PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON CM1
To
DOING PHILOSOPHY
The term "philosophy" means, "love of wisdom."
In a broad sense, philosophy is an activity people
undertake when they seek to understand
fundamental truths about themselves, the world in
which they live, and their relationships to the world
and to each other. As an academic discipline
philosophy is much the same. Those who study
philosophy are perpetually engaged in asking,
answering, and arguing for their answers to life’s
most basic questions. (Department of Philosophy,
Florida State University)
A. Revealing the Whole
Discovering Philosophical Reflections
What is my purpose in life? Why do we have to die?
What is the essence of free will? These are just
examples of the questions that you might have been
thinking about for a long time, but have never tried
to discuss with anyone or have failed to look for
answers. These questions are called philosophical.
To think of an answer to these questions is to
engage in a philosophical reflection because it
compels us to look at a particular experience
from a wider perspective. For example, the
question “What is love? “is often asked but has no
conclusive or final answer. You know to yourself
that love is not something that can be expanded
in a definite definition.
We embark into reflecting in a philosophical
manner because the questions do not have a
definite answer or a ready answer yet. When we
become conscious about our struggles in this
world, we get to ask difficult questions because
we wonder about the circumstances that we lived
with. A philosophical question always rooted from a
bigger triggering problem or situation.
Unfortunately, no matter how we try to look for
answers to these uncertainties, there are no
definite and conclusive answers available to us.
assure you, these are the kind of questions that
endure. Not looking for its answers will leave us
confused or lost. The last resort for these questions
is to simply ask them. Thus the beginning to finding
an answer is to ask a philosophical question.
METAPHYSICS - Big ideas arising from big
questions are mostly metaphysical ones.
Metaphysics is actually one of the main branches of
philosophy and it deals with the so-called “being of
beings”.
LOGIC - Another important aspect of the study of
philosophy is the arguments or reasons given for
people’s answers to their questions. To this end
philosophers employ logic to study the nature and
structure of arguments.
The Universal and the Particular
A while ago, we identified the philosophical
questions that lead us to philosophical reflection.
Now, we will give distinction to philosophical
questions as to their nature being a particular or
universal. In philosophy, particular refers to a part of
the whole, while the universal pertains to the whole.
Identifying particular and universal under logic is
very important as it is concerned with valid
arguments and propositions. However, talking about
philosophical questions is working in another way.
To set an example, the question “Why am I here?”
can be called a particular question as it is just one
among the other questions, but when you start to
think about that question, you will find that it is not
confined to a single situation. It echoes other
philosophical questions which talk about the
experiences which this question arises, making it
universal. Answering that question requires us to
consider other aspects of human experiences that
are relevant and connected to it. If interpreted as a
question about existence, the totality of existence is
involved. Asking our purpose is like a thread that is
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH| 1
woven through everything that happens such as who
determines our purpose. Thus, to philosophize is to
look at things in a holistic manner.
According to German philosopher Martin
Heidegger, what makes philosophy different in
science is that a scientific question is always
confined to the particular, whereas a philosophical
question “leads into the totality of beings” and
“inquires into the whole” (Heidegger 2002, The
Essence of Human Freedom, 9). The goal is that
from a particular philosophical question, the
wholeness of reality is revealed. After posting a
philosophical question, the next step is how do we
start to look for an answer? There are methods and
criteria in answering inquiries that we will discuss in
the next course materials. For now, you have to
understand that “every person that engages in
philosophical reflection must recognize that possible
answers to philosophical questions require
adequate justification or rational basis. “Answers to
philosophical questions must not be something
that sound or seem right, but require adequate
justification or rational basis to avoid being
misled.
Plato warned as early as 360 B.C.E. that there were
things that device, confuse, or mislead in this world.
Looking for real answers requires much intellectual
effort and rational ability. We are responsible for the
answers that we hold on to. This means that no one
else is to blame in case we believed in falsehood.
Humans were created differently in a way that we
are given intellect or mind (faculty of reason) to
figure things out. This is considered to be the best
tool that we have to deal with our problems in
effectively pursuing meaning and truth.
MARTIN HEIDEGGER (1889 -1976) Born in the
town of Messkirch in Germany, Heidegger initially
published articles in Catholic journals as a result of
his education in the seminary. His writings in
philosophy were influence by his readings of G.W.F
Hegel, Friedrich Nietzshe, Max Scheler, to name a
few. His most influential book is Being and Time
which was published in 1927.He is responsible for
the term “hermeneutics of facticity” which means
that people interpret things as they encounter them
in different ways.
