Calculus III

Ma. Isabel Rigay Toga

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 Table of Contents
-

Module 5: Exponential and Logarithm Functions 40

Introduction 40
Learning Objectives 40
Lesson 1. Exponential Functions 41
Lesson 2. Logarithm Functions 45
Assessment Task 56
Summary 57
References 58

Module 6: Integrals of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 59

Introduction 59
Learning Objectives 59
Lesson 1. Integrals of Exponential Functions 60
Lesson 2. Integrals of Logarithmic Functions 64
Assessment Task 68
Summary 69
References 69

Module 7: Partial Fractions 70

Introduction 70
Learning Objectives 70
Lesson 1. Adding and Subtracting Fractions 71
Lesson 2. Expressing a Fraction as the Sum of Its Partial Fractions 73
Lesson 3. Fractions Where the Denominator has a Repeated Factor 75
Lesson 4. Fractions in Which the Denominator has a Quadratic Term 77
Lesson 5. Dealing with Improper Fractions 79
Assessment Task 82
Summary 83
References 84

Module 8: Integration of Rational Functions Using Partial Fractions 85

Introduction 85
Learning Objectives 85
Lesson 1. Partial Fractions Decomposition 86
Lesson 2. Partial Fractions: Distinct Linear Factors 87
Lesson 3. Partial Fractions Where Long Division is Required 90
Lesson 4. Partial Fractions with a Repeated Linear Factor 92

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Lesson 5. Partial Fractions with a Quadratic Factor 94
Assessment Task 97
Summary 98
References 98

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 MODULE 5
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHM FUNCTIONS

Introduction

In this module we are going to look at exponential and logarithm functions. Both of these
functions are very important and need to be understood by anyone who is going on to later math
courses. These functions also have applications in science, engineering, and business to name
a few areas. In fact, these functions can show up in just about any field that uses even a small
degree of mathematics.

Many students find both of these functions, especially logarithm functions, difficult to deal
with. This is probably because they are so different from any of the other functions that they’ve
looked at to this point and logarithms use a notation that will be new to almost everyone in an
algebra class. However, you will find that once you get past the notation and start to understand
some of their properties they really aren’t too bad. Here we are going to deal about exponential
and logarithm functions and also how to solve exponential and logarithm equations.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Define exponential and logarithm functions;

2. Evaluate and apply the appropriate properties of exponential and logarithmic functions; and
3. Sketch the graph of exponential and logarithmic functions.

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Lesson 1. Exponential Functions (Jones, 1997)

The definition of exponential function is

If 𝑏 is any number such that 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1 then an exponential function is a function in
the form,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥

where 𝑏 is called the base and 𝑥 can be any real number.

Notice that the 𝑥 is now in the exponent and the base is a fixed number. This is exactly
the opposite from what we’ve seen to this point. To this point the base has been the variable, 𝑥
in most cases, and the exponent was a fixed number. However, despite these differences these
functions evaluate in exactly the same way as those that we are used to. We will see some
examples of exponential functions (Jones, 1997).

Before we get too far into this section we should address the restrictions on 𝑏. We avoid
one and zero because in this case the function would be,

𝑓(𝑥) = 0𝑥 = 0 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 1𝑥 = 1

and these are constant functions and won’t have many of the same properties that general
exponential functions have.

Next, we avoid negative numbers so that we don’t get any complex values out of the
function evaluation. For instance, if we allowed 𝑏 = −4 the function would be,

1
𝑓(𝑥) = (−4)𝑥 ⟹ 𝑓(12) = (−4)2 = √−4

and as you can see there are some function evaluations that will give complex numbers. We only
want real numbers to arise from function evaluation and so to make sure of this we require that 𝑏
not be a negative number.

Now, let’s take a look at a couple of graphs. We will be able to get most of the properties
of exponential functions from these graphs.

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 1 𝑥
Example 1. Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = ( ) on the same axis system.
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Solution: Okay, since we don’t have any knowledge on what these graphs look like we’re going
to have to pick some values of 𝑥 and do some function evaluations. Function evaluation with
exponential functions works in exactly the same manner that all function evaluation has worked
to this point. Whatever is in the parenthesis on the left we substitute into all the 𝑥’s on the right
side. Here are some evaluations for these two functions,

𝟏 𝒙
Table 5.1. Table of Values of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 and 𝒈(𝒙) = ( ) (Jones, 1997)
𝟐
𝟏 𝒙
𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 𝒈(𝒙) = ( )
𝟐
-2 1 1 1 −2 2 2
𝑓(−2) = 2−2 = 2 = 𝑔(−2) = ( ) = ( ) = 4
2 4 2 1
-1 1 1 1 −1 2 1
𝑓(−1) = 2−1 = 1 = 𝑔(−1) = ( ) = ( ) = 2
2 2 2 1
0
0 𝑓(0) = 20 = 1 1
𝑔(0) = ( ) = 1
2
1 𝑓(1) = 21 = 2 1 1 1
𝑔(1) = ( ) =
2 2
2
2 𝑓(2) = 22 = 4 1 1
𝑔(2) = ( ) =
2 4

Here is the sketch of the two graphs

𝟏 𝒙
Figure 5.1. The graph of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 and 𝒈(𝒙) = (𝟐)
Source: (Jones, 1997)
Note as well that we could have written 𝑔(𝑥) in the following way,

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 1 𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = ( ) = 2−𝑥
2

Sometimes we’ll see this kind of exponential function and so it’s important to be able to go
between these two forms.

Properties of Exponential Functions (Jones, 1997)

1. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) will always contain the point (0,1). In other words, 𝑓(0) = 1 regardless
of the value of 𝑏.

2. For every possible 𝑏 we have 𝑏 𝑥 > 0. Note that this implies that 𝑏 𝑥 ≠ 0.

3. If 0 < 𝑏 < 1 then the graph of 𝑏 𝑥 will decrease as we move from the left to right. Check
1 𝑥
out the graph of ( ) above for verification of this property.
2

4. If 𝑏 > 1 then the graph of 𝑏 𝑥 will increase as we move from left to right. Check out the
graph of 2𝑥 above for verification of this property.

5. If 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 then 𝑥 = 𝑦.

All of these properties except the final one can be verified easily from the graphs in the first
example. We will hold off discussing the final property for a couple of sections where we will
actually be using it (Jones, 1997).

In this section we need to discuss a special exponential function. In fact this is so special
that for many people this is THE exponential function. Here it is,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

where 𝑒 = 2.71828182 …. Note the difference between 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 . In the first case
𝑏 is any number that meets the restrictions given above while 𝑒 is a very specific number. Also
note that 𝑒 is not a terminating decimal (Jones, 1997).

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 This special exponential function is very important and arises naturally in many areas. As
noted above, this function arises so often that many people will think of this function if you talk
about exponential functions (Jones, 1997).

Let’s get a quick graph of this function.

Example 2. Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 .

Let’s first build up a table of values for this function.

Table 5.2. Table of Values of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 (Jones, 1997)

𝒙 -2 -1 0 1 2
𝒇(𝒙) 0.1353… 0.3679… 1 2.718… 7.389…

To get this evaluation (with the exception of 𝑥 = 0) you will need to use a calculator.

Here is a sketch of this graph.

Notice that this is an increasing graph as

we should expect since
𝑒 = 2.718281827 … > 1.

Figure 5.2. The graph of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙

Source: Jones, 1997
Example 3. Sketch the graph of 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑒 1−𝑥 − 4.

Here is the quick table of values for this function.

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 Table 5.3. Table of Values of 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟓𝒆𝟏−𝒙 − 𝟒 (Jones, 1997)
𝒙 -1 0 1 2 3
𝒇(𝒙) 32.945… 9.591… 1 -2.161… -3.323…

𝑔(−1) = 5𝑒 1−(−1) − 4
= 5𝑒 2 − 4
= 5(7.389) − 4
𝑔(−1) = 32.945 …

Notice that when evaluating exponential functions we first need to actually do the
exponentiation before we multiply by any coefficients (5 in this case). Also, we used only 3 decimal
places here since we are only graphing. In many applications we will want to use far more decimal
places in these computations (Jones, 1997).

Here is a sketch of the graph.

Figure 3. The graph of 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟓𝒆𝟏−𝒙 − 𝟒

Source: Jones, 1997

Lesson 2. Logarithm Functions (Jones, 1997)

In this section we now need to move into logarithm functions. This can be a tricky function
to graph right away. There is going to be some different notation that you aren’t used to and some
of the properties may not be all that intuitive. Here is the definition of the logarithm function (Jones,
1997).

If 𝑏 is any number such that 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1 and 𝑥 > 0 then,

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 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑥

We usually read this as “log base 𝑏 of 𝑥”.

In this definition 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 is called the logarithm form and 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑥 is called the exponential form.

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Note that the requirement that 𝑥 > 0 is really a result of the fact that we are also
requiring 𝑏 > 0. If you think about it, it will make sense. We are raising a positive number to an
exponent and so there is no way that the result can possibly be anything other than another
positive number. It is very important to remember that we can’t take the logarithm of zero or a
negative number (Jones, 1997).

