or
opinion arising from different cultures, society etc. If this is
the case then, what’s the point of claiming one universal
truth? Verifying and justifying becomes unnecessary
because everyone has their own claim. When claiming a
belief to be true, rational justification and verification is
required. Gut-feel, hearsays and opinions will never be
enough to confirm something as reality or true. We humans
are
@INKANDMARKS
rational beings. This means that we are capable and
responsible for our thought process and its corresponding
actions. We don’t just merely accept what is being
presented but we rationalize.
Episteme - knowledge in Greek
Doxa – opinion in Greek
Epistemology – a branch of philosophy dedicated in to
the study of knowledge and the problems that revolves
around it.
SYLLOGISM - a deductive argument of a certain form
where a conclusion is inferred from two premises.
PREMISE - serve as an explanation as to whythe
conclusion is valid or acceptable.
I. Ancient Roots Since the beginning of philosophy, we
recognize truth to not be readily accessible to human
beings. Our ancient ancestors see truth to be something
that is only readily accessible to the gods. Gods are seen to
be the source of supreme intelligence and possessor of all
truths. And so, man relies on their rational capacity as a
tool in its endeavor of truth. Philosophers
from ancient times like Plato have been recognized as one
of the earliest minds who tries to differentiate opinion and
knowledge. He identifies that knowledge is certain and
opinions are those which are uncertain. Relying on opinion
and basing everything on appearances and not reality
leads us to ignorance. The quest of seeing things as they
really are and not be fooled by illusion has been a
prevalent challenge to us humans. According to Plato our
intellect will enable us to surpass appearances and see
truth. Influenced by his predecessor, Socrates, Plato
started with his opinion undergoing constant questioning
and dialectics until implications are drawn. Aristotle on the
other hand, developed syllogism. Wherein, starting with
premises, valid arguments will be inferred. According to
him, valid syllogism is proof or demonstration of truth. For
example: “Socrates is mortal” (claim); All me are mortal
and Socrates is a man (premise).
Rene Descartes ( 1596–1650) Rene Descartes is a French
philosopher, scientist and mathematician who is known to
be the “Father of Modern
Philosophy”. His writings in the Meditations on First
Philosophy (1641), where his famous, ”cogito ergo sum” (I
think therefore I exist) is to be found, is oneof his famous
legacy.
II. Modern Legacy
“Some years ago, I was struck by the large number of
falsehoods that I had accepted as true in my childhood,
and by the highly doubtful nature of the whole edifice
that I had subsequently based on them. I realized that it
was necessary, once in the course of my life, to demolish
everything completelyand start again right from the
foundations if I wanted to establish anything at all” This
is a translated excerpt from Rene Descartes’ First
Meditation. In here, he reflected how statements that are
false, doubtful or uncertain, cannot be usedas the basis
for knowledge. In this mediation Descartes gives emphasis
to doubt. When he said. “demolish everything completely”,
he literally scrutinized every belief in which he could
imagine the least doubt as though he knew that it was
absolutely false. This left him with ideas that are clear and
certain, that no one can rationally doubt or reject it. For
example, he thought that “he exists” because he is
thinking and doubting. And that will only be possible if he
exists.
This clear and distinct ideas are the only things thatcan
become the foundation of all knowledge. Using“doubt” he
had a medium of distinguishing opinion from knowledge.
Opinions are those that can be doubted. They lack clarity
and dubious. Knowledgeon the other hand, is indubitable
and thus certain.
III. Contemporary Period In the contemporary period
postmodernism prevailed. Postmodernism deny any of the
prominent viewpoints held by their predecessors (view
points from 16th – mid-20th century) regarding reality,
truth, knowledge, humannature, and language. For
postmodernist objectivereality is nothing but a
conceptual construct. This view argues that:
• There are many truths… there is no absolutetruth.