Truth and Dialectics
Dialectics is a technique to resolve philosophical
questions. Dialectics dates back to ancient Greek
which is considered an art of refutation.
Philosophical discovery is considered as a result of
collaboration with partners in dialogue or
conversation. Through dialogues, dialectics become
an effective means of examining and evaluating truth
claims. The philosopher Socrates is much known in
his use of dialectics. His method in answering
philosophical questions demonstrates consistency
and clarity. This questioning and answering subject
to Athenians draw out underlying assumptions. A
claim must be supported by a proof and logical
argument to be considered true. You have to give
good reasons as the basis of your claim to withstand
further scrutiny and examination. These dialectics
grew more in the modern era which is in the form of
thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. The German
philosophers G.W.F. Hegel and Karl Marx
proposed the dialectical pattern in history. Thus,
the interplay of opposing ideas is needed for growth.
With the use of dialectics as one of the earliest and
tested forms in answering a philosophical question,
a development or progress in thought happens. It
may not find a definite answer to the question, but it
contributes in understanding the nature of the
question and finding a plausible answer that may
qualify. Philosophy then will teach us how to
argue and defend our ideas and beliefs, but at
the same time being open to other possibilities
as we progress in time, collaboration with
others, and truth confrontation.
PLATO (427 –347 B.C.E.) One of the most famous
philosophers who ever lived, this Greek Athenian
philosopher was a student of Socrates and teacher
to Aristotle. He wrote numerous dialogues in which
Socrates is the main character. His most famous
works are the Apology (where he gives an account
of Socrates’ trial) and the Republic (where he
presents his famous Theory of Forms
SOCRATES (469 –399 B.C.E.) Socrates’ life is a
puzzle because even three recognized sources
(Plato, Xenophon, and Aristophanes) on his life
presented differing accounts. He left no writings,
but conversed with people from all walks of life
using question and answer as a concrete living out
of his famous advice – “Know thyself.” His
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH| 2
commitment to philosophy was the reason he was
condemned to death.
QUESTIONS
1.These are significant questions posed by
human persons and do not have definite
answers. – Philosophical Question 2. It is the
best tool humans have in their pursuit of truth and
meaning. – Intellect, Mind
3.He is known for introducing the concept of
historical materialism. – Karl Marx
4. The philosopher who claimed that a
philosophical question inquiry into the whole.
– Martin Heidegger
5. The philosopher who warned us of deceptions
of this world – Plato
6. He engaged Athenians in the marketplace with
his series of questions. – Socrates
7. A rational activity that teaches us to search for
truth and hold on to beliefs we can defend. -
Philosophical Reflection
B. The Philosophical Enterprise Wonder,
Knowledge, Ignorance
Plato claimed that “philosophy begins in
wonder.” To wonder about a thing is to be more
than curious. Wonder stimulates us to venture into
philosophy. For instance, in a new gadget, curiosity
is when you think of how to use it, on the other hand
wonder is to ask whether one can live without the
new gadget. Since we are already aware that
philosophy is the love of wisdom, to be wise is to
know the truth. Philosophy is considered as the
pursuit of wisdom. According to Aristotle, wisdom
can be classified as theoretical and practical.
A. Theoretical Wisdom: To know the necessary
truths and its logical consequences.
B. Practical Wisdom: Knowledge in the realm of
action Example: Politics and ethics
These philosophers believe that to be wise is the
best that we can be. Our views, beliefs, or opinions
(intuitions) must be scrutinized by the faculty of
reason. This allows us to answer philosophical
questions and to combat ignorance. These
philosophers will be our guide in our search for the
answers. As we explore and read their thoughts, we
are given the opportunity to rethink certain views, to
learn from, to refute, to modify, or to develop. We
have all the freedom to ask and seek for answers to
our philosophical questions. Aside from looking for
the answer and engaging oneself in philosophical
reflection, Socrates says the one must admit that he
is not wise. It is ignorance that makes philosophy
possible. We cannot proceed to philosophy if we
already think that what we know is the only right and
correct answer, also if we do not allow our views to
be subject to change from others‟ perspectives.
ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.E) He was born in
Stagira, Greece and studied in Plato’s Academy.
He surpassed his teacher by the number of works
he wrote and diverse fields he studied (philosophy,
biology, politics, psychology, and art). He tutored a
thirteen-year-old boy who came to be known as
Alexander the Great. Aristotle also put up a school
in Athens called Lyceum.
Philosophical Thought in Three Views
I. Cosmocentric View (Ancient Philosophy600
B.C. –600 A.D.): Ancient philosophers wondered
the world (kosmos in Greek) or the origin of the
universe (the arche –„starting point in Greek‟).