Now, let’s address the notation used here as that is usually the biggest hurdle that students
need to overcome before starting to understand logarithms. First, the “log” part of the function is
simply three letters that are used to denote the fact that we are dealing with a logarithm. They are
not variables and they aren’t signifying multiplication. They are just there to tell us we are dealing
with a logarithm (Jones, 1997).

Next, the 𝑏 that is subscripted on the “log” part is there to tell us what the base is as this
is an important piece of information. Also, despite what it might look like there is no exponentiation
in the logarithm form above. It might look like we’ve got 𝑏 𝑥 in that form, but it isn’t. It just looks like
that might be what’s happening (Jones, 1997).

It is important to keep the notation with logarithms straight, if you don’t you will find it very
difficult to understand them and to work with them.

Now, let’s take a quick look at how we evaluate logarithms.

Example 1. Evaluate each of the following logarithms

a. log 4 16
Solution: Let’s convert this to exponential form log 4 16 =? ⟹ 4? = 16

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 Most people cannot evaluate the logarithm log 4 16 right off the top of their head.
However, most people can determine the exponent that we need on 4 to get 16 once
we do the exponentiation. So, since,
42 = 16
we must have the following value of the logarithm.
log 4 16 = 2

b. log 2 16
Solution: Let’s convert this to exponential form log 2 16 =? ⟹ 2? = 16
If you don’t know this answer right off the top of your head, start trying numbers. In
other words, compute 22 , 23 , 24 , etc until you get 16. In this case we need an
exponent of 4. Therefore, the value of this logarithm is,
log 2 16 = 4

c. log 6 216
Solution: log 6 216 = 3 because 63 = 216

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d. log 5
125
Solution: Now, this one looks different from the previous parts, but it really isn’t any
different. As always let’s first convert to exponential form.
1 1
log 5 =? ⟹ 5? =
125 125

First, notice that the only way that we can raise an integer to an integer power and
get a fraction as an answer is for the exponent to be negative. So, we know that the
exponent has to be negative. Now, let’s ignore the fraction for a second and ask
5? = 125. In this case if we cube 5 we will get 125. So,

1 1 1
log 5 = −3 because 5−3 = =
125 53 125

e. log 1 81
3

Solution: Converting this logarithm to exponential form gives,

1 ?
log 1 81 =? ⟹ ( ) = 81
3 3

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 Now, just like the previous part, the only way that this is going to work out is if the
exponent is negative. Then all we need to do is recognize that 34 = 81 and we can
see that,
1 −4 3 4
log 1 81 = −4 because ( ) = ( ) = 34 = 81
3 3 1

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f. log 3
2 8
27 3 3 33 27
Solution: log 3 = 3 because ( ) = =
2 8 2 23 8

Hopefully, you now have an idea on how to evaluate logarithms and are starting to get a
grasp on the notation. There are a few more evaluations that we want to do however, we need to
introduce some special logarithms that occur on a very regular basis. They are the common
logarithm and the natural logarithm. Here are the definitions and notations that we will be using
for these two logarithms.
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚: log 𝑥 = log10 𝑥
𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚: ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥

So, the common logarithm is simply the log base 10, except we drop the “base 10” part of
the notation. Similarly, the natural logarithm is simply the log base 𝑒 with a different notation and
where 𝑒 is the same number that we saw in the previous section and is defined to be 𝑒 =
2.718281828 …

Example 2. Evaluate each of the following logarithms.

a. log 1000
Solution: log 1000 = 3 because 103 = 1000

1
b. log
100
1 1 1
Solution: log = −2 because 10−2 = =
100 102 100

1
c. ln
𝑒
1 1
Solution: ln = −1 because 𝑒 −1 =
𝑒 𝑒

d. ln √𝑒

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 1 1
Solution: ln √𝑒 = because 𝑒 2 = √𝑒. Notice that with this one we are really just
2
acknowledging a change of notation from fractional exponent into radical form.

e. log 34 34
Solution: log 34 34 = 1 because 341 = 34. Notice that this one will work regardless
of the base that we’re using.

f. log 8 1
Solution: log 8 1 = 0 because 80 = 1. Again, note that the base that we’re using
here won’t change the answer.

So, when evaluating logarithms all that we’re really asking is what exponent did we put
onto the base to get the number in the logarithm. Now, before we get into some of the properties
of logarithms let’s first do a couple of quick graphs.

Example 3. Sketch the graph of the common logarithm and the natural logarithm on the same
axis system.
Solution: This example has two points. First, it will familiarize us with the graphs of the two
logarithms that we are most likely to see in other classes. Also, it will give us some practice using
our calculator to evaluate these logarithms because the reality is that is how we will need to do
most of these evaluations. Here is a table of values for the two logarithms.

Table 5.4. Table of Values for 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 and 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 (Jones, 1997)

𝒙 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙
1
−0.3010 −0.6931
2
1 0 0
2 0.3010 0.6931
3 0.4771 1.0986
4 0.6021 1.3863

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Here is a sketch of the graphs of these two functions.

Figure 4. Graph of 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 and 𝐥𝐧 𝒙

Source: (Jones, 1997)

Properties of Logarithms (Jones, 1997)

1. log 𝑏 1 = 0. This follows from the fact that 𝑏 0 = 1.

2. log 𝑏 𝑏 = 1. This follows from the fact that 𝑏1 = 𝑏.

3. log 𝑏 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑥. This can be generalized out to log 𝑏 𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).

4. log 𝑏 1 = 0. This can be generalized out to 𝑏 log𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).

Properties 3 and 4 leads to a nice relationship between the logarithm and exponential function.
Let’s first compute the following function compositions for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = log 𝑏 𝑥.

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(log 𝑏 𝑥) = 𝑏 log𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑔[𝑏 𝑥 ] = log 𝑏 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑥

Recall from the section on inverse functions that this means that the exponential and logarithm
functions are inverses of each other. This is a nice fact to remember on occasion.

We should also give the generalized version of Properties 3 and 4 in terms of both the natural
and common logarithm as we’ll be seeing those in the next couple of sections on occasion.

ln 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) log 10𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

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 𝑒 ln 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) 10log 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

Now, let’s take a look at some manipulation properties of the logarithm.

More properties of Logarithms (Jones, 1997)

5. log 𝑏 (𝑥𝑦) = log 𝑏 𝑥 + log 𝑏 𝑦

𝑥
6. log 𝑏 ( ) = log 𝑏 𝑥 − log 𝑏 𝑦
𝑦

7. log 𝑏 (𝑥 𝑟 ) = 𝑟log 𝑏 𝑥

8. If log 𝑏 𝑥 = log 𝑏 𝑦 then 𝑥 = 𝑦

We won’t be doing anything with the final property in this section; it is here only for the sake
of completeness. We will be looking at this property in detail in a couple of sections.

The first two properties listed here can be a little confusing at first since on one side we’ve
got a product or a quotient inside the logarithm and on the other side we’ve got a sum or
difference of two logarithms. We will just need to be careful with these properties and make sure
to use them correctly (Jones, 1997).

Also, note that there are no rules on how to break up the logarithm of the sum or difference
of two terms. To be clear about this let’s note the following,

log 𝑏 (𝑥 + 𝑦) ≠ log 𝑏 𝑥 + log 𝑏 𝑦

log 𝑏 (𝑥 − 𝑦) ≠ log 𝑏 𝑥 − log 𝑏 𝑦

Be careful with these and do not try to use these as they simply aren’t true.

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 Note that all of the properties given to this point are valid for both the common and
natural logarithms. We just didn’t write them out explicitly using the notation for these two
logarithms, the properties do hold for them nonetheless. Now, let’s see some examples of how
to use these properties.

Example 4. Simplify each of the following logarithms.

a. log 4 (𝑥 3 𝑦 5 )
Solution: Note that we can’t use Property 7 to bring the 3 and the 5 down into the front of
the logarithm at this point. In order to use Property 7 the whole term in the logarithm needs
to be raised to the power. In this case the two exponents are only on individual terms in
the logarithm and so Property 7 can’t be used here. We do, however, have a product
inside the logarithm so we can use Property 5 on this logarithm.
log 4 (𝑥 3 𝑦 5 ) = log 4 (𝑥 3 ) + log 4 (𝑦 5 )
Now that we’ve done this we can use Property 7 on each of these individual logarithms
to get the final simplified answer.
log 4 (𝑥 3 𝑦 5 ) = 3 log 4 𝑥 + 5log 4 𝑦
𝑥 9 𝑦5
b. log ( )
𝑧3
Solution: In this case we’ve got a product and a quotient in the logarithm. In these cases
it is almost always best to deal with the quotient before dealing with the product. Here is
the first step in this part.
𝑥9𝑦 5
log ( ) = log(𝑥 9 𝑦 5 ) − log 𝑧 3
𝑧3
Now, we’ll break up the product in the first term and once we’ve done that we’ll take care
of the exponents on the terms.

𝑥9𝑦 5
log ( ) = log(𝑥 9 𝑦 5 ) − log 𝑧 3
𝑧3
= log 𝑥 9 + log 𝑦 5 − log 𝑧 3

= 9log 𝑥 + 5log 𝑦 − 3log 𝑧

c. ln √𝑥𝑦
Solution: For this part let’s first rewrite the logarithm a little so that we can see the first
step.
1
ln √𝑥𝑦 = ln(𝑥𝑦)2

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 Written in this form we can see that there is a single exponent on the whole term and so
we’ll take care of that first.
1
ln √𝑥𝑦 = 2 ln(𝑥𝑦)
Now, we will take care of the product.
1
ln √𝑥𝑦 = 2(ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦)

1
Notice the parenthesis in this the answer. The multiplies the original logarithm and so it
2
will also need to multiply the whole “simplified” logarithm. Therefore, we need to have a
set of parenthesis there to make sure that this is taken care of correctly.