• Reason, logic and science has come to oppresstruth
• Truth is dictated by power
• Human nature is socially determined
Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) Derrida is French writer and
Philosophy. His most famous work is, “Of
@INKANDMARKS
Grammatology” (1967). Deconstructionism isattributed to
him. This school of thought is a reaction to the thought
of structuralism.
Postmodernism – views reality as nothing but a
conceptual construct. Deconstructionism – challenges
traditional views in philosophy by looking at
structures of language to open up to limitless
interpretation
These claims are included in the deconstructionism
viewpoint, which Jacques Derrida developed during the
late 1960s. This challenged the traditional notions in
philosophy. Say for example, Plato established that to find
essence is to find knowledge. In contrast Derrida argued
that non-essential elements or appearance is the basis of
everything that can be spoken or written. Compared with
modern legacy, Derrida’s approach is somehow similar to
Descartes in a way that it aims on destruction of his
beliefs to construct a new knowledge. He just utilized it
more on textual criticism. One underlying matter
regarding postmodernism is a more democratic society
where knowledge is not held by those in power and
authority. Wherein the access to knowledge is not only by
the privileged few. It is noteworthy that relativism
(opposite of absolute truth), without much thought can be
dangerous. The idea that, “what is true for you, may not
be true for me”, loses the opportunity for discussion since
everyone can interpret everything differently.
C. Question of Truth and Opinion In this part we will now
focus on different methods and techniquesused by
philosophers to test truth claims.
I. Correspondence Theory Traced back to Plato and
Aristotle, correspondence theory believed thattrue
propositions are those that correspond with reality. Say
for example, it is true that someone is your friend if that
someone is really a friend to you.So, if he/she betrays
you, then your claim will be false. This theory appears
very basic and simple tomany, but this philosophy will
serve as good starting point.
II. Linguistic Turn A lot of philosophers turned to language
in resolving problems in epistemological queries. Thus, their
introduction of the context principle which imposed that
the meaning of a word heavily relies upon the context.
They also highlighted essence in the use of sense
and
reference in language and understanding meaning.
• Sense – understood as meaning. Connotation or intention
of logic. Derived in the context that the itselfprovides.
• Reference – what is referred to or the denotation. The
things we point to by name. Language gives us
leverage to take about the same things yet disagree
because we might have different meaning upon it. Say for
example, we can refer to the solar system but mean
something different each time we use it as a subject in a
sentence. One can say that, “the solar system 4 billion years
old” or “The solar is in existence for billion of years”. Both
have very similar meaning yet the senses seem to differ. It
just goes to show that we talk about things in different
way and so the challenge is to analyze the statements in
order to understand what is claimed. This also proves the
importance of context in understanding the meaning of
something.
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) Russel is philosopher,
historian, mathematician, and logicianwho is known as
the founder of analytical philosophy Context Principle –
It is only in the context of a sentence that a word has a
meaning (Dummett, 1993)
Some philosophers made use of mathematical logic to
derived a more expansive understanding towards language.
Thus, the meaning of any given sentence must be taken
from the meaning of its part since the entire sentence
provides the context. This analysis in language
expands the direction of a philosophical discussion.
Philosophers who consider themselves as logical positivist
use verification principle. They argue that meaningful
claims are only those that can be verified as true or false.
And so according to this philosophers, queries of
metaphysics (branch of philosophy concerning about the
nature of reality) seem to be meaningless because they
can’t be verified. Another philosopher,
Ludwig Wittgenstein provides another insight as he
introduced language-games. This is from the premise that
the meaning of language is something to be found in the
way it was use. He observed that aside from the usual
meaning we attached to words, there are also various ways
we use them in language: figuratively or metaphorically.
For Wittgenstein to understand meaning, people must be
playing the same “game”.
@INKANDMARKS
Language-Games - aside from the usual meaning we
attached to words, there are also various ways we use
them and so to understand meaning peoplemust be
playing the same “game”.
Phenomenology – a philosophical theory which believes
that the essence of every object can be thought of,
investigated, and understood more thanthe usual way of
understanding it.