They want to understand the ultimate nature of the
world. In Western philosophy, Thales was the first
to wonder about the origin of the universe that led
him to the view the water is the underlying principle
of all things.
II. Theocentric View (Medieval Period): It is the
time where the church sustained man’s intellect in
which the world became secondary to God (theos
in Greek). Philosophers such as Avicenna. St.
Augustine, and St. Thomas Aquinas existed.
III. Anthropocentric View (Modern View 1500-
1900): It is a time of subjectivity and individualism –
centered on man (anthropos in Greek). It is the
result of rising modern science and the diminished
power of the church in the 17th century.
C. The Value of Philosophical Reflection
A. Socratic Legacy From different views in
philosophy that tackles the value of philosophical
reflection, we will examine the views attributed to
Socrates to persuade you. Here are the three
claims of Socrates from Plato’s dialogues in
Apology and Protagoras:
1. Know thyself;
2. The unexamined life is not worth living; and
3. Virtue is knowledge of good and bad.
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH| 3
Socrates method of philosophizing is through a
series of questioning and answering which we
call today as the Socratic method. Socrates
compelled people to think, to defend their views,
and to account for what they know and do not
know. Being compelled to what we believe in is
necessary since we are accountable to our
thoughts leading to actions –we have to know
ourselves in order to be fully aware of what we think.
The second claim about unexamined life is not
worth living happens when we fail to examine what
we think. We missed the opportunity to know
ourselves better. Engaging in philosophical
reflection makes us realize what we really
believe in once we are challenged to defend
our claims. This does not reveal things that we
do not know, but also guide us to more questions
we want to answer and ideas that have yet to be
figured out. The third claim, virtue is knowledge of
good and bad is the result of asking
philosophical questions upon knowing ourselves‟
thoughts and actions. Virtue is considered
knowledge because to truly know what is good
necessarily leads to the actual doing of something
good. To put it simply, if a person knows what is
good, he or she will do what is good. On the other
hand, one who pretends to know what is good does
not choose to do what is good. His/her ignorance
is revealed in his/her actions. Philosophical
questions then, enlighten us and make us better
persons.
B. “Pilosopo” as a Social Critic
Normally, we hear the word “Pilosopo” as a negative
connotation that means someone is reasoning out
poorly. However, looking from philosophy‟s
perspective, a pilosopo or a philosopher is a lover of
wisdom. Sample situation in the Philippine context of
Pilosopo is when asked with the philosophical
question, “Why am I here? “answers back
“...because I am not there.” Sometimes, we find it
entertaining, but in this sense, this person is only
evading the argument by pretending to address
them. This reasoning under logic is called fallacy.
Under philosophy, this is an important study of
arguments so we can create reasoning that is
mindful and not to deceive. There are a lot of
fallacies that we have to know so we can create valid
reasons for philosophical questions.Let us try to look
at another context of Pilosopo in Rizal‟s Noli Me
Tangere novel. We have there the character of
Pilosopong Tasyo who walks around the public
places conversing about politics and society. He
expressed views that are deep and consequently
difficult to process or even to take seriously. This
kind of Pilosopo character is what is near to our
philosophers. They are uncommon in our society
and have been considered as fools. Due to their
wisdom, they proclaim thoughts that are disturbing
and radical. While other people prefer comfort in
mere acceptance of the status quo, Socrates and
Pilosopo Tasyo seek wisdom.A philosopher or
Pilosopo is someone who observes, thinks, sees
clearly, and speaks the truth. What the world needs
are people who speak truth and help in making
necessary reforms for a better future.
PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON CM2
DOING PHILOSOPHY: PART II
As we age, we broaden our knowledge of the things
that we see around us. We constantly engage with
truth-making as we encounter different ideas and
opinions. And so, we take responsibility in verifying
each claim of reality and knowledge. We engage in
developing meaning. It takes philosophical reflection
to enable us to see through the things that we do and
see the person that we become because of what we
do.
A. An Exercise of Truth Making Reality as
Phenomenon
Phenomenon is investigated by philosophical
reflection in which the world is constituted as lived,
experienced, thought of, and understood. It is
studied by examining it in relation to other
phenomena.
One distinct difference between philosophy and
science is their method of deriving truth. Unlike
science, which narrows its analysis in order to
develop conclusion and understanding, philosophy
broadens its analysis to uncover wisdom and truth.
Its approach to truth-making is by examining it along
with another phenomenon that it relates to. Going
back to the example, the way we personally come
up with the understanding of love is rooted upon our
personal experience of the said phenomenon. It will
also be influenced by what we see in our
environment: may it be media or the values imparted
to us by our family or friends. This is truth-making.
