Calculus III

Ma. Isabel Rigay Toga

89
 Table of Contents
-

Module 9: Numerical Integration 89

Introduction 89
Learning Objectives 89
Lesson 1. The Midpoint Rule 89
Lesson 2. Trapezoidal Rule 92
Assessment Task 97
Summary 97
Reference 98

Module 10: Application of Integration 99

Introduction 99
Learning Objectives 99
Lesson 1. Area Between Curves 99
Lesson 2. Arc Length of a Curve 103
Assessment Task 109
Summary 110
References 111

90
 MODULE 9
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION

Introduction

The antiderivatives of many functions either cannot be expressed or cannot be

expressed easily in closed form (that is, in terms of known functions). Consequently, rather than
evaluate definite integrals of these functions directly, we resort to various techniques of
numerical integration to approximate their values. In this section we explore several of these
techniques. In addition, we examine the process of estimating the error in using these
techniques.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Approximate the value of a definite integral by using the midpoint rule;

2. Approximate the value of a definite integral by using the trapezoidal rule; and
3. Determine the absolute and relative error in using a numerical integration technique.

Lesson 1. The Midpoint Rule (Strang & Herman, 2016)

Definite integrals represent the exact area under a given curve, and Riemann sum are
used to approximate those areas. In general, any Riemann sum of a function 𝑓(𝑥) over an
𝑏
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] may be viewed as an estimate of ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 . Riemann sum of a function 𝑓(𝑥) over
an interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is obtained by selecting a partition

89
 𝑃 = {𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }, where 𝑎 = 𝑥0 < 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 < ⋯ < 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏

and a set

𝑆 = {𝑥1∗ , 𝑥2∗ , … , 𝑥𝑛∗ }, where 𝑥𝑖−1 ≤ 𝑥𝑖∗ ≤ 𝑥𝑖 for all 𝑖.

The Riemann sum corresponding to the partition 𝑃 and the set 𝑆 is given by 𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓(𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥𝑖 ,
where ∆𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖−1 , the length of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ subinterval.

The midpoint rule for estimating a definite integral uses a Riemann sum with
subintervals of equal width and the midpoints, 𝑚𝑖 , of each subinterval in place of 𝑥𝑖∗ .
Formally, we state a theorem regarding the midpoint rule as follows.

𝑏−𝑎
Assume that 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Let 𝑛 be a positive integer and ∆𝑥 = . If
𝑛
[𝑎, 𝑏] is divided into 𝑛 subintervals, each of length ∆𝑥, and 𝑚𝑖 is the midpoint of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ
subinterval, set
𝑛

𝑀𝑛 = ∑ 𝑓(𝑚𝑖 )∆𝑥
𝑖=1

then,
𝑏
lim 𝑀𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑎

As we can see in Figure 1, if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 over [𝑎, 𝑏], then ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓(𝑚𝑖 )∆𝑥 corresponds to the sum of
the areas of rectangle approximating the area between the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) and the x – axis over
[𝑎, 𝑏]. The graph shows the rectangles corresponding to 𝑀4 for a nonnegative function over a
closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏].

Figure 9.1. The Midpoint Rule approximates the area between the graph of 𝒇(𝒙) and the 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 by
summing up the areas of rectangles with midpoints that are points on 𝒇(𝒙) (Strang & Herman, 2016)

90
Example 1. Using the Midpoint Rule with 𝑀4
1
Use the midpoint rule to estimate ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 using four subintervals. Compare the result
with the actual value of this integral.
1−0 1
Solution: Each subinterval has length ∆𝑥 = = . Therefore, the subintervals consist of
4 4

1 1 1 1 3 3
[0, ] , [ , ] , [ , ] , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 [ , 1]
4 4 2 2 4 4

1 3 5 7
The midpoints of these subintervals are { , , , }. Thus
8 8 8 8
1 1 1 3 1 5 1 7
𝑀4 = ∙ 𝑓 ( ) + ∙ 𝑓 ( ) + ∙ 𝑓 ( ) + ∙ 𝑓 ( )
4 8 4 8 4 8 4 8
1 1 1 9 1 25 1 21
= ∙ + ∙ + ∙ + ∙
4 64 4 64 4 64 4 64

21
𝑀4 =
64

Since the definite integral of

1 2
𝑥3 (1)3 (0)3 1
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = | = − = ,
0 3 0 3 3 3

1 21 1
the error in this approximation is: | − | = ≈ 0.0052, and we see that the midpoint rule
3 64 192
produces an estimate that is somewhat close to the actual value of the definite integral.