(𝑥+𝑦)2
d. log 3 ( )
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
Solution: We’ll first take care of the quotient in this logarithm.
(𝑥 + 𝑦)2
log 3 ( 2 ) = log 3 (𝑥 + 𝑦)2 − log 3 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
𝑥 + 𝑦2
We now reach the real point to this problem. The second logarithm is as simplified as we
can make it. Remember that we can’t break up a log of a sum or difference and so this
can’t be broken up any farther. Also, we can only deal with exponents if the term as a
whole is raised to the exponent. The fact that both pieces of this term are squared doesn’t
matter. It needs to be the whole term squared, as in the first logarithm. So, we can further
simplify the first logarithm, but the second logarithm can’t be simplified any more. Here is
the final answer for this problem.
(𝑥 + 𝑦)2
log 3 ( 2 ) = 2 log 3 (𝑥 + 𝑦) − log 3 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
𝑥 + 𝑦2
Now, we need to work some examples that go the other way. This next set of examples
is probably more important than the previous set. We will be doing this kind of logarithm work in
a couple of sections.

Example 5. Write each of the following as a single logarithm with a coefficient of 1.

a. 7 log12 𝑥 + 2 log12 𝑦
Solution: The first step here is to get rid of the coefficients on the logarithms. This will use
Property 7 in reverse. In this direction, Property 7 says that we can move the coefficient
of a logarithm up to become a power on the term inside the logarithm. Here is that step
for this part.
7 log12 𝑥 + 2 log12 𝑦 = log12 𝑥 7 + log12 𝑦 2

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 We’ve now got a sum of two logarithms both with coefficients of 1 and both with the same
base. This means that we can use Property 5 in reverse. Here is the answer for this part.
7 log12 𝑥 + 2 log12 𝑦 = log12 (𝑥 7 𝑦 2 )

b. 3 log 𝑥 − 6 log 𝑦
Solution: Again, we will first take care of the coefficients on the logarithms.
3 log 𝑥 − 6 log 𝑦 = log 𝑥 3 − log 𝑦 6
We now have a difference of two logarithms and so we can use Property 6 in reverse.
When using Property 6 in reverse remember that the term from the logarithm that is
subtracted off goes in the denominator of the quotient. Here is the answer to this part.
𝑥3
3 log 𝑥 − 6 log 𝑦 = log ( 6 )
𝑦

c. 5 ln(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 2 ln 𝑦 − 8 ln 𝑥
Solution: In this case we’ve got three terms to deal with and none of the properties have
three terms in them. That isn’t a problem. Let’s first take care of the coefficients and at the
same time we’ll factor a minus sign out of the last two terms. The reason for this will be
apparent in the next step.
5 ln(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 2 ln 𝑦 − 8 ln 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + 𝑦)5 − (ln 𝑦 2 + ln 𝑥 8 )

Now, notice that the quantity in the parenthesis is a sum of two logarithms and so can be
combined into a single logarithm with a product as follows,

5 ln(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 2 ln 𝑦 − 8 ln 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + 𝑦)5 − ln(𝑦 2 𝑥 8 )

Now we are down to two logarithms and they are a difference of logarithms and so we can
write it as a single logarithm with a quotient.

(𝑥 + 𝑦)5
5 ln(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 2 ln 𝑦 − 8 ln 𝑥 = ln ( )
𝑦 2𝑥 8

Change of Base (Jones, 1997)

The final topic that we need to discuss in this section is the change of base formula. Most
calculators these days are capable of evaluating common logarithms and natural logarithms.

54
However, that is about it, so what do we do if we need to evaluate another logarithm that can’t be
done easily as we did in the first set of examples that we looked at?

To do this we have the change of base formula. Here is the change of base formula.

log 𝑏 𝑥
log 𝑎 𝑥 =
log 𝑏 𝑎

where we can choose 𝑏 to be anything we want it to be. In order to use this to help us evaluate
logarithms this is usually the common or natural logarithm. Here is the change of base formula
using both the common logarithm and the natural logarithm.

log 𝑥 ln 𝑥
log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥 =
log 𝑎 ln 𝑎

Let’s see how this works with an example.

Example 6. Evaluate log 5 7.
Solution: First, notice that we can’t use the same method to do this evaluation that we did in the
first set of examples. This would require us to look at the following exponential form,

5? = 7

and that’s just not something that anyone can answer off the top of their head. If the 7 had been
a 5, or a 25, or a 125, etc. we could do this, but it’s not. Therefore, we have to use the change of
base formula.

Now, we can use either one and we’ll get the same answer. So, let’s use both and verify
that. We’ll start with the common logarithm form of the change of base.

log 7 0.845098040014
log 5 7 = = = 1.20906195512
log 5 0.698970004336

Now, let’s try the natural logarithm form of the change of base formula.

ln 7 1.94591014906
log 5 7 = = = 1.20906195512
ln 5 1.60943791243

55
So, we got the same answer despite the fact that the fractions involved different answers.

Assessment Task 1-1

56
1. Evaluate each function at the given value.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑒 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = −2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 10 ∙ 2𝑥 at 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑥 = 0
1 1 𝑥
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = ∙( ) at 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = 1
5 3
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 2𝑥+1 at 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = −2
1 𝑥
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 at 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = −3
5

2. Sketch the graph of each function:

a. 𝑦 = 5𝑥
b. 𝑦 = 2𝑒 𝑥
5 𝑥
c. 𝑦 = ( )
2
d. 𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑥−1

3. Write the following in exponential form:

a. log 3 81 = 4
1
b. log 4 = −3
64
c. log 7 7 = 1
1
d. log 1 = 3
2 8
1
e. log 𝑚 𝑛 =
2

4. Evaluate the following logarithms:

f. log 5 25
g. log 3 1
h. log 4 4
1
i. log 3
9
j. log 7 73
57

5. Write the following expressions in terms of logs of x, y, and z.

f. log 𝑥 2 𝑦
58
 4. Evaluate the following logarithms:
a. log 5 25
b. log 3 1
c. log 4 4
1
d. log 3
9
e. log 7 73

5. Write the following expressions in terms of logs of x, y, and z.

a. log 𝑥 2 𝑦
𝑥
b. log
𝑦𝑧
𝑥 2
c. log ( )
𝑦

d. log 𝑥 √𝑧
1
e. log(𝑥𝑦)3

Summary

Exponential Functions and the Number 𝒆

Data in a table of values is exponential if there is a factor by which you can multiply or
divide to get the other outputs. An exponential function is a function of the form 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 , where b>
0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ≠ 1.

If 𝑏 > 1, the graph will increase from left to right, and the function is an exponential growth
function. If 0 < 𝑏 < 1, the graph will decrease from left to right, and the function is an exponential
decay function.

To find an exponential function given points, substitute the known values into 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 and
solve the system of equations. To graph an exponential function, make a table of values.

59
 The number 𝑒 is approximately 2.72.

Evaluating Logarithms and Logarithmic Functions

To convert between exponential and logarithmic forms, identify the three key parts—the
base, the exponent, and the result. To evaluate a logarithm without a calculator, consider the
relationship in exponential form.

There are two special logarithms of note—the common log and the natural log. The
common logarithm is the log base 10. We usually write is as log 𝑥 without an explicit base. The
natural logarithm is the log base 𝑒. We write it as ln 𝑥.

To evaluate logarithms using a calculator, you can use the change of base formula,
log𝑎 𝑥
log 𝑏 𝑥 = , and choose either the common log or the natural log.
log𝑎 𝑏

Reference

Jones, J., (1997). Calculus Lecture Notes.

https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/Alg/ExpAndLog.aspx

60
 MODULE 6
INTEGRALS OF EXPONENTIAL AND
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Introduction

We already examined exponential functions and logarithms in the previous module.

However, we glossed over some key details in the previous discussions. For example, we did not
study how to treat exponential functions with exponents that are irrational. According to Strang
and Herman (2019), the definition of the number 𝑒 is another area where the previous
development was somewhat incomplete. We now have the tools to deal with these concepts in a
more mathematically rigorous way, and we do so in this section.

Exponential and logarithmic functions are used to model population growth, cell growth,
and financial growth, as well as depreciation, radioactive decay, and resource consumption, to
name only a few applications. In this section, we explore integration involving exponential and
logarithmic functions.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Apply the different rules in integrating exponential and logarithmic functions;

2. Integrate functions involving exponential functions; and
3. Integrate functions involving logarithmic functions.

61
Lesson 1. Integrals of Exponential Functions (Strang & Herman,
2019)

The exponential function is perhaps the most efficient function in terms of the operations
of calculus. The exponential function, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , is its own derivative and its own integral.

