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WEEK 8: SEXUAL SELF
THE SEXUAL SELF: BODY IMAGE AND SELF ESTEEM
This section tackles one of the most crucial aspects of human development, the sexual self. It
highlights biological and environmental factors that shape sexual
development. Being a complex and amazing structure, the human body is a
source of strength, beauty, and wonder. Like a well-designed machine, a
healthy body has parts whose parts function smoothly together. Like a
harmonious orchestra that musicians play together, they produce beautiful
music, a healthy body that has parts whose operations are in harmony with
others.
Introduction
● Sexual selfhood is defined as how one thinks about himself or herself as a sexual individual. Human
sexuality is a topic that just like beauty is culturally diverse. This should be understood in varied
ways.
1. Historical.
● In Ancient Greece, it is the male that assumes the dominant

role. The male symbol, the penis, was viewed as the symbol
of fertility and how the male body was structured and was
greatly admired. Their wives were considered as objects to be
possessed just like property. Women, on the other hand, were
forbidden to own property and had no legal and only function
was to bear children. The Greek word for woman is “gyne”
means – bearer of children.
● In the Middle Ages (476-1450), bore witness to the strong influence of church particularly in
matters of sexuality. The church decreed that all sexual acts that do not lead to procreation were
considered evil. Women were labelled as either temptress (like Eve) or a woman of virtue (like
Virgin Mary).
● In the protestant reformation of the 16th century (1483-1546) Martin Luther, John Calvin and other
Protestant leaders initiated a movement against the Roman Catholic Church. Protestantism believed
that sexuality is a natural part of life and that priests should be able to marry and have families.
Martin Luther King and John Calvin believed that the reason for sexual intimacy was to strengthen
the physical and emotional bond between husbands and wives and not just procreation.
● By the 17th and 18th century, the Puritans, a group of people who were discontented with the Church
of England rallied for religious, moral and societal reformation. They had positive view on marital
sex and did not tolerate sex outside marriage. Premarital sex, therefore, was considered immoral.
GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

● In the Victorian Era (1837-1901), homosexuality and prostitution were rampant and considered to
be threats to social order. People in this era were not comfortable in discussing breast or buttocks,
they used other terms instead.
● Through the years and in the 20th century, interest in sexuality became more evident and accepted
in society. The separation of church and state reduced the influence the church had over sexual
mores. Also, the rise of feminism allowed for changes in employment, home life, and sexual
standards for women. Over time, cultural diversity and social norms offered varied views on what
today may be considered as sexually normal.
2. Biological.
● Knowing the structures and functions of the reproductive system is essential to the understanding
of sexuality. In the nervous system, it is the brain that initiates and organizes sexual behavior.
Through the process of sexual reproduction, the next generation of human beings are created by
the fusion of the egg cell and sperm cell. This will be discussed further in the next pages.
3. Sociobiological/Evolutionary.
● This perspective studies how evolutionary forces

affect sexual behavior. According to sociobiological
theory, natural selection is a process by which organisms
that are best suited to their environment are most likely to
survive. Traits that lead to reproductive advantage tend to
be passed on, whereas maladaptive traits are lost. On the
basis of human sexual behavior, it all begins with physical
attraction.
● Beauty is more than just cultural standard. It is

primarily an evolutionary standard for attracting the best
male or female in the lot to ensure that one’s genetic
characteristics will be passed on to the next generation.
● Although survival is the goal of the evolutionary perspective, physical attraction which ends in sex
does not mean that the attraction will be lasting. For what is really important in human sexual
relationships is the love, care, and responsibility each gender has for the other.
4. Psychological
● Rosenthal (2013) also explained that sexuality is not a mere physical response. Rather, it also
involves emotions, thoughts and beliefs.
● Sigmund Freud was one of the most prominent people to explain sexuality, through his theories.
According to him, human beings are faces with two forces – sex instinct and libido (pleasure) and
death or aggressive instinct (harm toward oneself or towards others).