III. Phenomenology and Existentialism
“Consciousness is consciousness of something”. The
approach of phenomenology lies on this premise. We can
translate this as, if you are thinking of something you are
involved in it. When I say a flower, you will have a thought
about a flower. So, can we infer that there is no objectivity
in this manner since we can’t detach ourselves from what
we are observing? Phenomenology emphasizes that we
should not be too entrapped with the parts only but also
the whole. And so, this approach pursues on trying to make
us see very phenomenon or object in a true and purified
meanings Going back to Descartes thoughts earlier, the
most important things about existence is to give
importance to the things that your mind perceives
because it proves our existence. Edmund Husserl follows
this line of thinking, saying that there “intellectual
sediment” that remain on one’s mind unchanged which form
a kind of constitution that makes you understand the
objects that you want to perceive.
Edmund Husserl (1885 - 1938) A German philosopher
who is attributed to be the founder ofthe
phenomenological movement In 1913 his published
work, “A General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology”,
set motion to a new school of thought that has
influenced many until today.
“Back to the things themselves”, is a motto employed to
phenomenology. As we become to be accustomed of the
things around us, we do not investigate any more its
essence. However, as a philosopher, we should learn to
reflect upon ourselves and ask, “what am I witnessing?”
Probably the first answers that we have are the things that
we are accustomed to believe in, but as we reflect deeper,
we can discover something more from the phenomenon.
Phenomenology invites us to think. Let’s take a look at the
two cognitive attitudes that we usually employ:
1. Natural Attitude – when we are comfortable with the
things that we already know.
2. Transcendental Attitude – when we direct our
consciousness to investigate the essence of a phenomenon
Both of these are used in understanding that there is
something more to what we see and know. This effort of
uncovering will lead us to arrive at the truth of every
phenomenon, or simply put, in every experience of objects
(physical or mental) because we are subjects (conscious
human beings) ourselves. Husserl idea in phenomenology
also gives rise to the taught that everyone can know the
truth themselves. If they want to, anyone can be a
phenomenologist. So how would we integrate
existentialism to phenomenology? Existentialism was
pioneered by the revered philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre.
Existential Phenomenology, is designed to make us see
what every existing thing means to someone who
experience it by thorough reflection. In this manner, Sartre
argued that “existence precedes essence”. He mentioned
that while being to engrossed with finding the truth often
time, we forget to engaged with the truth itself. Say for
example, ’Can a fish understand how it can be a fish if it
left the water”. In existentialism the main emphasis is that
only the person could actually create meaning which
he/she is responsible of. The existential
phenomenology approach entails, “subjectivity” because in
existentialism, we create meaning for our own self, which
may vary with others. This approach in philosophy makes
us appreciate the myriad of meanings that most people
attribute to their experience daily
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) A French novelist,
playwright and foremost existentialist philosopher.For
his works focused on freedom and responsibility, he was
awarded the Nobel Prize forLiterature
“An objective claim is a statement about a factual
matter-one that can be proved true or false... A
subjective claim, on the other hand, is an expression of
belief, opinion, or personal preference.”
PHILOSOPHY 1
Philosophy is an activity people undertake when they
seek to understand fundamental truths about
themselves, the world in which they live, and their
@INKANDMARKS
relationships to the world and to each other. Philosophical
Question - a question rooted from abigger triggering
problem or situation.
Philosophical Reflection - To think of an answerto
philosophical questions is to engage in a philosophical
reflection because it compels us to look at a particular
experience from a wider perspective.
The Universal and the Particular
particular refers to a part of the whole, while the
universal pertains to the whole.
Example: The question “Why I am here?” can be called a
particular as it is just one among the otherquestions, but
when you start to think about that question, you will find
that it does not confined to asingle situation. It echoes
other philosophical questions which talk about the
experiences which this question arise, making it
universal.
Intellect/Mind – best tool that we have to deal withour
problems in effectively pursuing meaning and truth.