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH| 4
Immanuel Kant discussed that our truth is based on
how we perceived something through our five basic
senses. These are things ‘as-they-appear-to-us’: in
a ‘empirical’ manner. Furthermore, how we process
it in our mind, is our process of ‘rationalism’ to
understand the phenomenon.
EMPIRICISM AND RATIONALISM
In truth-making we use empiricism to see things-as-
they-appear-to-us. On the other hand, how we
process the data in our mind is the process of
rationalism.
Seeing the World in a Wider Perspective
Let’s try talking about the phenomenon of the
internet. Living in the time of the digital era, it seems
like knowledge is literally one click away. We can
boldly say that there is no excuse to be ignorant. The
search portals and social media have become a
floodway of data and information. However, this
vastness of information doesn’t necessarily equate
that we, humans will automatically be more
knowledgeable or wise. Furthermore, it doesn’t
necessarily better us as mankind. Why? The internet
called for the democratization of information. And the
sense of liberty of knowledge that it brought to
humans has been very beneficial. In contrast,
misinformation has also arisen in
‘democratization’.
As truth and facts become readily available, so is the
widespread of lies and misinformation. And
sometimes it led to the misuse of data. As modes of
learning have also shifted, plagiarism and instant
gratification are becoming much more apparent.
Being instant and quick can be an asset, yet our
physical world often requires more time, involvement
and simulation. Another good example is the “selfie”.
Selfie is part of the social media culture wherein
millions of status and photos are shared all around
the world every second of every day. This culture
eventually re-defined the meaning of keeping in
touch or connecting without fellow humans. ‘Quality’
was a defeated quantity being posted. The Internet
has its own share of pros and cons. Moreover, there
will always be gaps, waiting to be filled by the human
mind. Humanity requires a sense of “all-
togetherness”. We have the field of science, arts,
religion, sociology or philosophy. This is something
that is not readily handed to us by the internet. Yet
these components of our humanity will be the filler to
the gap mentioned.
It takes philosophical reflection to enable us to see
beyond what we initially perceive and better
ourselves. From this conscious realization we can
decide to continue or divert from the path that we
are taking. Fads and popularity will not entirely
sway us in our choices of what is good for us. We
can have a sound and conscious decision that will
hopefully bring us happiness. We can know
ourselves better when we philosophize.
Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) Immanuel Kant is a
German philosopher known for his contributions in
epistemology, ethics, metaphysics and logic which
stays relevant up to today. His contributions and his
stand in regards of the empiricist and rationalist
debate- ‘the synthetic priori knowledge’. Unlike his
predecessor Plato, he thought that noumena
(things as they really are) is not accessible to us.
We can only know phenomena as they appear to
us.
B. Journey to Truth: Doxa and Episteme
One facet of determining of truth and deception is
that there is a clear line of distinction between
knowledge and opinion. Every time we interact with
this
different people, we encounter different claims of
truth. This sometimes causes confusion. On this part
we will attempt to figure out how we journey towards
truth. There is different truth presented to us every
day. Whether it be from the media, the classroom,
the churches the streets, etc. These claims needed
to be filtered from the truth to the false, the illusion
from the real. Philosophers like Plato has devoted
most of their time setting apart the mere appearance
to reality. Episteme or knowledge and doxa or
opinion doesn’t equate to one another. This is an
important thought in philosophy that epistemology, a
branch of philosophy dwells entirely.
Diversity entails that there is variation of beliefs or
opinion arising from different cultures, society etc. If
this is the case then, what’s the point of claiming one
universal truth? Verifying and justifying becomes
unnecessary because everyone has their own claim.
When claiming a belief to be true, rational
justification and verification is required. Gut-feel,
hearsays and opinions will never be enough to
confirm something as reality or true. We humans are
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH| 5
rational beings. This means that we are capable and
responsible for our thought process and its
corresponding actions. We don’t just merely accept
what is being presented but we rationalize.
Episteme - knowledge in Greek
Doxa – opinion in Greek
Epistemology – a branch of philosophy dedicated
in to the study of knowledge and the problems that
revolves around it.
SYLLOGISM - a deductive argument of a certain
form where a conclusion is inferred from two
premises.
PREMISE - serve as an explanation as to why
the conclusion is valid or acceptable.
I. Ancient Roots Since the beginning of philosophy,
we recognize truth to not be readily accessible to
human beings. Our ancient ancestors see truth to be
something that is only readily accessible to the gods.