● Sex instinct does not only pertain to the sexual act rather it could also mean anything that could
give pleasure to the person. Thus, human behavior is geared towards satisfying the sex instinct
and/or death instinct. A person’s libido or sexual energy is located in an area of the body at different
psychosexual stages. These areas of pleasure are called erogenous zones. These will be discussed
further in the following pages.
● Freud also regarded personality as composed of three structures: the id, the Ego and the Superego.
The id is the part which always seeks for pleasure and aggression. It follows the pleasure principle
because it wants the person to attain gratification immediately. It is unconsciously saying “I want
it now!”. The Superego is the person’s sense of morality; it follows the moral principle whose role
is to restrict demands of the id. It is developed when children are taught the difference between
right and wrong. The ego follows the analytical principle. It analyses the need of the id and its
consequences as dictated by the superego and thinks of ways to satisfy the need in an acceptable
manner.
5. Religious
● Judaism holds a positive and natural outlook toward marital sex which they consider as blessed by
God and pleasurable for both men and women. Sexual connection provides an opportunity for
spirituality and transcendence.
● In Islam, family is considered of utmost importance, and celibacy within marriage is prohibited.
Muslim men are allowed to have up to four wives but Muslim women can only have one husband.
Sex is permitted only within marriage and extramarital sex is penalized.
● According to Taoism, which originated in China, sex is not only natural and healthy, but a sacred
union necessary to people’s physical, mental, and spiritual being. The sexual union is a way to
balance male and female energy.
● In Hinduism, sexuality is seen as spiritual force, and the act of ritual lovemaking is a means of both
celebrating and transcending the physical
● For the Roman Catholic Church, marriage is purely for intercourse and procreation. Pope John Paul
II confirmed the idea that married couples should engage in intercourse only for the purpose of
procreation. They further believed that homosexual orientation, in itself is not sinful, but
homosexual acts are immoral and sinful. The use of birth control is strongly opposed but they agree
to natural family planning and prohibit abortion.
Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and Reproductive System
● This part is understanding the sexual self in Biological manner.
● From a purely physical standpoint, our bodies are made mainly of water. We are also made of
many minerals, including calcium, phosphorous, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine,
magnesium, and iron. In order of size, the elements of the body are organized into cells, tissues,
and organs. Related organs are combined into systems, including the musculoskeletal,
cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, gastrointestinal, endocrine, and reproductive systems

● There are two kinds of reproduction: asexual and sexual. Many biochemical events must
occur before an organism can reproduce either way.
1. Asexual reproduction
The simplest form of reproduction that literally means without sex. A single celled animal
grows to a certain stage or size and divides into two identical organisms. Multi-celled asexual
organisms have developed several unique reproductive strategies. For example, the jellyfish
reproduces by budding, a process where a new individual begins to grow (bud) from the
original organism and is eventually released as a small, free swimming organism.
2. Sexual reproduction
In organisms that reproduce sexually, there are males and females and reproduction occurs
when partners come together. This also involves reproductive cells, including a female ovum
(egg) and a male’s sperm.
● Network of organs and signaling molecules happened in the process of the human reproductive
system. In which, interaction and communication make it possible to the human ability to
produce and bear live offspring. It is distinguished from all other organ systems of the human
body by the fact that it is composed of two anatomically different organ plans, one for the
female and one for the male. It is also a slow-developing system, with the reproductive organs
obtaining full maturity at some point during adolescence, the transitional phase of growth and
development between childhood and adulthood.
● In both male and female embryos, the tissues that will form the structures of the internal
genitalia that are destined to develop in only one way, either as structures in the female
reproductive system or structures in the male reproductive system, but not both.
● Provided all organs are present, normally constructed, and functioning properly, the seven
essential features of human reproduction are:
o (1) liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in the reproductive cycle;

o (2) internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells;
o (3) transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb;
o (4) implantation of the blastocyst, the early embryo developed from the fertilized
ovum, in the wall of the uterus;
o (5) formation of a placenta and maintenance of the unborn child during the entire
period of gestation;
o (6) birth of the child and expulsion of the placenta; and
o (7) suckling and care of the child, with an eventual return of the maternal organs to
virtually their original state.
● The male reproductive system essential parts are as follows:
1. Penis – a male sexual organ consisting of the internal root and external shaft and glans.
2. Root – the portion of the penis that extends internally into the pelvic cavity.
3. Shaft – the length of the penis between the glans and the body.
4. Glans – the head of the penis; richly endowed with nerve endings.
5. Cavernous bodies – the structures in the shaft of the penis that engorge with blood during sexual
arousal.
6. Foreskin – a covering of skin over the penile glans.