Example 2. Using the Midpoint Rule with 𝑀6

31
Use midpoint rule with 𝑛 = 6 to estimate the integral ∫1 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥
3−1 2 1
Solution: Each subinterval has length ∆𝑥 = = = . Therefore, the subintervals consist of
6 6 3

4 4 5 5 7 7 8 8
[1, ] , [ , ] , [ , 2] , [2, ] , [ , ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 [ , 3]
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

7 3 11 13 5 17
The midpoints of these subintervals are { , , , , , }. Thus
6 2 6 6 2 6

1 7 1 3 1 11 1 13 1 5 1 17
𝑀6 = ∙𝑓( )+ ∙𝑓( )+ ∙𝑓( )+ ∙𝑓( )+ ∙𝑓( )+ ∙𝑓( )
3 6 3 2 3 6 3 6 3 2 3 6

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 1 6 2 6 6 2 6
= ( + + + + + )
3 7 3 11 13 5 17

1 838192
= ( )
3 255255

838192
= ≈ 1.094581236
765765

Since the definite integral of

3
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| |13 = ln(|3|) − ln(|1|) = 1.098612289 − 0 = 1.0986612289,
1 𝑥

the error in this approximation is: |1.094581236 − 1.0986612289| ≈ 0.0041, and we see that the
midpoint rule produces an estimate that is somewhat close to the actual value of the definite
integral.
Lesson 2. The Trapezoidal Rule (Strang & Herman, 2016)

We can also approximate the value of a definite integral by using trapezoids rather than
rectangles. In Figure 2, the area beneath the curve is approximated by trapezoids rather than by
rectangles.

Figure 9.2. Trapezoids may be used to approximate the area under a curve, hence approximating the
definite integral (Strang & Herman, 2016)

The trapezoidal rule for estimating definite integrals uses trapezoids rather than rectangles to
approximate the area under a curve. To gain insight into the final form of the rule, consider the

92
trapezoids shown in Figure 2. We assume that the length of each subinterval is given by Δ𝑥.
First, recall that the area of a trapezoid with a height of ℎ and bases of length 𝑏1 and 𝑏1 is given
1
by 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ℎ(𝑏1 + 𝑏2 ). We see that the first trapezoid has a height Δ𝑥 and parallel bases of
2
length 𝑓(𝑥0 ) and 𝑓(𝑥1 ). Thus, the area of the first trapezoid in Figure 2 is

1
∆𝑥(𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 )).
2

The areas of the remaining three trapezoids are

1 1 1
∆𝑥(𝑓(𝑥1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥2 )), ∆𝑥(𝑓(𝑥2 ) + 𝑓(𝑥3 )), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑥(𝑓(𝑥3 ) + 𝑓(𝑥4 )).
2 2 2

Consequently,
𝑏
1 1 1 1
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ≈ ∆𝑥(𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 )) + ∆𝑥(𝑓 (𝑥1 ) + 𝑓 (𝑥2 )) + ∆𝑥(𝑓(𝑥2 ) + 𝑓 (𝑥3 )) + ∆𝑥(𝑓(𝑥3 ) + 𝑓(𝑥4 ))
𝑎 2 2 2 2
1
After taking out a common factor of ∆𝑥 and combining like terms, we have
2

𝑏
∆𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ≈ (𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 2𝑓(𝑥1 ) + 2𝑓(𝑥2 ) + 2𝑓(𝑥3 ) + 2𝑓(𝑥4 )).
𝑎 2

Generalizing, we formally state the following rule.

𝑏−𝑎
Assume that 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over [𝑎, 𝑏]. Let 𝑛 be a positive integer and ∆𝑥 = . Let
𝑛
[𝑎, 𝑏] be divided into 𝑛 subintervals, each of length ∆𝑥, with endpoints at 𝑃 = {𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }.