Rule: Integrals of Exponential Functions

A common mistake when dealing with exponential expressions is treating the exponent
on 𝑒 the same way we treat exponents in polynomial expressions. We cannot use the power rule
for the exponent on 𝑒. This can be especially confusing when we have both exponentials and
polynomials in the same expression. In these cases, we should always double-check to make
sure we’re using the right rules for the functions we’re integrating (Strang & Herman, 2019).

Exponential functions can be integrated using the following formulas.

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑎𝑥
∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
ln 𝑎

Finding an Antiderivative of an Exponential Function using ∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙 + 𝑪

Example 1. Find the antiderivative of the exponential function 𝑒 −𝑥 .

Solution: Use substitution, setting 𝑢 = −𝑥, and then 𝑑𝑢 = −1𝑑𝑥. Multiply the 𝑑𝑢 equation by -1,
so you now have – 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥. Then,
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= −𝑒 𝑢 + 𝐶
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶

4
Example 2. Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
𝑒 3𝑥
4 1
Solution: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 4𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑑𝑥. 𝑢 = −3𝑥 and 𝑑𝑢 = −3𝑑𝑥. Multiply the 𝑑𝑢 equation by − , so you
𝑒 3𝑥 3
1
now have – 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥. Then,
3

62
 4 1
∫ 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − (4) ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑒 3
4 𝑢
= − 𝑒 𝑑𝑢
3

4 4
∫ 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑒 −3𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑒 3

2
Example 3. Find the antiderivative of the exponential function 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 .
Solution: Using 𝑢-substitution, let 𝑢 = −𝑥 2 . Then, 𝑑𝑢 = −2𝑥𝑑𝑥, and we have

2
∫ 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= −𝑒 𝑢 + 𝐶

2 2
∫ 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶

3
Example 4. Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ 3𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
Solution: Here we choose to let 𝑢 equal the expression in the exponent on 𝑒. Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 3 and
𝑑𝑢 = 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥. Here 𝑑𝑢 is off by a constant multiplier; the original function contains a factor of 3𝑥 2 ,
1
not 6𝑥 2 . Multiply both sides of the equation by so that the integrand in 𝑢 equals the integrand in
2
𝑥. Thus,
3 1
∫ 3𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2

Integrate the expression in 𝑢 and then substitute the original expression in 𝑥 back into the 𝑢
integral:
1 1 1 3
∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝐶 = 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2 2 2

4
Example 5. Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ 2𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
Solution: Here we choose to let 𝑢 equal the expression in the exponent on 𝑒. Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 4 and 𝑑𝑢 =
4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥. Again 𝑑𝑢 is off by a constant multiplier; the original function contains a factor of 2𝑥 3 , not
1
4𝑥 2 . Multiply both sides of the equation by so that the integrand in 𝑢 equals the integrand in 𝑥.
2
Thus,
4 1
∫ 2𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2

63
Integrate the expression in 𝑢 and then substitute the original expression in 𝑥 back into the 𝑢
integral:
1 1 1 4
∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝐶 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
2 2 2

Example 6. Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 √1 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Solution: First rewrite the problem using a rational exponent:
1
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 √1 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥

Using substitution, choose 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. We have,

1 1
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢

Then,

3
1 𝑢2 2 3
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 =
2 + 𝐶 = 𝑢2 + 𝐶
3 3
2
Substitute back 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ,

2 3
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 √1 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )2 + 𝐶
3

𝒂𝒙
Finding an Antiderivative of an Exponential Function using ∫ 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = +𝑪
𝐥𝐧 𝒂

Example 1. Evaluate the integral: ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝒂𝒙
Solution: Applying the exponential rule ∫ 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = + 𝑪 with 𝑎 = 2.Then,
𝐥𝐧 𝒂

2𝑥
∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
ln(2)

3
Example 2. Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
23𝑥
3
Solution: First rewrite the problem using a rational exponent: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3(2−3𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥.
23𝑥
1
Use substitution and let 𝑢 = −3𝑥 then 𝑑𝑢 = −3𝑑𝑥. Multiply the 𝑑𝑢 equation by − , so you now
3
1
have – 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥.
3
1
∫ 3(2−3𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 (− ) ∫ 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − ∫ 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
3

64
 𝒂𝒙
Applying the exponential rule ∫ 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = + 𝑪 with 𝑎 = 2
𝐥𝐧 𝒂

2𝑢
=
ln(2)

2𝑢
− ∫ 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = −
ln(2)
Undo substitution 𝑢 = −3𝑥
2−3𝑥
=− +𝐶
ln(2)
or
3 1
∫ 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − +𝐶
2 ln(2) (23𝑥 )

3
Example 3. Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 2 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution: Using substitution, let 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 then 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 . Here 𝑑𝑢 is off by a constant multiplier; the
1
original function contains a factor of 𝑥 2 , not 3𝑥 2 . Multiply both sides of the equation by so that
3
the integrand in 𝑢 equals the integrand in 𝑥. Thus,

3 1
∫ 𝑥 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
3
𝒂𝒙
Applying the exponential rule ∫ 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = + 𝑪 with 𝑎 = 2
𝐥𝐧 𝒂

1 1 2𝑢 2𝑢
∫ 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ( )=
3 3 ln(2) 3 ln(2)
Undo substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 3
3
2 𝑥3
2𝑥
∫𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
3 ln(2)

Lesson 2. Integrals of Logarithmic Functions (Strang & Herman,

2019)

65
 Integrating functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 result in the absolute value of the natural log
function, as shown in the following rule. Integral formulas for other logarithmic functions, such as
𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥, are also included in the rule.

Rule: Integration Formulas Involving Logarithmic Functions

The following formulas can be used to evaluate integrals involving logarithmic functions:
∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝐶

∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝑥(ln 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
𝑥
∫ log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (ln 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
ln 𝑎

Finding an Antiderivative of Logarithmic Functions

1
Example 1. Find the antiderivative of the function .
𝑥+2
Solution: Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 2 so 𝑑𝑢 = 1𝑑𝑥, then use the 𝑢−1 rule, thus

1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑥+2 𝑢

1
∫ 𝑑𝑢 = ln |𝑢| + 𝐶
𝑢

Undo substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 2

1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥 + 2| + 𝐶
𝑥+2

3
Example 2. Find the antiderivative of the function .
𝑥−10
Solution: First factor the 3 out side the integral symbol. Then use the 𝑢−1 rule. Thus,

3 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 10 𝑥 − 10

66
Substitute 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 10 so that 𝑑𝑢 = 1𝑑𝑥.
𝑑𝑢
= 3∫ = 3 ln |𝑢| + 𝐶
𝑢

Undo substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 10
3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ln |𝑥 − 10| + 𝐶, 𝑥 ≠ 10.
𝑥 − 10

2𝑥
Example 3. Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 +1
Solution: Using substitution, let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 1 then 𝑑𝑢 = ln(2)(2𝑥 ). Here 𝑑𝑢 is off by a constant
multiplier; the original function contains a factor of 2𝑥 , not ln(2)(2𝑥 ). Multiply both sides of the
1
equation by so that the integrand in 𝑢 equals the integrand in 𝑥. Thus,
ln(2)
2𝑥 1 1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 +1 ln(2) 𝑢

Now solving
1
∫ 𝑑𝑢 = ln |𝑢|
𝑢

Now we have
1 1 1 ln |𝑢|
∫ 𝑑𝑢 = [ln|𝑢|] =
ln(2) 𝑢 ln(2) ln(2)

Undo substitution 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 1
2𝑥 ln |2𝑥 + 1|
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
2𝑥 + 1 ln(2)

2𝑥 3 +3𝑥
Example 4. Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥 4 +3𝑥 2
2𝑥 3 +3𝑥
Solution: ∫ 𝑥 4+3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 can be rewritten as ∫(2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥)(𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 )−1 𝑑𝑥. Use substitution, let 𝑢 =
𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 , then 𝑑𝑢 = 4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥. Alter 𝑑𝑢 by factoring out the 2. Thus,

𝑑𝑢 = (4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥)𝑑𝑥
= 2(2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥)𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑢 = (2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2

67
Rewrite the integrand in 𝑢:
1
∫(2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥)(𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 )−1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢−1 𝑑𝑢
2
Then we have
1 1
∫ 𝑢−1 𝑑𝑢 = ln |𝑢| + 𝐶
2 2

Undo substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2

2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 1
∫ 4 2 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 | + 𝐶
𝑥 + 3𝑥 2

Example 5. Evaluate ∫ ln 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Solution: According to properties of logarithms, we know that

ln 2𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + ln 2

and thus,
∫ ln 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(ln 𝑥 + ln 2)𝑑𝑥

= ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ln 2 𝑑𝑥

∫ ln 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 ln 2 + 𝐶

Example 6. Evaluate ∫ ln(2𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥.