7. Corona – the rim of the penile glans.
8. Frenulum – a highly sensitive, thin strip of skin that connects the glans to the shaft on the underside
of the penis.
● The female reproductive system essential parts are as follows:
1. Vulva – encompasses all female external genital structures – the hairs, fold of skin, and the urinary
and vaginal openings.
a. Mons Veneris – a triangular mound over the pubic bone above the vulva.
b. Labia majora – the outer lips of the vulva.
c. Labia minora – the inner lips of the vulva, one on each side of the vaginal opening.
d. Prepuce – the foreskin or fold of skin over the clitoris.
e. Clitoris – a highly sensitive structure of the female external genitals, the only function of which
is sexual pleasure.
f. Shaft – the length of the clitoris between the glans and the body.
g. Glans – the head of the clitoris; richly endowed with nerve endings.
h. Cruca – the innermost tips of the cavernous bodies that connect to the pubic bones.
i. Vestibule – the area of the vulva inside the labia minora.
j. Urethra – the tube through which urine passes from the bladder to outside the body.
2. Internal Structure
a. Vagina – a stretchable canal in the female that opens at the vulva and extends about four inches
into the pelvis.
b. Rugae – the folds of tissue in the vagina.
c. Cervix – the small end of the uterus, located at the back of the vagina.
d. Uterus – a pear shaped organ inside the female pelvis, within which the fetus develops.
e. Fallopian tubes – two tubes in which the egg and sperm travel, extending from the sides of
the uterus.
f. Ovaries – female gonads that produce ova and sex hormones.
● These are the parts of the reproductive organs that are considered to be important. The primary
and secondary characteristics refer to specific physical differentiate males and females in
sexually dimorphic species – species having two forms that are determined by their sex; that
is, species in which males and females look different from each other. Primary characteristics
are there from birth (for example, penises and vaginas). Secondary sexual characteristics
emerge at puberty (such as low voices and beards in men, and high voices and no facial hair in
women). Samples includes:
● These secondary sexual characteristics are not used in reproduction, but are apparent in most
dimorphic species. Hormones secreted through the hypothalamus initiate the development of
classically male or female secondary sexual traits.

● These secondary sex characteristics can
also be known as some of the first changes in a boy
are the growth of his and growth of pubic hair.
Later, the chest becomes larger, hair grows in the
armpits, muscles grow in the arms and legs and
shoulders become larger and stronger.
● In some males, hair also grows on the

chest, but generally, Asian men are less hairy and
less muscular than Caucasian men, and those from
Africa have coarser body hair. Facial hair, which
usually grows first above the lips and later grows
on the cheeks, may grow into a mustache and
beard unless the boy shaves regularly.
The larynx (voice box) becomes larger as well,
resulting in a deeper voice. In girls, pubic hair begins to grow, followed by underarm
hair; breasts develop, with the areola around the nipple becoming darker. Fat deposits around
the hips and buttocks also contribute to the female's more rounded appearance.
● With girls, the menstrual cycle begins, it may be irregular, with some monthly cycles occurring
without ovulation. Since 1840, menstruation has been beginning a few months earlier every
decade, possibly due to better nutrition or to the consumption of meat that contains hormones.
In general, girls gain less height and weight than boys do during their teenage years.
● The list below shows some of these characteristic differences between human males and
females.
For boys, these include For girls, these include