Set

∆𝑥
𝑇𝑛 = (𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 2𝑓(𝑥1 ) + 2𝑓(𝑥2 ) + ⋯ + 2𝑓(𝑥𝑛−1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )).
2

Then,
𝑏
lim 𝑇𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑎

Before continuing, let’s make a few observations about the trapezoidal rule. First of all, it is
useful to note that

1
𝑇𝑛 = (𝐿𝑛 + 𝑅𝑛 ) where 𝐿𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓(𝑥𝑖−1 )∆𝑥 and 𝑅𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )∆𝑥
2

That is, 𝐿𝑛 and 𝑅𝑛 approximate the integral using the left-hand and right-hand endpoints of each
subinterval, respectively. In addition, a careful examination of Figure 3 leads us to make the

93
following observations about using the trapezoidal rules and midpoint rules to estimate the
definite integral of a nonnegative function. The trapezoidal rule tends to overestimate the value
of a definite integral systematically over intervals where the function is concave up and to
underestimate the value of a definite integral systematically over intervals where the function is
concave down. On the other hand, the midpoint rule tends to average out these errors
somewhat by partially overestimating and partially underestimating the value of the definite
integral over these same types of intervals. This leads us to hypothesize that; in general, the
midpoint rule tends to be more accurate than the trapezoidal rule.

Figure 9.3. The trapezoidal tends to be less accurate than the midpoint rule (Strang & Herman, 2016)

1
Example 1. Use the trapezoidal rule to estimate ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 using four subintervals.
1 1 3
Solution: The endpoints of the subintervals consist of elements of the set 𝑃 = {0, , , , 1} and
4 2 4
1−0 1
∆𝑥 = = . Thus,
4 4
1
1 1 1 1 3
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ≈ ∙ (𝑓(0) + 2𝑓 ( ) + 2𝑓 ( ) + 2𝑓 ( ) + 𝑓(1))
0 2 4 4 2 4

1 1 1 9
= (0 + 2 ∙ +2∙ +2∙ + 1)
8 16 4 16

11
𝑇4 = ≈ 0.3438
32

21
Example 2. Use the trapezoidal rule with 𝑛 = 2 to estimate ∫1 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥

94
 3
Solution: The endpoints of the subintervals consist of elements of the set 𝑃 = {1, , 2} and ∆𝑥 =
2
2−1 1
= . Thus,
2 2

1
1 1 1 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≈ ∙ (𝑓(1) + 2𝑓 ( ) + 𝑓(2))
0 𝑥 2 2 2

1 2 1
= (1 + 2 ∙ + )
4 3 2

1 4 1
= (1 + + )
4 3 2

1 17
= ( )
4 6

17
𝑇2 = ≈ 0.7083
24

Absolute and Relative Error

If 𝐵 is our estimate of some quantity having an actual value of 𝐴, then the absolute error
is given by | 𝐴 − 𝐵 |.

The relative error is the error as a percentage of the actual value and is given by

𝐴−𝐵
| | ∙ 100%
𝐴

Example 1. Calculating Error in the Midpoint Rule

1
Calculate the absolute and relative error in the estimate of ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 using the midpoint
rule found in Example 1 of Midpoint Rule.

1 1 21
Solution: The calculated value is ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = and our estimate from the example is 𝑀4 = .
3 64
1 21 1
Thus the absolute error is given by | 𝐴 − 𝐵 | = | − | = ≈ 0.0052.
3 64 192
The relative error is
1
192 = 1 ≈ 0.015625 ≈ 1.6%
1 64
3

95
Example 2. Calculating Error in the Trapezoidal Rule

1
Calculate the absolute and relative error in the estimate of ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 using the trapezoidal
rule found in Example 1 of Trapezoidal Rule.

1 1 11
Solution: The calculated value is ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = and our estimate from the example is 𝑇4 = .
3 32
1 11 1
Thus, the absolute error is given by | − | = ≈ 0.0104.
3 32 96

The relative error is given by

1
96 = 0.03125 ≈ 3.1%
1
3

21 17
Example 3. In example 2 of trapezoidal rule, we estimated ∫1 𝑑𝑥 to be using 𝑇2 . The actual
𝑥 24
17
value of this integral is ln 2. Using ≈ 0.7083 and ln 2 ≈ 0.6931, calculate the absolute error
24
and relative error.

Solution: The absolute error is given by |0.6931 − 0.7083| = | − 0.0152| ≈ 0.0152.