Gods are seen to be the source of supreme
intelligence and possessor of all truths. And so, man
relies on their rational capacity as a tool in its
endeavor of truth. Philosophers
from ancient times like Plato have been recognized
as one of the earliest minds who tries to differentiate
opinion and knowledge. He identifies that knowledge
is certain and opinions are those which are
uncertain. Relying on opinion and basing everything
on appearances and not reality leads us to
ignorance. The quest of seeing things as they really
are and not be fooled by illusion has been a
prevalent challenge to us humans. According to
Plato our intellect will enable us to surpass
appearances and see truth. Influenced by his
predecessor, Socrates, Plato started with his opinion
undergoing constant questioning and dialectics until
implications are drawn. Aristotle on the other hand,
developed syllogism. Wherein, starting with
premises, valid arguments will be inferred.
According to him, valid syllogism is proof or
demonstration of truth. For example: “Socrates is
mortal” (claim); All me are mortal and Socrates is a
man (premise).
Rene Descartes ( 1596–1650) Rene Descartes is
a French philosopher, scientist and mathematician
who is known to be the “Father of Modern
Philosophy”. His writings in the Meditations on First
Philosophy (1641), where his famous, ”cogito ergo
sum” (I think therefore I exist) is to be found, is one
of his famous legacy.
II. Modern Legacy
“Some years ago, I was struck by the large number
of falsehoods that I had accepted as true in my
childhood, and by the highly doubtful nature of the
whole edifice that I had subsequently based on
them. I realized that it was necessary, once in the
course of my life, to demolish everything completely
and start again right from the foundations if I
wanted to establish anything at all” This is a
translated excerpt from Rene Descartes’ First
Meditation. In here, he reflected how statements
that are false, doubtful or uncertain, cannot be used
as the basis for knowledge. In this mediation
Descartes gives emphasis to doubt. When he said.
“demolish everything completely”, he literally
scrutinized every belief in which he could imagine
the least doubt as though he knew that it was
absolutely false. This left him with ideas that are
clear and certain, that no one can rationally doubt
or reject it. For example, he thought that “he exists”
because he is thinking and doubting. And that will
only be possible if he exists.
This clear and distinct ideas are the only things that
can become the foundation of all knowledge. Using
“doubt” he had a medium of distinguishing opinion
from knowledge. Opinions are those that can be
doubted. They lack clarity and dubious. Knowledge
on the other hand, is indubitable and thus certain.
III. Contemporary Period In the contemporary
period postmodernism prevailed. Postmodernism
deny any of the prominent viewpoints held by their
predecessors (view points from 16th – mid-20th
century) regarding reality, truth, knowledge, human
nature, and language. For postmodernist objective
reality is nothing but a conceptual construct. This
view argues that:
• There are many truths… there is no absolute
truth.
• Reason, logic and science has come to oppress
truth
• Truth is dictated by power
• Human nature is socially determined
Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) Derrida is French
writer and Philosophy. His most famous work is, “Of
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH| 6
Grammatology” (1967). Deconstructionism is
attributed to him. This school of thought is a
reaction to the thought of structuralism.
Postmodernism – views reality as nothing but a
conceptual construct. Deconstructionism –
challenges traditional views in philosophy by
looking at structures of language to open up to
limitless interpretation
These claims are included in the deconstructionism
viewpoint, which Jacques Derrida developed during
the late 1960s. This challenged the traditional
notions in philosophy. Say for example, Plato
established that to find essence is to find knowledge.
In contrast Derrida argued that non-essential
elements or appearance is the basis of everything
that can be spoken or written. Compared with
modern legacy, Derrida’s approach is somehow
similar to Descartes in a way that it aims on
destruction of his beliefs to construct a new
knowledge. He just utilized it more on textual
criticism. One underlying matter regarding
postmodernism is a more democratic society where
knowledge is not held by those in power and
authority. Wherein the access to knowledge is not
only by the privileged few. It is noteworthy that
relativism (opposite of absolute truth), without much
thought can be dangerous. The idea that, “what is
true for you, may not be true for me”, loses the
opportunity for discussion since everyone can
interpret everything differently.
C. Question of Truth and Opinion In this part we
will now focus on different methods and techniques
used by philosophers to test truth claims.
I. Correspondence Theory Traced back to Plato
and Aristotle, correspondence theory believed that
true propositions are those that correspond with
reality. Say for example, it is true that someone is
your friend if that someone is really a friend to you.
So, if he/she betrays you, then your claim will be
false. This theory appears very basic and simple to
many, but this philosophy will serve as good
starting point.