● More pronounced body hair ● Less pronounced body hair
characteristics (beard, chest, etc.) and characteristics (mostly in pubic
usually more coarse region, hair all over is usually finer)
● Heavier musculature ● Lighter musculature
● Angular features (i.e. square jaw, ● Rounded features (i.e. softer facial
triangular mid region) features, hourglass mid-region)
● Narrow hips ● Wider hips (for child bearing)
● Muscular pectorals (chest) ● More pronounced breasts with more
● Less fat tissue overall fatty tissue
● Deeper voice ● More fat tissue overall
● Higher voice
● Puberty is the stage of physical maturation in which an individual becomes physiologically capable
of sexual reproduction. The biological changes include: (1) neurosecretory factors and/or
hormones, (2) modulation of somatic growth, and (3) initiation of the development of the sex
glands. The physiology of puberty includes also the activation of the hypothalamic pituitary-

gonadal axis which induces and enhances the
progressive ovarian and testicular sex hormone
secretion.
● It is also responsible for the profound biological,

morphological, and psychological changes to
which adolescent is subjected. In addition, there
are sex steroid production which appearance and
Source: https://goo.gl/8NsTKd
maintenance of sexual characteristics are included
as well as the person’s capacity for reproduction.
● Puberty proceeds through five stages from

childhood to full maturity as described by
Marshall and Tanner (2006). In both sexes, these
stages reflect the progressive modifications of the
external genitalia and of sexual hair. Secondary
sex characteristics appear at a mean age of 10.5 years in girls and 11.5 to 12 years in boys.
● Puberty Stages (Female )

P1 Pre-pubertal
P2 Early development of sub-areolar breast bud
+/- small amounts of pubic hair and axillary hair
P3 Increase in size of palpable breast tissue and areolar
Increase amount of dark pubic hair and axillary hair
P4 Further increase in breast size and areolae that protrude above breast level
Adult Pubic hair
P5 Adult Stage
Pubic hair with extension to upper thigh
● The prepubertal uterus is tear-drop shaped, with the neck and isthmus accounting for up to two-
thirds of the uterine volume; then, with the production of estrogens, it becomes pear shaped, with
the uterine body increasing in length and thickness proportionately more than the cervix.
● The rising levels of plasma gonadotropins stimulate the ovary to produce increasing amounts of
estradiol. Estradiol is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics, that is,
growth and development of the breasts and reproductive organs, fat redistribution (hips, breasts),
and bone maturation. The maturation of the ovary at adolescence correlates well with estradiol
secretion and the stages of puberty.
● During puberty, plasma estradiol levels fluctuate widely, probably reflecting successive waves of
follicular development that fail to reach the ovulatory stage. The uterine endometrium is affected
by these changes and undergoes cycles of proliferation and regression, until a point is reached when
substantial growth occurs so that withdrawal of estrogen results in the first menstruation
(menarche). Female secondary sexual characteristics include breast development, pubic and/or
axillary hair, and menses occur earlier than normal variations from the mean, the terms premature.

Puberty Stages (Males)
P1 Prepubertal
Testicular length less than 2.5 cm
P2 Early increase in testicular size, scrotum

slightly pigmented
Few long and dark pubic hair
P3 Testicular length 3.3-4 cm

Lengthening of the penis, increase of
pubic hair
P4 Testicular length 4.1-4.5 cm, increase in