The relative error is given by

0.0152
= 0.0219 ≈ 2.19%
0.6931

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 Assessment Task 1-1

Given the following integrals,

1
1. ∫0 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

1
2. ∫0 (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥

1
3. ∫−1(2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥

3
4. ∫0 (5𝑥 + 4)𝑑𝑥

1 1
5. ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1

I. Approximate the following integrals using the midpoint rule and trapezoidal rule
with 𝑛 = 2, 𝑛 = 4, and 𝑛 = 6.

II. Determine the absolute and relative error.

Summary

We can use numerical integration to estimate the values of definite integrals when a
closed form of the integral is difficult to find or when an approximate value only of the definite
integral is needed.

97
 The most commonly used techniques for numerical integration are the midpoint rule and
trapezoidal rule. The midpoint rule approximates the definite integral using rectangular regions
whereas the trapezoidal rule approximates the definite integral using trapezoidal
approximations.

Midpoint Rule
𝑛

𝑀𝑛 = ∑ 𝑓(𝑚𝑖 )∆𝑥
𝑖=1

Trapezoidal Rule

∆𝑥
𝑇𝑛 = (𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 2𝑓(𝑥1 ) + 2𝑓(𝑥2 ) + ⋯ + 2𝑓(𝑥𝑛−1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )).
2

Absolute and Relative Error

Absolute error is given by

|𝐴−𝐵|

The relative error is the error as a percentage of the actual value and is given by

𝐴−𝐵
| | ∙ 100%
𝐴

Reference

Strang, G., & Herman, E. (2016, March 30). Calculus Volume 2. Retrieved from
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/3-6-numerical-integration

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 MODULE 10
APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION

Introduction

There is a number of methods of calculations among which are functions, differentiation

and integration. Application of Integrals is applied in various fields like Mathematics, Science,
Engineering etc. For the calculation of areas, we use majorly integrals formulas. So let us give
here a brief introduction on integrals based on the Mathematics subject to find areas under
simple curves, areas bounded by a curve and a line and area between two curves, and also the
application of integrals in finding the arc length of a curve.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Define area between curve and arc length;

2. Determine the area of a region between two curves by integrating; and
3. Determine the length of a curve between two points.

Lesson 1. Area Between Curves (Strang & Herman, 2020)

In the previous topics of integration, we developed the concept of the definite integral to
calculate the area below a curve on a given interval. In this section, we expand that idea to
calculate the area of more complex regions. We start by finding the area between two curves
that are functions of 𝑥, beginning with the simple case in which one function value is always

99
greater than the other. We then look at cases when the graphs of the functions cross. Last, we
consider how to calculate the area between two curves that are functions of 𝑦.

Let 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be continuous functions such that 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) over an interval [ 𝑎, 𝑏].
Let 𝑅 denote the region bounded above by the graph of 𝑓(𝑥), below by the graph of 𝑔(𝑥), and
on the left and right by the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏, respectively. Then, the area of 𝐑 is given by

𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
𝑎

We apply this formula in the following examples.

Example 1. If R is the region bounded above by the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4 and
𝑥
below by the graph of the function 𝑔(𝑥) = 3 − over the interval [1,4], find the area of region 𝐑.
2
Solution: The region is depicted in the following figure.

Figure 10.1 A region between two curves (Strang & Herman, 2020)

We have
𝑏 4
𝑥
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [(𝑥 + 4) − (3 − )] 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 1 2

4
3𝑥
=∫ [ + 1] 𝑑𝑥
1 2

100
 3𝑥 2 4
=[ + 𝑥] |
4 1

3(4)2 3(1)2
=[ + 4] − [ + (1)]
4 4

7
= 16 −
4

57
=
4

57
The area of the region is 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2 .
4
𝑥 2
Example 2. If R is the region bounded above by the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 9 − ( ) and
2
below by the graph of the function 𝑔(𝑥) = 6 − 𝑥 , find the area of region 𝐑.
Solution: The region is depicted in the following figure.