II. Linguistic Turn A lot of philosophers turned to
language in resolving problems in epistemological
queries. Thus, their introduction of the context
principle which imposed that the meaning of a word
heavily relies upon the context. They also
highlighted essence in the use of sense and
reference in language and understanding meaning.
• Sense – understood as meaning. Connotation or
intention of logic. Derived in the context that the itself
provides.
• Reference – what is referred to or the denotation.
The things we point to by name.
Language gives us leverage to take about the same
things yet disagree because we might have different
meaning upon it. Say for example, we can refer to
the solar system but mean something different each
time we use it as a subject in a sentence. One can
say that, “the solar system 4 billion years old” or “The
solar is in existence for billion of years”. Both have
very similar meaning yet the senses seem to differ.
It just goes to show that we talk about things in
different way and so the challenge is to analyze the
statements in order to understand what is claimed.
This also proves the importance of context in
understanding the meaning of something.
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) Russel is
philosopher, historian, mathematician, and logician
who is known as the founder of analytical
philosophy Context Principle – It is only in the
context of a sentence that a word has a meaning
(Dummett, 1993)
Some philosophers made use of mathematical logic
to derived a more expansive understanding towards
language. Thus, the meaning of any given sentence
must be taken from the meaning of its part since the
entire sentence provides the context.
This analysis in language expands the direction of a
philosophical discussion. Philosophers who
consider themselves as logical positivist use
verification principle. They argue that meaningful
claims are only those that can be verified as true or
false. And so according to this philosophers, queries
of metaphysics (branch of philosophy concerning
about the nature of reality) seem to be meaningless
because they can’t be verified.
Another philosopher,
Ludwig Wittgenstein provides another insight as
he introduced language-games. This is from the
premise that the meaning of language is something
to be found in the way it was use. He observed that
aside from the usual meaning we attached to words,
there are also various ways we use them in
language: figuratively or metaphorically. For
Wittgenstein to understand meaning, people must
be playing the same “game”.
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH| 7
Language-Games - aside from the usual meaning
we attached to words, there are also various ways
we use them and so to understand meaning people
must be playing the same “game”.
Phenomenology – a philosophical theory which
believes that the essence of every object can be
thought of, investigated, and understood more than
the usual way of understanding it.
III. Phenomenology and Existentialism
“Consciousness is consciousness of something”.
The approach of phenomenology lies on this
premise. We can translate this as, if you are thinking
of something you are involved in it. When I say a
flower, you will have a thought about a flower. So,
can we infer that there is no objectivity in this manner
since we can’t detach ourselves from what we are
observing? Phenomenology emphasizes that we
should not be too entrapped with the parts only but
also the whole. And so, this approach pursues on
trying to make us see very phenomenon or object in
a true and purified meanings Going back to
Descartes thoughts earlier, the most important
things about existence is to give importance to the
things that your mind perceives because it proves
our existence. Edmund Husserl follows this line of
thinking, saying that there “intellectual sediment” that
remain on one’s mind unchanged which form a kind
of constitution that makes you understand the
objects that you want to perceive.
Edmund Husserl (1885 - 1938) A German
philosopher who is attributed to be the founder of
the phenomenological movement In 1913 his
published work, “A General Introduction to Pure
Phenomenology”, set motion to a new school of
thought that has influenced many until today.
“Back to the things themselves”, is a motto employed
to phenomenology. As we become to be
accustomed of the things around us, we do not
investigate any more its essence. However, as a
philosopher, we should learn to reflect upon
ourselves and ask, “what am I witnessing?” Probably
the first answers that we have are the things that we
are accustomed to believe in, but as we reflect
deeper, we can discover something more from the
phenomenon. Phenomenology invites us to think.
Let’s take a look at the two cognitive attitudes that
we usually employ:
1. Natural Attitude – when we are comfortable with
the things that we already know.
2. Transcendental Attitude – when we direct our
consciousness to investigate the essence of a
phenomenon Both of these are used in
understanding that there is something more to what
we see and know. This effort of uncovering will lead
us to arrive at the truth of every phenomenon, or
simply put, in every experience of objects (physical
or mental) because we are subjects (conscious
human beings) ourselves. Husserl idea in
phenomenology also gives rise to the taught that
everyone can know the truth themselves. If they
want to, anyone can be a phenomenologist.
So how would we integrate existentialism to
phenomenology? Existentialism was pioneered by
the revered philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre.
Existential Phenomenology, is designed to make
us see what every existing thing means to someone
who experience it by thorough reflection. In this
manner, Sartre argued that “existence precedes
essence”. He mentioned that while being to
engrossed with finding the truth often time, we forget
to engaged with the truth itself. Say for example,
’Can a fish understand how it can be a fish if it left
the water”. In existentialism the main emphasis is
that only the person could actually create meaning
which he/she is responsible of.