Philosophical question “leads into the totality ofbeings”
and “inquiries into the whole”. The goal isthat from a
particular philosophical question, the wholeness of
reality is revealed. - b. Practical Wisdom: Knowledge in the realm ofaction
(Heidegger 2002, The Essence of Human Freedom, 9).
For now, you have to understand that “every person
that engages in philosophical reflectionmust
recognize that possible answers to philosophical
questions require adequate justification or rational
basis.”
Philosophy then will teach us how to argue and defend
our ideas and beliefs, but at the same timebeing open to
other possibilities as we progress intime, collaboration
with others, and truth confrontation.
Dialectics- It is a technique to resolve philosophical
questions. Philosophical discovery is considered as a result
of collaboration with partnersin dialogue or conversation.
Through dialogues, dialectics become an effective means
of examining and evaluating truth claims.
Socrates - Socrates’ life is a puzzle because eventhree
recognized sources Plato, Xenophon, and Aristophanes)
on his life presented differing
accounts. He left no writings, but conversed withpeople
from all walks of life using question and answer as a
concrete living out of his famous advice – “Know
thyself.” His commitment to philosophy was the reason
he was condemned todeath.
B. The Philosophical Enterprise Wonder,
Knowledge, Ignorance
-Socrates says the one must admit that he is notwise.
It is ignorance that makes philosophy possible.
-To wonder about a thing is to be more than
curious.
Aristotle: He surpassed his teacher by the numberof works
he wrote and diverse fields he studied (philosophy,
biology, politics, psychology, and art). He tutored a
thirteen-year old boy who came to be known as Alexander
the Great.
According to Aristotle, wisdom can be classified as
theoretical and practical.
a. Theoretical Wisdom: To know the necessarytruths
and its logical consequences
Example: Politics and ethics
C. The Value of Philosophical ReflectionSocratic
Legacy
Socrates method of philosophizing is through a series of
questioning and answering which we call today as the -
Socratic method. Socrates compelledpeople to think, to
defend their views, and to account for what they know
and do not know.
-The second claim about unexamined life is not worth
living happens when we fail to examine whatwe think.
-The third claim, virtue is knowledge of good and bad is
the result of asking philosophical questionsupon knowing
ourselves‟ thoughts and actions.
Pilosopo as a Social Critic A philosopher or Pilosopo is
someone who observes, thinks, sees clearly, and speaks
the truth. What the world needsare people who speak
truth and help in making necessary reforms for a better
future.
Summary: As a human being we are encouraged to be
aware of our environment and to make sense
@INKANDMARKS
of our experiences. To ask philosophical question isto
involve ourselves into philosophical reflection that make
us rethink our beliefs and values as well as to be open for
modification or welcome new ideas that will draw us closer
to the truth.
In the process of searching for an answer in a
philosophical question, there are methods and techniques
that ancient to modern philosophers helped us such as the
Socratic Method that up untiltoday is very useful as a
model for discourse.
Philosophical reflection, at the end of the day, doesn’t
give us a definite answer but will open us tomore
possibilities and ideas connected in a holistic perspective.
PHILOSOPHY 2
An Exercise of Truth Making Reality as Phenomenon
Phenomenon - Phenomenon is investigated by
philosophical reflection which the world is constituted
as lived, experienced, thoughtof, and understood.
-It is studied by examining it in relation of other
phenomenon - Scientific Definition and Philosophical
Reflection
The way we personally come up with the understanding of
love is rooted upon our personal experience of the said
phenomenon. It will also be influenced by what we see in
our environment: mayit be media or the values imparted
to us by our family or friends. – Truth Making
Immanuel Kant: Empiricism & Rationalism
-Our truth is based on how we perceived something
through our five basic senses.
- Empiricism – phenomenon ‘as-they-appear-to-us’
Rationalism – phenomenon as how we process itin our
mind
Noumena - things as they really are. - Not
accessible to us.