Solution: For this problem, we use 𝑢-substitution. Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 3. Then we have 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥 or 𝑑𝑥 =
1
and the given integral can be rewritten as follows:
𝑑𝑢,
2
1
∫ ln(2𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ln 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2
1
= 𝑢(ln 𝑢 − 1) + 𝐶
2
Undo substitution 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 3
2𝑥 + 3
∫ ln(2𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥 = (ln(2𝑥 + 3) − 1) + 𝐶
2

68
Example 7. Evaluate ∫ ln(𝑥 − 2)3 𝑑𝑥.
Solution: According to the properties of logarithm, we have

∫ ln(𝑥 − 2)3 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ ln(𝑥 − 2) 𝑑𝑥

Now let 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 2. Then we have 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥, and the integral can be rewritten as follows:

∫ ln(𝑥 − 2)3 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ ln(𝑥 − 2) 𝑑𝑥

= 3 ∫ ln 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= 3𝑢(ln 𝑢 − 1) + 𝐶

∫ ln(𝑥 − 2)3 𝑑𝑥 = 3(𝑥 − 2)(ln(𝑥 − 2) − 1) + 𝐶

Example 8. Evaluate ∫ log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Solution: According to the properties of logarithms, we have

ln 𝑥
log 𝑥 =
ln 10

Hence the given integral can be rewritten as

ln 𝑥
∫ log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
ln 10

ln 𝑥 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ln 10 ln 10

𝑥
∫ log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (ln 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
ln 10

Example 9. Evaluate ∫ log 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Solution: Follow the format in the formula listed in the rule on integration formulas involving
logarithmic functions. Based on this format, we have

𝑥
∫ log 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (ln 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
ln 2

69
Assessment Task 1-1

1. Evaluate the following integrals:

3
a. ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

−2
𝑒 4𝑥
b. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3

c. ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

d. ∫ 𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

e. ∫ ln(2𝑥 − 5)2 𝑑𝑥

1
f. ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥+1
g. ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +2𝑥

2𝑥
h. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥+1)2

1
i. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥+1

j. ∫ log 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

70
 Summary

The exponential function is perhaps the most efficient function in terms of the operations
of calculus. The exponential function, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , is its own derivative and its own integral.

Integrals of Exponential Functions

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑎𝑥
∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
ln 𝑎

71
 Exponential and logarithmic functions arise in many real-world applications, especially
those involving growth and decay. Substitution is often used to evaluate integrals involving
exponential functions or logarithms.

Integration Formulas Involving Logarithmic Functions

∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝐶

∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝑥(ln 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
𝑥
∫ log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (ln 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
ln 𝑎

Reference

Strang, G. and Herman, E. (2019). Calculus Volume 1. OS Rice University. Pressbooks.

https://opentextbc.ca/calculusv1openstax/chapter/integrals-involving-exponential-and-
logarithmic-functions/

MODULE 7
PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Introduction

In algebra, the partial fraction decomposition or partial fraction expansion of a rational

fraction (that is, a fraction such that the numerator and the denominator are both polynomials) is

72
an operation that consists of expressing the fraction as a sum of a polynomial (possibly zero) and
one or several fractions with a simpler denominator (Larson, 2016).

The importance of the partial fraction decomposition lies in the fact that it provides
algorithms for various computations with rational functions, including the explicit computation of
antiderivatives, Taylor series expansions, inverse Z-transforms, inverse Laplace transforms. Both
Johann Bernoulli and Gottfried Leibniz discovered the concept independently in 1702 (Grosholz,
2000).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of the terms proper fraction and improper fraction;
2. Add and subtract rational algebraic expressions; and
3. Express an algebraic fraction as the sum of its partial fractions.

Lesson 1. Adding and Subtracting Fractions (Math Centre, 2009)

An algebraic fraction is a fraction in which the numerator and denominator are both
polynomial expressions. A polynomial expression is one where every term is a multiple of a power
of 𝑥, such as

5𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 4

The degree of a polynomial is the power of the highest term in 𝑥. So in this case the degree
is 4. The number in front of 𝑥 in each term is called its coefficient. So, the coefficient of 𝑥 4 is 5.
The coefficient of 𝑥 3 is 6.

73
 Now consider the following algebraic fractions:

𝑥 𝑥3 + 3
2
𝑥 +2 𝑥4 + 𝑥2 + 1

In both cases the numerator is a polynomial of lower degree than the denominator. We call these
proper fractions. With other fractions the polynomial may be of higher degree in the numerator or
it may be of the same degree, for example

𝑥4 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 𝑥+4
𝑥3 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑥+3

and these are called improper fractions.

Let’s now move to adding and subtracting fractions. We will now revise the process for
adding and subtracting fractions. Consider

2 1
−
𝑥 − 3 2𝑥 + 1

In order to subtract these two fractions together, we need to find the lowest common
denominator. In this particular case, it is (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1). We write each fraction with this
denominator.

2 2(2𝑥 + 1) 1 𝑥−3
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1) 2𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1)

so

2 1 2(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑥−3
− = −
𝑥 − 3 2𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1)

The denominators are now the same so we can simply subtract the numerators and divide the
result by the lowest common denominator to give

2 1 4𝑥 + 2 − 𝑥 + 3 3𝑥 + 5
− = =
𝑥 − 3 2𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1)

Sometimes in mathematics we need to do this operation in reverse. In calculus, for instance, or

when dealing with the binomial theorem, we sometimes need to split a fraction up into its
component parts which are called partial fractions. We discuss how to do this in the following
section.

74
 Another example, let’s add

7 4
+ 2
3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 3𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2

In order to add these two fractions together, we need to find the lowest common denominator. In
this case, we will factor our first both the denominators, so we have

7 4 7 4
+ 2 = +
3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 3𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2 (3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) (3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)

LCD will be (3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1), so we have

7(𝑥 + 1) + 4(𝑥 − 1)
=
(3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)

Simplify the numerator,

7𝑥 + 7 + 4𝑥 − 4
=
(3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
7 4 11𝑥 + 3
+ =
3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 (3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)

Lesson 2. Expressing a Fraction as the Sum of Its Partial

Fractions (Math Center, 2009)

In the previous section we saw that

2 1 3𝑥 + 5
− =
𝑥 − 3 2𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1)
3𝑥+5
Suppose we start with . How can we get this back to its component parts? By inspection
(𝑥−3)(2𝑥+1)

of the denominator we see that the component parts must have denominators of 𝑥 − 3 and 2𝑥 + 1
so we can write

3𝑥 + 5 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 3 2𝑥 + 1

75
where A and B are numbers. A and B cannot involve 𝑥 or powers of 𝑥 because otherwise the
terms on the right would be improper fractions. The next thing to do is to multiply both sides by
the common denominator (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1). This gives

(3𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1) 𝐴(𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1) 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1)

= +
(𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑥−3 2𝑥 + 1

Then cancelling the common factors from the numerator and denominators of each term gives

(3𝑥 + 5) = 𝐴(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)

Now this is an identity. This means that it is true for any values of 𝑥, because of this we can
1
substitute any values of 𝑥 we choose into it. Observe that if we let 𝑥 = − the first term on the
2
right will become zero and hence A will disappear. If we let 𝑥 = 3 the second term on the right will
become zero and hence B will disappear.

1
If 𝑥 = −
2

(3𝑥 + 5) = 𝐴(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)

3 1 1
(− + 5) = 𝐴 (2 (− ) + 1) + 𝐵((− ) − 3)
2 2 2
7 7
=− 𝐵
2 2

from which

𝐵 = −1

Now we want to try to find A.

If 𝑥 = 3

(3(3) + 5) = 𝐴(2(3) + 1) + 𝐵((3) − 3)

14 = 7𝐴

so that

𝐴=2

Putting these results together we have

3𝑥 + 5 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 3 2𝑥 + 1

76
 2 1
= −
𝑥 − 3 2𝑥 + 1

which is the sum that we started with, and we have now broken the fraction back into its
component parts called partial fractions. The process of doing this is called partial fractions and
the result is often called the partial fraction decomposition (Math Centre, 2009).

The process can be a little long and on occasion messy, but it is actually fairly simple. We
will start by trying to determine the partial fraction decomposition of,

𝑃(𝑥)
𝑄(𝑥)

where both 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials and the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) is smaller than the
degree of 𝑄(𝑥). Partial fractions can only be done if the degree of the numerator is strictly less
than the degree of the denominator (Jones, 1997).

3𝑥
Another example: Suppose we want to express as the sum of its partial fractions.
𝑥 2 +𝑥−2
Observe that the factors in the denominator are 𝑥 − 1 and 𝑥 + 2 so we write

3𝑥 3𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
= = +
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2

where A and B are numbers. We multiply both sides by the common denominator (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)

3𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)

This time the special values that we shall choose are 𝑥 = −2 because then the first term on the
right will become zero and A will disappear, and 𝑥 = 1 because then the second term on the right
will become zero and B will disappear.

If 𝑥 = −2 −6 = −3𝐵

−6
𝐵=
−3
𝐵=2

If 𝑥 = 1 3 = 3𝐴

𝐴=1

77
Putting these results together we have

3𝑥 1 2
= +
𝑥2 +𝑥−2 𝑥−1 𝑥+2

and we have expressed the given fraction in partial fractions.

Lesson 3. Fractions Where the Denominators has a Repeated

Factor (Math Center, 2009)

Sometimes the denominator is more awkward as we shall see in this section. Consider
the following example in which the denominator has a repeated factor.

3𝑥+1
Suppose we want to express (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥+2)
as the sum of its partial fractions. There are

usually three possibilities for a denominator in the partial fractions: 𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 + 2 and also the
possibility of (𝑥 − 1)2 , so in this case we write

3𝑥 + 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2 = + 2 +
(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥+2

where A, B and C are numbers (Math Centre, 2009).