Source: https://goo.gl/d314zv
length and thickening of the penis
Adult amount of pubic hair
● Secondary sexual development in boys includes growth kinetics are enhanced from early puberty
on, this is on maximal velocity of attaining it only around 14 to 15 years of age. Testis increases in
size, mainly at the expense of the seminiferous tubules. Also the interstitial (leydig) cells develop
and ensure synthesis and secretion of testosterone. A testicular volume of 4ml or a longitudinal
diameter greater than or equal to 2.5 cm and a slight progressive increase in scrotal folds and
pigmentation constitute the first signs of puberty. The increase in testicular size observed during
pre puberty and puberty results essentially from the development of the seminiferous tubules.
● The testicular volume increases throughout puberty up to Tanner stage P4 when a longitudinal
diameter of 5.0 + 0.5 cm or a volume of 17.6 + 4.0 ml is reached. A significant increase of plasma
testosterone is found only between Tanner pubertal stages P3 and P4. Dihydrotestosterone shows
a pattern similar to that of testosterone, and the proportion of dihydrotestosterone to testosterone
decreases gradually until adulthood, when dihydrotestosterone levels are approximately 10% of
those of testosterone.
● Remember, that at the start of puberty, changes that happen in the bodies of young males and
females are both secondary and primary sexual changes. Whereas, secondary sexual changes are
physical changes that distinguish males from females.
Discussing Erogenous Zones
● This part could be understanding the sexual self in a Psychological manner.
● Erogenous zones can be understood in a certain way we understand our body. These are areas of
the human body that have heightened sensitivity. The stimulation of these areas may result in the
foundation and production of sexual fantasies, sexual arousal, and orgasm. These are areas that are
more sensitive than others all over the body.
● Varieties of sexual excitement may be provoked that will classify the erogenous zones. Erogenous
zones vary from culture to culture and over time. Essentially, these parts have high concentration
of nerve endings, that the result is they are particularly sensitive to touch, pressure, or vibration.

● In psychology, the five stages of Freud’s psychosexual theory of development:
1. Oral stage, the child erogenous zone is the mouth which receives gratification through
eating and sucking.
2. Anal stage, the erogenous zone is the anus in which sexual gratification is derived from
defecation
3. Phallic stage, erogenous zone is the genitals. Here the child experiences sexual attraction
towards the opposite sex parent. Oedipus complex (sexual attraction of the body child
toward the mother) and Electra complex (sexual attraction of the girl child towards the
father)
4. Latency stage, sexual impulses lie dormant as the child is occupied by social activities
such as going to school and playing.
5. Genital stage, where the erogenous zone is again the genitals. At this time, the sexual
attraction is directed towards others, usually one of opposite sex.
● According to his theory, each stage of psychosexual development must be met successfully for
proper development; if we lack proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we may become
stuck in, or fixated on, that stage. Freud’s psychosexual theory has been seriously criticized for the
past few decades and is
now considered largely
outdated. However, the
erogenous zones were
discussed in each of the
stages of psychosexual
development, that if not
outgrown will have
fixations for that certain
stage.
● Erogenous zones is
different from sexual
fetishes. According to
Freud, a fetish is an
inappropriate object (a
shoe for example) that is
substituted for a woman
and used for sexual
gratification. An
erogenous zone is a body
part (a foot, for instance)
that arouses sexual
curiosity and draws a man's
attention to the whole
female body. Fetishism is
an individual personality
disorder, while erogenous
zones are sexual
preferences shared by most
men at a given time or
place. Fetishes belong to

the science of psychopathology while erogenous zones belong to the social world of costume
and fashion.
● The phrase erogenous zones was coined near the end of the nineteenth century and used in the early
twentieth century by some psychologists to describe how simple pressure to these parts of the body
could arouse complete orgasm in what were defined as hysterical persons (generally understood to
be women).
● The second general meaning of the phrase, to be dealt with at some length here, refers to a visual
phenomenon associated with clothing and body adornment. For cultural anthropologists, erogenous
zones are those areas of the female body which men find sexually arousing and which women alter
or adorn to attract the male eye.
● Because of this understanding, it can be noted that culture determines their unique fixation for
erogenous zones. Examples are Asian men prize the nape of the neck while Europeans are fixated
with waist. In defiance of common sense, the genitals rarely become erogenous zones.
● Human increases their likeness through body paint, cosmetics, mutilation or other procedures like
Western women paint their lips red, enhancing resemblance to the labia; Aristocratic Chinese
women bound their feet so it would be tiny, curled feet more closely resembled the vulva. More
societies alter their erogenous zones to make them more beautiful or prominent.
Understanding Human Sexual Response
● One of the great qualities of a human being is its ability to be modified by experiences. This process
is known as learning and conditioning, which most of the aspects of human behavior, even sexual
behavior appear to be a product of it. Like the preferences people have of type of individual as
partners – tall, short, younger, or varieties of partners like heterosexual/homosexual. The
classification of behavior as normal or away from normal represents culture based rather than
scientifically explained.
● As part of the transition from childhood to adulthood, all adolescents experience sexual feelings.
Some act upon these feelings by having sexual intercourse; others don’t have intercourse but
engage in behaviors stopping short of penile/vaginal intercourse; some engage in anal intercourse
or oral sex (Remez, 2000); and others deny their sexual feelings by focusing intensely on non-
sexual pursuits.
● Other adolescents are able to have socially acceptable intercourse through early, sometimes pre-
arranged, marriages. Sexual behavior among adolescents is not new – what is new is the delay in
marriage that attends increasing educational attainment, and non-agricultural and increasingly
technological free market societies.
● Individuals become erotically aroused when they observe other individuals engaging in sexual
activity. The human sexual response can be understood through a cycle. This is also called the
sexual response cycle. It refers to the sequence of physical and emotional changes that occur as a
person becomes sexually aroused and participates in sexually stimulating activities.
● Advantages can be known if a person would know how their bodies respond during each cycle.
Men and women experience sexual arousal very differently, not only physiologically but
psychologically. For many women, the excitement phase has much more of an emotional