Figure 10.2. The region below the graph 𝒇(𝒙) and above the graph of 𝒈(𝒙) (Strang & Herman,
2020)

Here we are not given a specific interval, so it must be the case that there is a “natural” region
involved. Since the curves is a parabola and a lineWe first need to compute where the graphs of
the functions intersect. Setting 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥), we get

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)

101
 𝑥 2
9−( ) =6−𝑥
2

𝑥2
9− =6−𝑥
4

36 − 𝑥 2 = 24 − 4𝑥

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 12 = 0

(𝑥 − 6)(𝑥 + 2) = 0

The graph of the functions intersect when 𝑥 = 6 and 𝑥 = −2, so we want to integrate from −2 to
6. Since 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) for −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6, we obtain

𝑏 6
𝑥 2
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [(9 − ( ) ) − (6 − 𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 −2 2

6
𝑥2
= ∫ [3 − + 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
−2 4

𝑥3 𝑥2 6
= [3𝑥 − + ]|
12 2 −2

(6)3 (6)2 (−2)3 (−2)2

= [3(6) − + ] − [3(−2) − + ]
12 2 12 2

−10
= 18 − ( )
3

64
=
3

64
The area of the region is 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠2 .
3

Example 3. Find the area below 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 and above 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 5
over the interval 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.

102
Solution:
𝑏 2
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [(−𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3) − (−𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 5)]𝑑𝑥
𝑎 1

2
= ∫ [𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 − 2]𝑑𝑥
1

𝑥 4 8𝑥 3 2
=[ − + 7𝑥 2 − 2𝑥] |
4 3 1

(2)4 8(2)3 2
(1)4 8(1)3
=[ − + 7(2) − 2(2)] − [ − + 7(1)2 − 2(1)]
4 3 4 3

20 31
= −
3 12

49
=
12

49
The area of the region is 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2 .
12

Lesson 2. Arc Length of a Curve (Pierce & Sayid, 2020)

In this section, we use definite integrals to find the arc length of a curve. We can think of
arc length as the distance you would travel if you were walking along the path of the curve.
Many real-world applications involve arc length. If a rocket is launched along a parabolic path,
we might want to know how far the rocket travels. Or, if a curve on a map represents a road, we
might want to know how far we have to drive to reach our destination.

We begin by calculating the arc length of curves defined as functions of 𝑥, then we

examine the same process for curves defined as functions of 𝑦. (The process is identical, with
the roles of 𝑥 and 𝑦 reversed.) The techniques we use to find arc length can be extended to find
the surface area of a surface of revolution, and we close the section with an examination of this
concept.

103
 In previous applications of integration, we required the function 𝑓(𝑥) to be integrable, or
at most continuous. However, for calculating arc length we have a more stringent requirement
for 𝑓(𝑥). Here, we require 𝑓(𝑥) to be differentiable, and furthermore we require its derivative,
𝑓′(𝑥), to be continuous. Functions like this, which have continuous derivatives, are called
smooth.

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a smooth function defined over [𝑎, 𝑏]. We want to calculate the length of the
curve from the point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) to the point (𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)). We start by using line segments to
approximate the length of the curve. For 𝑖 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛, let 𝑃 = 𝑥𝑖 be a regular partition of [𝑎, 𝑏].
Then, for 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛, construct a line segment from the point (𝑥𝑖−1 , 𝑓(𝑥𝑖−1 )) to the point
(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )). Although it might seem logical to use either horizontal or vertical line segments, we
want our line segments to approximate the curve as closely as possible. Figure 3 depicts this
construct for 𝑛 = 5.

Figure 10.3. Approximate the length of a curve by adding line segments (Pierce & Sayid, 2020)

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a smooth function over the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then the arc length of the portion of
the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) from the point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) to the point (𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)) is given by

𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ∫ √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

104
 Note that we are integrating an expression involving 𝑓′(𝑥), so we need to be sure 𝑓′(𝑥) is
integrable. This is why we require 𝑓(𝑥) to be smooth. The following example shows how to apply
the formula.

Example 1. Find the length of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 between the interval [2, 3].
Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 is just a horizontal line, so its derivative is 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0, so [𝑓′(𝑥)]2 = (0)2 = 0

Figure 4. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐 (Pierce & Sayid, 2020)

𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ∫ √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

3 3
= ∫ √1 + 0 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √1 𝑑𝑥
2 2

3
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
2

The integral of 1 is x, so

3
= [𝑥] |
2

Calculate the integral

=3−2

=1

So the arc length between 2 and 3 is 1 unit.