As before we multiply both sides by the denominator (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 2) to give

3𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)2

Again we look for special values to substitute into this identity. If we let 𝑥 = 1 then the first and
last terms on the right will be zero and A and C will disappear. If we let 𝑥 = −2 the first and
second terms will be zero and A and B will disappear.

4
If 𝑥 = 1 4 = 3𝐵 so that 𝐵=
3

5
If 𝑥 = −2 −5 = 9𝐶 so that 𝐶=−
9

We now need to find A. There is no special value of 𝑥 that will eliminate B and C to give us A. We
could use any value. We could use x = 0. This will give us an equation in A, B and C. Since we
already know B and C, this would give us A.

78
But here we shall demonstrate a different technique - one called equating coefficients (Jones,
1997). We take 3𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)2 and multiply-out the right-hand
side, and then collect up like terms.

3𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)2

= 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)

= 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑥 − 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 + 2𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 2 − 2𝐶𝑥 + 𝐶

= (𝐴 + 𝐶)𝑥 2 + (𝐴 + 𝐵 − 2𝐶)𝑥 + (−2𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 𝐶)

This is an identity, which is true for all values of 𝑥. On the left-hand side there are no terms
involving 𝑥 2 whereas on the right we have (𝐴 + 𝐶)𝑥 2 . The only way this can be true is if

𝐴+𝐶 = 0
5 5
This is called equating coefficients of 𝑥 2 . We already know that 𝐶 = − so this means that 𝐴 = .
9 9
4
We also already know that 𝐵 = . Putting these results together we have
3

3𝑥 + 1 5 4 5
2 = + 2 −
(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 2) 9(𝑥 − 1) 3(𝑥 − 1) 9(𝑥 + 2)

and the problem is solved.

Lesson 4. Fractions in Which the Denominator has a Quadratic

Term (Math Centre, 2009)

Sometimes we come across fractions in which the denominator has a quadratic term,
which cannot be factorized. We will now learn how to deal with cases like this.

Example 1. Suppose we want to express

5𝑥
(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)

as the sum of its partial fractions.

79
Note that the two denominators of the partial fractions will be 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑥 − 2. When the
denominator contains a quadratic factor we have to consider the possibility that the numerator
can contain a term in 𝑥. This is because if it did, the numerator would still be of lower degree than
the denominator - this would still be a proper fraction. So we write

5𝑥 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶
= +
(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 2

As before we multiply both sides by the denominator (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) to give

5𝑥 = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)

One special value we could use is 𝑥 = 2 because this will make the first term on the right-hand
side zero and so A and B will disappear.

10
If 𝑥 = 2 10 = 7𝐶 and so 𝐶=
7

Unfortunately there is no value we can substitute which will enable us to get rid of C so instead
we use the technique of equating coefficients. We have

5𝑥 = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)

= 𝐴𝑥 2 − 2𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 − 2𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐶

= (𝐴 + 𝐶)𝑥 2 + (−2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥 + (−2𝐵 + 𝐶)

We still need to find A and B. There is no term involving 𝑥 2 on the left and so we can state that

𝐴+𝐶 = 0
10 10
Since 𝐶 = we have 𝐴 = − .
7 7

The left-hand side has no constant term so

𝐶
−2𝐵 + 𝐶 = 0 so that 𝐵=
2

10 5
But since 𝐶 = then 𝐵 = . Putting all these results together we have
7 7

10 5 10
5𝑥 − 𝑥+
= 2 7 7 + 7
2
(𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 2

5(−2𝑥 + 1) 10
= 2 +
7(𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1) 7(𝑥 − 2)

80
Example 2. Express the following as a sum of partial fractions

13
(2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 + 1)

The two denominators of the partial fractions will be 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑥 2 + 1. The denominator contains
a quadratic factor so we have to consider the possibility that the numerator contain a term 𝑥. So
we have
13 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= +
(2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 + 1) 2𝑥 + 3 𝑥 2 + 1

Multiply both sides by the common denominator we have

13 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(2𝑥 + 3)

3
One special value we could use is 𝑥 = − because this will make the second term on the right-
2
hand side zero and so B and C will disappear.

3 13
If 𝑥 = − 13 = 𝐴 and so 𝐴=4
2 4

Unfortunately there is no value we can substitute which will enable us to get rid of A so instead
we use the technique of equating coefficients. We have

13 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(2𝑥 + 3)

13 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴 + 2𝐵𝑥 2 + 3𝐵𝑥 + 2𝐶𝑥 + 3𝐶

13 = (𝐴 + 2𝐵)𝑥 2 + (3𝐵 + 2𝐶)𝑥 + (𝐴 + 3𝐶)

We still need to find B and C. There is no term involving the 𝑥 2 on the left and so we can state
that

𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 0

Since 𝐴 = 4 we have 𝐵 = −2.

There is no term involving the 𝑥 also on the left and so

3𝐵
3𝐵 + 2𝐶 = 0 so that 𝐶=−
2

81
But since 𝐵 = −2, then 𝐶 = 3. Putting all these results together we have

13 4 −2𝑥 + 3
2 = + 2
(2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1) 2𝑥 + 3 𝑥 +1

4 2𝑥 − 3
= − 2
2𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + 1

Lesson 5. Dealing with Improper Fractions (Math Centre, 2009)

So far we have only dealt with proper fractions, for which the numerator is of lower degree
than the denominator. We now look at how to deal with improper fractions.

Consider the following examples.

4𝑥 3 +10𝑥+4
Example 1. Suppose we wish to express in partial fractions.
2𝑥 2 +𝑥

The numerator is of degree 3. The denominator is of degree 2. So this fraction is improper. This
means that if we are going to divide the numerator by the denominator we are going to divide a
term in 𝑥 3 by one in 𝑥 2 , which gives rise to a term in 𝑥. Consequently we express the partial
fractions in the form:

4𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 + 4 4𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 + 4 𝐶 𝐷
2 = = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 + +
2𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 2𝑥 + 1

Multiplying both sides by the denominator 𝑥(2𝑥 + 1)

4𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 + 4 = 𝐴𝑥 2 (2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐷𝑥

Note that by substituting the special value 𝑥 = 0, all terms on the right except the third will be
1
zero. If we use the special value 𝑥 = − all terms on the right except the last one will be zero.
2

If 𝑥 = 0 4=𝐶

1 4 10 1
If 𝑥 = − − − +4= − 𝐷
2 8 2 2

82
 3 1
− =− 𝐷
2 2

𝐷=3

Special values will not give A or B so we shall have to equate coefficients.

4𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 + 4 = 𝐴𝑥 2 (2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐷𝑥

= 2𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝐴𝑥 2 + 2𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 2𝐶𝑥 + 𝐶 + 𝐷𝑥

4𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 + 4 = 2𝐴𝑥 3 + (𝐴 + 2𝐵)𝑥 2 + (𝐵 + 2𝐶 + 𝐷)𝑥 + 𝐶

Now look at the term in 𝑥 3 .

2𝐴 = 4 so that 𝐴=2

Now look at the term 𝑥 2 . There is no such term on the left. So

−𝐴
𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 0 so that 𝐵= so that 𝐵 = −1
2

Putting all these results together gives

4𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 + 4 4 3
2 = 2𝑥 − 1 + +
2𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 2𝑥 + 1

Another way of dealing with improper fractions is to perform first a long division (or any
method of dividing polynomials you are most comfortable to use) and follow this with partial
fractions of the remaining proper fraction. Using the same improper fraction,

4𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 + 4 11𝑥 + 4
2 = 2𝑥 − 1 + 2
2𝑥 + 𝑥 2𝑥 + 𝑥

The remaining proper fraction can be expanded as

11𝑥 + 4 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑥(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 2𝑥 + 1

Multiplying both sides of the equation by the common denominator 𝑥(2𝑥 + 1), we have

11𝑥 + 4 = 𝐴(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥
1
Taking 𝑥 = − will make the first term on the right-hand side of the equation zero and will give us
2

1 1
11 (− ) + 4 = 0 + 𝐵 (− )
2 2

83
 3 1
− =− 𝐵
2 2

so 𝐵 = 3. And taking 𝑥 = 0 will make the second term on the right-hand side of the equation zero.
Thus, we have

11(0) + 4 = 𝐴(2(0) + 1) + 𝐵(0)

so 𝐴 = 4. Putting all these results together we have

4𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 + 4 11𝑥 + 4 𝐴 𝐵
2 = 2𝑥 − 1 + 2 = 2𝑥 − 1 + +
2𝑥 + 𝑥 2𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 2𝑥 + 1

4𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 + 4 4 3
2 = 2𝑥 − 1 + +
2𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 2𝑥 + 1

which is the same with the first method.