The existential phenomenology approach entails,
“subjectivity” because in existentialism, we create
meaning for our own self, which may vary with
others. This approach in philosophy makes us
appreciate the myriad of meanings that most people
attribute to their experience daily
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) A French novelist,
playwright and foremost existentialist philosopher.
For his works focused on freedom and
responsibility, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Literature
“An objective claim is a statement about a factual
matter-one that can be proved true or false... A
subjective claim, on the other hand, is an
expression of belief, opinion, or personal
preference.”
PHILOSOPHY 1
Philosophy is an activity people undertake when
they seek to understand fundamental truths about
themselves, the world in which they live, and their
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH| 8
relationships to the world and to each other.
Philosophical Question - a question rooted from a
bigger triggering problem or situation.
Philosophical Reflection - To think of an answer
to philosophical questions is to engage in a
philosophical reflection because it compels us to
look at a particular experience from a wider
perspective.
The Universal and the Particular
particular refers to a part of the whole, while the
universal pertains to the whole.
Example: The question “Why I am here?” can be
called a particular as it is just one among the other
questions, but when you start to think about that
question, you will find that it does not confined to a
single situation. It echoes other philosophical
questions which talk about the experiences which
this question arise, making it universal.
Intellect/Mind – best tool that we have to deal with
our problems in effectively pursuing meaning and
truth.
Philosophical question “leads into the totality of
beings” and “inquiries into the whole”. The goal is
that from a particular philosophical question, the
wholeness of reality is revealed. - b. Practical Wisdom: Knowledge in the realm of
(Heidegger 2002, The Essence of Human
Freedom, 9).
For now, you have to understand that “every
person that engages in philosophical reflection
must recognize that possible answers to
philosophical questions require adequate
justification or rational basis.”
Philosophy then will teach us how to argue and
defend our ideas and beliefs, but at the same time
being open to other possibilities as we progress in
time, collaboration with others, and truth
confrontation.
Dialectics- It is a technique to resolve
philosophical questions. Philosophical discovery is
considered as a result of collaboration with partners
in dialogue or conversation. Through dialogues,
dialectics become an effective means of examining
and evaluating truth claims.
Socrates - Socrates’ life is a puzzle because even
three recognized sources Plato, Xenophon, and
Aristophanes) on his life presented differing
accounts. He left no writings, but conversed with
people from all walks of life using question and
answer as a concrete living out of his famous
advice – “Know thyself.” His commitment to
philosophy was the reason he was condemned to
death.
B. The Philosophical Enterprise Wonder,
Knowledge, Ignorance
-Socrates says the one must admit that he is not
wise. It is ignorance that makes philosophy
possible.
-To wonder about a thing is to be more than
curious.
Aristotle: He surpassed his teacher by the number
of works he wrote and diverse fields he studied
(philosophy, biology, politics, psychology, and art).
He tutored a thirteen-year old boy who came to be
known as Alexander the Great.
According to Aristotle, wisdom can be classified as
theoretical and practical.
a.Theoretical Wisdom: To know the necessary
truths and its logical consequences
action Example: Politics and ethics
C. The Value of Philosophical Reflection
Socratic Legacy
Socrates method of philosophizing is through a
series of questioning and answering which we call
today as the -Socratic method. Socrates compelled
people to think, to defend their views, and to
account for what they know and do not know.
-The second claim about unexamined life is not
worth living happens when we fail to examine what
we think.
-The third claim, virtue is knowledge of good and
bad is the result of asking philosophical questions
upon knowing ourselves‟ thoughts and actions.
Pilosopo as a Social Critic A philosopher or
Pilosopo is someone who observes, thinks, sees
clearly, and speaks the truth. What the world needs
are people who speak truth and help in making
necessary reforms for a better future.
Summary: As a human being we are encouraged
to be aware of our environment and to make sense
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH| 9
of our experiences. To ask philosophical question is
to involve ourselves into philosophical reflection
that make us rethink our beliefs and values as well
as to be open for modification or welcome new
ideas that will draw us closer to the truth.
In the process of searching for an answer in a
philosophical question, there are methods and
techniques that ancient to modern philosophers
helped us such as the Socratic Method that up until
today is very useful as a model for discourse.
Philosophical reflection, at the end of the day,
doesn’t give us a definite answer but will open us to
more possibilities and ideas connected in a holistic
perspective.
PHILOSOPHY 2
An Exercise of Truth Making Reality as
Phenomenon Phenomenon - Phenomenon is
investigated by philosophical reflection which the
world is constituted as lived, experienced, thought
of, and understood.