Seeing the World in a Wider Perspective
“All Togetherness” - Humanity requires a sense of “all-
togetherness”. We have the field of science,arts, religion,
sociology or philosophy. This is something that is not
readily handed to us by the internet.
The Role of Philosophical Reflection - With conscious
realization we can decide to continue or
divert from the path that we are taking. Fads and
popularity will not entirely sway us in our choices ofwhat
is good for us.
Journey to Truth Doxa –
opinion Episteme –
knowledge
Epistemology – a branch of philosophy dedicated in to
the study of knowledge and the problems that revolves
around it.
I. Ancient Roots Our ancestors see truth to be something
that is only readily accessible to the gods. Gods are seen
to be the source of supremeintelligence and possessor of
all truths. And so, man relies on their rational capacity
as a tool in itsendeavor of truth.
-The quest of seeing things as they really are andnot be
fooled by illusion has been a prevalent challenge to us
humans. -Use of Dialectics
Plato – “knowledge is certain and opinions arethose
which are uncertain.”
- our intellect will enable us to surpass
appearances and see truth.
SYLLOGISM- a deductive argument of a certainform
where a conclusion is inferred from two premises.
-serve as an explanation as to why the conclusionis valid
or acceptable.
II. MODERN LEGACY “Some years ago, I was struck by the
large number of falsehoods that I hadaccepted as true in
my childhood, and by the highlydoubtful nature of the
whole edifice that I had subsequently based on them. I
realized that it was necessary, once in the course of my
life, to demolish everything completely and start again
right from the foundations if I wanted to establish
anything at all”- Rene Descartes, First Meditation (1641)
Rene Descartes’ DOUBT - He scrutinized everybelief...
“statements that are false, doubtful or uncertain,
cannot be used as the basis for knowledge” This left
him with ideas that are clearand certain, that no one
can rationally doubt or reject it.
III.Contemporary Period: Post-Modernism
Postmodernism deny any of the prominent viewpoints
held by their predecessors regarding
@INKANDMARKS
reality, truth, knowledge, human nature, and Existentialism: “existence precedes essence” In finding
language. Objective reality is nothing but a truth, engage with the truth ourselves. Onlythe person
conceptual construct. could actually create meaning which he/she is
responsible for.
III.Contemporary Period: Jacques Derrida:
Phenomenology + Existentialism: Truth entails
Deconstructionism challenges traditional views in
subjectivity** based on one’s experience (phenomenology)
philosophy by looking at structures of language to open
and how we create meaning ourselves (existentialism). This
up to limitless interpretation.
approach in philosophy makes us appreciate the myriad of
Post-modernism envisions a more democratic society meanings that most people attribute to their experience
where knowledge is not held by those in power and daily.
authority. Dangers’ of postmodernism
Question of Truth and Opinion:
I. Correspondence Theory: Correspondence theory
believed that true propositions are those thatcorrespond
with reality.
II. Linguistic Turn - He Introduced context principle
which imposed that the meaning of aword heavily
relies upon the context.
•Sense – understood as meaning. Connotation or
intention of logic. Derived in the context that the itself
provides.
•Reference – what is referred to or the denotation.The
things we point to by name.
Logical Positivist: Verification Principle -
Meaningful claims are only those that can be
verified as true or false.
Language-Games - aside from the usual meaningwe
attach to words, there are also various ways weuse them
and so to understand meaning people must be playing the
same “game”.

III. Phenomenological Existentialism - “Consciousness is

consciousness of something.” Phenomenology: a
philosophical theory which believes that the essence of
every object can be thought of, investigated, and
understood more thanthe usual way of understanding it. -
“Back to the things themselves” As we become to be
accustomed of the things around us, we do not
investigate any more its essence.
Natural Attitude – when we are comfortable with the
things that we already know.
Transcendental Attitude – when we
direct our consciousness to investigate the essenceof a
phenomenon.

@INKANDMARKS