Assessment Task 1-1

84
Find the partial fraction decomposition of the following: (Show your solution)
−5𝑥+4
1.
𝑥 2 −𝑥

−2𝑥 2 +4𝑥+14
2.
𝑥 2 −6𝑥+5

−7𝑥−15
3.
𝑥 2 −6𝑥+5

−6𝑥 2 +3𝑥+5
4.
𝑥 3 −𝑥

−2𝑥 3 +36𝑥 2 −199𝑥+375

5.
𝑥(𝑥−5)3

15𝑥 2 −11𝑥−5
6.
𝑥(𝑥+1)(2𝑥−5)

𝑥 2 +3𝑥−1
7.
(𝑥−2)(𝑥 2 +5)

6𝑥 3 +5𝑥 2 −7
8.
3𝑥 2 −2𝑥−1

7𝑥−25
9.
(𝑥−3)(𝑥−4)

1
10.
𝑥 4 (𝑥+1)

85
 Summary
𝑃(𝑥)
Partial Fraction Decomposition is used when we have a fraction, , where P,
𝑄(𝑥)
Q are polynomials, and the degree of P is less than the degree of Q. NOTE: If the degree of the
numerator is larger than the denominator, then perform long division first. Assume Q is fully
factored. We have 4 cases that we will consider:

86
Case I: Q has distinct linear factors,
𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 )(𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 ) … (𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 )
Then:
𝑃(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
= + +⋯+
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛

Case II: Q has some repeated linear factors. Let 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 be repeated 𝑟 times. Then, instead of
𝐴1
the single term , we have one term for each successive power in the denominator:
(𝑎1 𝑥+𝑏1 )

𝐵1 𝐵2 𝐵𝑟
+ 2 + ⋯+
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 ) (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 )𝑟

Case III: Q has some irreducible quadratic factors, not repeated. Let 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 be an
irreducible quadratic factor for Q. Then the decomposition will have the term:

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
𝑎𝑥 2+ 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

Case IV: Q has some irreducible quadratic factors, some repeated. Suppose that 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is
a repeated quadratic factor (repeated 𝑟 times). Then, instead of the single expression in Case III,
we will have:
𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴𝑟 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑟
+ + ⋯ +
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)2 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑟

References

Math Centre, (2009). Partial Fractions.

https://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/mc-ty-partialfractions-2009-1.pdf

Jones, J., (1997). Calculus Lecture Notes.

https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/alg/partialfractions.aspx

87
Larson, R. (2016). Algebra and Trigonometry. Cengage Learning.

Grosholz, E. (2000). The Growth of Mathematical Knowledge. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p.

179

MODULE 8
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS USING
PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Introduction

88
 In this section, we will deal with integrating partial fraction decomposition wherein we will
decompose a given rational expression into simpler fractions. In other words, if I am given a single
complicated fraction, my goal is to break it down into a series of “smaller” components or parts.
This can help solve the more complicated fraction and is very useful in getting integrals of rational
functions. In this module, we will go to the different ways of partial fractions, which includes distinct
linear factors, long division, repeated linear factor and irreducible quadratic factor.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Define partial fractions decomposition;

2. Identify simple linear factors, repeated linear factors and quadratic factors in a rational
function; and
3. Integrate a rational function using the method of partial fractions.

Lesson 1. Partial Fractions Decomposition

We will introduce a method for rewriting certain rational functions that is very useful in
integration as well as in other applications. We begin with a simple observation. Note that

3 2 3(𝑥 − 5) − 2(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 19
− = = 2
𝑥+2 𝑥−5 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 5) 𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 10

Suppose that you wanted to evaluate the integral of the function on the right-hand side of the
equation, while it’s not clear how to evaluate this integral, the integral of the (equivalent) function

89
on the left-hand side of the equation is easy to evaluate (Jones, 1997). From the equation, we
now have

𝑥 − 19 3 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ln |𝑥 + 2| − 2 ln|𝑥 − 5| + 𝐶
𝑥2 − 3𝑥 − 10 𝑥+2 𝑥−5

The second integrand,

3 2
−
𝑥+2 𝑥−5

is called a partial fractions decomposition of the first integrand (Jones, 1997).

Smith & Minton (2008) stated that, if the three factors 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 , and 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 are
all distinct (none is a constant multiple of another), then we write

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝐴 𝐵
= + ,
( 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 )(𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 ) 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3

for some choice of constants A and B to be determined. Notice that if you wanted to integrate this
expression, the partial fractions on the right-hand side are very easy to integrate, just as they
were in the introductory example just presented (Jones, 1997)

Lesson 2. Partial Fractions: Distinct Linear Factors

Two Distinct Linear Factors

1
Example 1. Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 +𝑥−2
Solution: We can make a partial fractions decomposition, as follows,

1 1 𝐴 𝐵
= = +
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2

90
Multiplying both sides of this equation by the common denominator (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2), we get

1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)

We would like to solve this equation for A and B. The key is to realize that this equation must hold
for all 𝑥, including 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −2. [We single out these two values because they will make one
or the other of the terms in 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1) zero and hereby allow us to easily solve for
the unknowns A and B] (Jones, 1997). In particular, for 𝑥 = 1, notice that from 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) +
𝐵(𝑥 − 1), we have
1 = 𝐴(1 + 2) + 𝐵(1 − 1) = 3𝐴

1
so that 𝐴 = . Likewise, taking 𝑥 = −2, we have
3

1 = 𝐴(−2 + 2) + 𝐵(−2 − 1) = −3𝐵

1
so that 𝐵 = − . Thus, we have
3

1 1 1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [ ( )− ( )] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 3 𝑥−1 3 𝑥+2

1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥 − 1| − ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝐶
𝑥2 +𝑥−2 3 3

2𝑥+3
Example 2. Evaluate the integral ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −9
Solution: We decompose the integrand into partial fractions:

2𝑥 + 3 2𝑥 + 3 𝐴 𝐵
2 = = +
𝑥 − 9 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 3

Multiplying both side by the common denominator(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3), we get

2𝑥 + 3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)
Taking 𝑥 = 3, we have
2(3) + 3 = 𝐴(3 + 3) + 𝐵(3 − 3)

91
 9 = 6𝐴
3
𝐴=
2
Taking 𝑥 = −3, we have
2(−3) + 3 = 𝐴(−3 + 3) + 𝐵(−3 − 3)

−3 = −6𝐵
1
𝐵=
2
The integral is equal to
2𝑥 + 3 3 1 1 1
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [ ( )+ ( )] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −9 2 𝑥−3 2 𝑥+3

3 1 1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥−3 2 𝑥+3

2𝑥 + 3 3 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥 − 3| + ln |𝑥 + 3| + 𝐶
𝑥 −9 2 2

𝑥−19
We can do the same as we did in example ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 whenever a rational expression has a
𝑥 −3𝑥−10
denominator that factors into 𝑛 distinct linear factors, as follows. Smith & Minton (2008) expressed
that if the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) < 𝑛 and the factors (𝑎𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑖 ), for 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 are all distinct, then we
can write
Partial Fractions: Distinct Linear Factors

𝑃(𝑥) 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐𝑛
= + + ⋯+
(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 )(𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 ) … (𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 ) 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛

for some constant 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 .

Three Distinct Linear Factors

3𝑥 2 −7𝑥−2
Example 1. Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 −𝑥

Solution: We can rewrite the integrand using partial fractions, we have

3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 2 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
3
= = + +
𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1

92
Multiplying by the common denominator 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1), we get

3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶𝑥(𝑥 − 1)

In this case, notice that taking 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1 will make two of the three terms on the right
side of 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶𝑥(𝑥 − 1) zero. Specifically, for 𝑥 = 0, we
get
−2 = 𝐴(−1)(1) = −𝐴

so that 𝐴 = 2. Likewise, taking 𝑥 = 1, we find 𝐵 = −3 and taking 𝑥 = −1, we find 𝐶 = 4. Thus, we

have
3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 2 2 3 4
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑥−1 𝑥+1

3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ln|𝑥 | − 3 ln|𝑥 − 1| + 4 ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
𝑥3 − 𝑥

𝑥 2 +4
Example 2. Evaluate the following integral ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 −4𝑥

Solution: We won’t be putting as much detail into this solution as we did in the previous example.
According to Strang and Herman (2020), the first thing we need to do is to factor the denominator
and to get the form of the partial fraction decomposition.

𝑥2 + 4 𝑥2 + 4 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
3 2 = = + +
3𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 + 2)(3𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 𝑥 + 2 3𝑥 − 2

The next step is to set numerators equal.

𝑥 2 + 4 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2)(3𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵𝑥(3𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶𝑥(𝑥 + 2)

As with the previous example it looks like we can just pick a few values of 𝑥 and find the constant
so let’s do that

𝑥=0 ∶ 4 = 𝐴(2)(−2) ⟹ 𝐴 = −1
1
𝑥 = −2 ∶ 8 = 𝐵(−2)(−8) ⟹ 𝐵=
2
2 40 2 8 40 5
𝑥= ∶ = 𝐶( )( ) ⟹ 𝐶= =
3 9 3 3 16 2
93
Now let’s do the integral

𝑥2 + 4 1 1 1 5 1
∫ 3 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [− + ( )+ ( )] 𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥+2 2 3𝑥 − 2

𝑥2 + 4 1 5
∫ 3 2 𝑑𝑥 = − ln|𝑥 | + ln|𝑥 + 2| + ln|3𝑥 − 2| + 𝐶
3𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 2 6

5
Note that the coefficient is correct, make sure you do the substitution required for the term
6
properly.

Lesson 3. Partial Fractions Where Long Division is Required

(Smith & Minton, 2008)

If the numerator of a rational expression has the same or higher degree that the
denominator, you must first perform a long division and follow this with a partial fractions
decomposition of the remaining proper fraction (Smith & Minton, 2008).