-It is studied by examining it in relation of other
phenomenon - Scientific Definition and
Philosophical Reflection
The way we personally come up with the
understanding of love is rooted upon our personal
experience of the said phenomenon. It will also be
influenced by what we see in our environment: may
it be media or the values imparted to us by our
family or friends. – Truth Making
Immanuel Kant: Empiricism & Rationalism
-Our truth is based on how we perceived something
through our five basic senses.
- Empiricism – phenomenon ‘as-they-appear-to-
us’
Rationalism – phenomenon as how we process it
in our mind
Noumena - things as they really are. - Not
accessible to us.
Seeing the World in a Wider Perspective
“All Togetherness” - Humanity requires a sense
of “all-togetherness”. We have the field of science,
arts, religion, sociology or philosophy. This is
something that is not readily handed to us by the
internet.
The Role of Philosophical Reflection - With
conscious realization we can decide to continue or
divert from the path that we are taking. Fads and
popularity will not entirely sway us in our choices of
what is good for us.
Journey to Truth
Doxa – opinion
Episteme – knowledge
Epistemology – a branch of philosophy dedicated
in to the study of knowledge and the problems that
revolves around it.
I. Ancient Roots Our ancestors see truth to be
something that is only readily accessible to the
gods. Gods are seen to be the source of supreme
intelligence and possessor of all truths. And so,
man relies on their rational capacity as a tool in its
endeavor of truth.
-The quest of seeing things as they really are and
not be fooled by illusion has been a prevalent
challenge to us humans. -Use of Dialectics
Plato – “knowledge is certain and opinions are
those which are uncertain.”
- our intellect will enable us to surpass
appearances and see truth.
SYLLOGISM- a deductive argument of a certain
form where a conclusion is inferred from two
premises.
-serve as an explanation as to why the conclusion
is valid or acceptable.
II. MODERN LEGACY “Some years ago, I was
struck by the large number of falsehoods that I had
accepted as true in my childhood, and by the highly
doubtful nature of the whole edifice that I had
subsequently based on them. I realized that it was
necessary, once in the course of my life, to
demolish everything completely and start again
right from the foundations if I wanted to establish
anything at all”- Rene Descartes, First Meditation
(1641)
Rene Descartes’ DOUBT - He scrutinized every
belief... “statements that are false, doubtful or
uncertain, cannot be used as the basis for
knowledge” This left him with ideas that are clear
and certain, that no one can rationally doubt or
reject it.
III.Contemporary Period: Post-Modernism
Postmodernism deny any of the prominent
viewpoints held by their predecessors regarding
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH| 10
reality, truth, knowledge, human nature, and
language. Objective reality is nothing but a
conceptual construct.
III.Contemporary Period: Jacques Derrida:
Deconstructionism challenges traditional views in
philosophy by looking at structures of language to
open up to limitless interpretation.
Post-modernism envisions a more democratic
society where knowledge is not held by those in
power and authority. Dangers’ of postmodernism
Existentialism: “existence precedes essence” In
finding truth, engage with the truth ourselves. Only
the person could actually create meaning which
he/she is responsible for.
Phenomenology + Existentialism: Truth entails
subjectivity** based on one’s experience
(phenomenology) and how we create meaning
ourselves (existentialism). This approach in
philosophy makes us appreciate the myriad of
meanings that most people attribute to their
experience daily.

Question of Truth and Opinion:

I. Correspondence Theory: Correspondence
theory believed that true propositions are those that
correspond with reality.
II. Linguistic Turn - He Introduced context
principle which imposed that the meaning of a
word heavily relies upon the context.
•Sense – understood as meaning. Connotation or
intention of logic. Derived in the context that the
itself provides.
•Reference – what is referred to or the denotation.
The things we point to by name.
Logical Positivist: Verification Principle -
Meaningful claims are only those that can be
verified as true or false.
Language-Games - aside from the usual meaning
we attach to words, there are also various ways we
use them and so to understand meaning people
must be playing the same “game”.
III. Phenomenological Existentialism -
“Consciousness is consciousness of something.”
Phenomenology: a philosophical theory which
believes that the essence of every object can be
thought of, investigated, and understood more than
the usual way of understanding it. - “Back to the
things themselves” As we become to be
accustomed of the things around us, we do not
investigate any more its essence.
Natural Attitude – when we are comfortable with
the things that we already know.
Transcendental Attitude – when we
direct our consciousness to investigate the essence
of a phenomenon.

THE BOOK LOUNGE PH| 11