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Example 2. Find the length of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 between the interval [2, 3].
Solution: Getting the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is 𝑓′(𝑥) = 1, so [𝑓′(𝑥)]2 = (1)2 = 1

Figure 5. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 (Pierce & Sayid, 2020)

𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ∫ √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

3
= ∫ √1 + 1 𝑑𝑥
2

3
= ∫ √2 𝑑𝑥
2

The integral of √2 𝑑𝑥 is √2 x, so
3
= [√2𝑥] |
2

Calculate the integral

= √2(3) − √2(2)
= (3 − 2)√2
= √2

Arc length is √2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠, we all know that the diagonal across a unit square really is the square
root of 2.

Example 3. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3⁄2 . Calculate the arc length of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) over the interval [0, 4].

3 3 2
Solution: Getting the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3⁄2 , we have 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑥 1⁄2 , so [𝑓′(𝑥)]2 = ( 𝑥 1⁄2 ) =
2 2
9
𝑥. Then, the arc length is
4

106
 𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ∫ √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

4
9
= ∫ √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 4

9 9
Substitute 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥. When 𝑥 = 0, then 𝑢 = 1, and when 𝑥 = 4, 𝑢 = 10. Thus,
4 4
1
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ∫ √1 + 9𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

4 1 9
= ∫ √1 + 9𝑥 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
9 0 4

4 10
= ∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑢
9 1

4 2 3⁄2 10
= ∙ 𝑢 |
9 3 1

8
= [10√10 − 1]
27

𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ≈ 9.073 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Example 4. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3⁄2 . Calculate the arc length of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) over the interval
[0, 1].
Solution: Getting the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3⁄2 , we have 𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 1⁄2 , so [𝑓′(𝑥)]2 =
2
(3𝑥 1⁄2 ) = 9𝑥. Then, the arc length is

𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ∫ √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

1
= ∫ √1 + 9𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

Substitute 𝑢 = 1 + 9𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = 9𝑑𝑥. When 𝑥 = 0, then 𝑢 = 1, and when 𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 10. Thus,
1
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ∫ √1 + 9𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

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 1 1
= ∫ √1 + 9𝑥 (9) 𝑑𝑥
9 0

1 10
= ∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑢
9 1

1 2 3⁄2 10
= ∙ 𝑢 |
9 3 1

2
= [10√10 − 1]
27

𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ≈ 2.268 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

2
Example 5. Determine the length of 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)3⁄2 between 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.
3
2
Solution: Getting the derivative of 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)3⁄2 , we have 𝑦′ = (𝑥 − 1)1⁄2 , so [𝑓′(𝑥)]2 =
3
2
((𝑥 − 1)1⁄2 ) = 𝑥 − 1. Then, the arc length is

𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ∫ √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

4
= ∫ √1 + 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥
1

4
= ∫ √𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1

4
∫ 𝑥 1⁄2 𝑑𝑥
1

Integrate, we have

2 4
= 𝑥 3⁄2 |
3 1

2
= [(4)3⁄2 − (1)3⁄2 ]
3

2
= [8 − 1]
3

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 14
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
3

Assessment Task 1-1

I. Find the area between the curves of the following problems:

1. Find the area below 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 𝑥 2 and above 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 over the interval
−2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0.

2. Find the area below 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 and above 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 over the interval −1 ≤
𝑥 ≤ 1.

3. Find the area below 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2 and above 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥.

4. Find the area below 𝑓(𝑥) = 6 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 and above 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 3.

II. Find the arc length of the curve of the following functions between the given inteval:

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 10 ; [−3, 4]

2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2 ; [2, 6]

3. 𝑓(𝑥) = −9𝑥 ; [0, 3]

4. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)3⁄2 ; [1, 5]

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 5. 𝑓(𝑥) = (10 − 2𝑥)3⁄2 ; [1, 2]

Summary

Just as definite integrals can be used to find the area under a curve, they can also be
used to find the area between two curves.

To find the area between two curves defined by functions, integrate the difference of the
functions.

Area between Two Curves, integrating on the 𝑥-axis

𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
𝑎

The arc length of a curve can be calculated using a definite integral.

Arc length of a Function of 𝑥

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 𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ∫ √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

References

Strang, G. and Herman, E. (2020). Areas Between Curves.

https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Calculus/Book%3A_Calculus_(OpenStax)/06%3
A_Applications_of_Integration/6.1%3A_Areas_between_Curves

Pierce, R. and Sayid, K. (2020 August 2). "Arc Length (Calculus)". Math Is Fun. Retrieved 7
Dec 2020 from http://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/arc-length.html

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