2𝑥 3 −4𝑥 2 −15𝑥+5
1. Find the indefinite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) = using partial fractions decomposition.
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−8

Solution: Since the degree of the numerator exceeds that of the denominator, first thing we do is
we divide. (You should perform the division however you are most comfortable.) Thus, we have

2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 + 5 𝑥+5
𝑓(𝑥) = 2 = 2𝑥 + 2
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 8

The remaining proper fraction can be expanded as

𝑥+5 𝑥+5 𝐴 𝐵
= = +
𝑥2 − 2𝑥 − 8 (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 + 2

3 1
It is a simple matter to solve for the constant: 𝐴 = and 𝐵 = − . We now have
2 2

94
 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 + 5 3 1 1 1
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [2𝑥 + ( )− ( )] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 8 2 𝑥−4 2 𝑥+2

2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 + 5 3 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + ln|𝑥 − 4| − ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝐶
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 8 2 2

𝑥+2
Example 2. Find the integral ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1

Solution: As the rational in the integrand is improper we perform a long division to get

𝑥+2 3
=1+
𝑥−1 𝑥−1

Now we can easily evaluate the integral:

𝑥+2 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥−1

1
= ∫ 1𝑑𝑥 + 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1

𝑥+2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 3 ln|𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶
𝑥−1

Lesson 4. Partial Fractions with a Repeated Linear Factor (Smith

& Minton, 2008)

You may already have begun to wonder what happens when the denominator of a rational
expression contains repeated linear factors, such as

2𝑥 + 3
(𝑥 − 1)2

In this case, the decomposition looks like the following. If the degree 𝑃(𝑥) is less than 𝑛,
then we can write

95
Partial Fractions: Repeated Linear Factors

𝑃(𝑥) 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐𝑛
𝑛 = + 2 + ⋯+
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛

for constant 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 to be determined.

Example 1. Use a partial fractions decomposition to find an antiderivative of

5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 6
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥

Solution: First, note that there is a repeated linear factor in the denominator. We have

5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 6 5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 6 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
3 2 = 2 = + +
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)2

Multiplying by the common denominator 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)2 , we have

5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 6 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶𝑥

Taking 𝑥 = 0, we find 𝐴 = 6. Likewise, taking 𝑥 = −1, we find 𝐶 = 9. To determine 𝐵, substitute

any convenient value for 𝑥, say 𝑥 = 1. (Unfortunately, notice that there is no choice of 𝑥 that will
make the two terms containing 𝐴 and 𝐶 both zero, without also making the term containing 𝐵
zero). You should find that 𝐵 = −1. So, we have

5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 6 6 1 9
∫ 3 2 = ∫[ − + ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)2

5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 6
∫ = 6 ln |𝑥| − ln|𝑥 + 1| − 9(𝑥 + 1)−1 + 𝐶
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥

𝑥 2 −𝑥+1
Example 2. Integrate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥+1)3

Solution: Decompose into partial fractions (there is a repeated linear factor), getting

96
 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ + 2 + 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 1)3

Multiplying by the common denominator (𝑥 + 1)3 , we have

𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶

Let

𝑥 = −1 ∶ 3 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵(0) + 𝐶 ⟹ 𝐶=3

𝑥=0 ∶ 1 = 𝐴(1) + 𝐵(1) + 𝐶 ⟹ 1= 𝐴+𝐵+3 ⟹ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = −2
𝑥=1 ∶ 1 = 𝐴(4) + 𝐵(2) + 𝐶 ⟹ 1 = 4𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 3 ⟹ 2𝐴 + 𝐵 = −1

it follows that 𝐵 = −3 and 𝐴 = 1

Now, let’s do the integral

𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1 1 −3 3
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( + 2 + ) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 1)3

(𝑥 + 1)−1 (𝑥 + 1)−2
= ln |𝑥 + 1| − 3 +3 +𝐶
(−1) (−2)

𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1 3 3
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥 + 1| + − +𝐶
(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 1 2(𝑥 + 1)2
Lesson 5. Partial Fractions with a Quadratic Factor
We can extend the notion of partial fractions decomposition to rational expressions with
denominators containing irreducible quadratic factors (quadratic factors that have no real
factorization) (Smith & Minton, 2008). If the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) is less than 2𝑛 (the degree of the
denominator) and all of the factors in the denominator are distinct, then we can write

Partial Fractions: Irreducible Quadratic Factors

𝑃(𝑥)
(𝑎1 𝑥2 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 )(𝑎2 𝑥2 + 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑐2 ) … (𝑎𝑛 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑛 )

97
 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛
= 2 + 2 + ⋯+
(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 ) (𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑐2 ) (𝑎𝑛 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑛 )

2𝑥 2 −5𝑥+2
Example 1. Use partial fractions decomposition to find the antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 3 +𝑥
Solution: First, note that
2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= = + 2
𝑥3 + 𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 +1

Multiplying through by the common denominator 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) gives us

2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)𝑥

= (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐴

Rather than substitute numbers for 𝑥 (notice that there are no convenient values to plug in, except
for 𝑥 = 0), we instead match up the coefficients of like powers of 𝑥:

2= 𝐴+𝐵
−5 = 𝐶
2=𝐴

This leaves us with 𝐵 = 0 and so,

2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 2 5
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 +1

2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ln|𝑥 | − 5𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥3 + 𝑥

Note: Jones (1997) said that one integration formula we can used to solved the previous problem
is

1 1 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝐶
𝑥2 +𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎

that is why

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 5
∫− 𝑑𝑥 = −5𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥2 +1

Example 2. Use partial fractions decomposition to find the antiderivative of

𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 36
𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 4)2

Solution: Let’s first get the general form of the partial fraction decomposition.

𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 36 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸
= + +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 4)2 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 2 + 4 (𝑥 2 + 4)2

Now, set numerators equal, expand the right side and collect like terms.

𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 36 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 4)2 + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 4) + (𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸)(𝑥 − 1)

= (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 4 + (𝐶 − 𝐵)𝑥 3 + (8𝐴 + 4𝐵 − 𝐶 + 𝐷)𝑥 2 + (−4𝐵 + 4𝐶 − 𝐷 + 𝐸)𝑥 + 16𝐴 − 4𝐶 − 𝐸

Setting coefficients equals the following system. (Use elimination or substitution to solve for
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, and 𝐸.)
𝑥4 ∶ 𝐴+𝐵 =0
𝑥3 ∶ 𝐶−𝐵 =1
𝑥 2 ∶ 8𝐴 + 4𝐵 − 𝐶 + 𝐷 = 10 ⟹ 𝐴 = 2, 𝐵 = −2, 𝐶 = −1, 𝐷 = 1, 𝐸 = 0
𝑥 1 ∶ −4𝐵 + 4𝐶 − 𝐷 + 𝐸 = 3
𝑥0 ∶ 16𝐴 − 4𝐶 − 𝐸 = 36 }
Here’s the integral:

𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 36 2 −2𝑥 − 1 𝑥
∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ + 2 + 2 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 4) 𝑥−1 𝑥 +4 (𝑥 + 4)2

2 2𝑥 1 𝑥
=∫ − 2 − 2 + 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 + 4 (𝑥 + 4)2

𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 36 1 𝑥 1
2 + 4| − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( ) − (
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ln |𝑥 − 1| − ln| 𝑥 )+𝐶
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 4)2 2 2 2 𝑥2 + 4

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Assessment Task 1-1

100
Integrate the following rational functions using partial fractions. (Show your solution)
𝑥+14
1. ∫ (𝑥+5)(𝑥+2) 𝑑𝑥

5𝑥−2
2. ∫ (𝑥+3)2 𝑑𝑥

−2𝑥+4
3. ∫ (𝑥 2+1)(𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥

1
4. ∫ (𝑥+4)(𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 2 +2𝑥−1
5. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 −𝑥

1
6. ∫ 𝑥 2 −1 𝑑𝑥

1
7. ∫ (𝑥+5)2 (𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 3 −4𝑥 2 −10
8. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −𝑥−6

3𝑥 3 −5𝑥 2 −11𝑥+9
9. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3

10
10. ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥 2+9) 𝑑𝑥

101
 Summary

The key to the method of partial fraction decomposition is being able to anticipate the form
that the decomposition of a rational function will take. As we shall see, this form is both predictable
and highly dependent on the factorization of the denominator of the rational function.

Partial fraction decomposition is a technique used to break down a rational function into a
sum of simple rational functions that can be integrated using previously learned techniques.

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 When applying partial fraction decomposition, we must make sure that the degree of the
numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. If not, we need to perform long division
before attempting partial fraction decomposition.

The form the decomposition takes depends on the type of factors in the denominator. The
types of factors include nonrepeated linear factors, repeated linear factors, nonrepeated
irreducible quadratic factors, and repeated irreducible quadratic factors.

References

Smith, R.T. and Minton, R.B. (2008) Calculus. 3rd ed. NY: McGraw-Hill

Jones, J., (1997). Calculus Lecture Notes.

https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/PartialFractions.aspx

Strang, G. and Herman, E. (2020). Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions.

https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Calculus/Map%3A_Calculus__Early_Transcende
ntals_(Stewart)/07%3A_Techniques_of_Integration/7.04%3A_Integration_of_Rational_Fu
nctions_by_Partial_Fractions

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