component. Women are motivated to have sexual responses by a need for emotional intimacy. It is
this motivation that causes them to react to sexual stimuli and thus enter the excitement phase.
● Master and Johnson categorized the human sexual response into four stages which they called the
Human Sexual Response Cycle (HSRC);
Stage Description
Excitement This is the body’s initial response to sexual arousal.
It is characterized by an increase in heart rate and blood pressure as

well as heightened muscle tone.
Plateau This is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm
It is characterized by intensification of the changes begun during the

excitement phase.
Orgasm This is characterized by waves of intense pleasure (climax), often

associated with vaginal contractions in females and ejaculation in
males.
Resolution In this phase the body returns to its non-excited stage.
● Sexual response varies from person to person and sexual fulfillment can occur without the
completion of all phases described by Master and Johnson. Rosenthal (2013) has included the stage
of desire prior to excitement which is a drive or motivation to seek out sexual objects or to engage
in sexual activities.
References:
Arcega, A M., Cullar, D. S., Evangelista, L. D. & Falculan, L. M. (2018). Understanding the Self.
Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House Inc.
Gazzingan, L. B. et al. (2019). Understanding the Self. Muntinlupa City: Panday-Lahi Publishing House,
Inc.
Marshall, E. and Tanner, S. Introduction to Psychology. Accessed July 28, 2020.

https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/6-3-adolescence-developing-independence-and-
identity/
Master, A. and Johnson, T. Human Sexual Response. Accessed July 28, 2020.
https://canvas.du.edu/courses/24161/files/1152570
Remez, R. Developing Adolescene. Accessed July 28, 2020.

https://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/develop.pdf

Rosenthal, M. (2013). Human Sexuality from Cells to Society. Asia: Cengage Learning
Seventeeth congress (First Regular session). Accessed July 20, 2020.
http://www.congress.gov.ph/legisdocs/first_17/CR00101.pdf
ACTIVITIES ON SEXUALL SELF
This section aims to assess your understanding of some of the topics covered in Week
8 through the two activities below.
ACTIVITY #9: SEXUAL SELFHOOD (15 points)
A. Reflect on the presented article “The Sexual Self” in Week 8, answer the question. Limit your
answers in 5 sentences each only.
Questions:
1. Describe your own Sexual Selfhood.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the changes in your body that lead to your discovery of sexual self?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

WEEK 9: SEXUAL SELF: THE SEXUAL SELF: UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL
BEHAVIOR, STIS AND CONTRACEPTION.
This section will provide understanding on the developing a sexual self-concept that
is an important developmental task of adolescence; however, little empirical evidence
describes this development, nor how these changes are related to development in
sexual behavior. Highlight of this part is the understanding of the chemistry of love,
lust and attachment; The Psychological aspect; the sexually diverse behavior;
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STIs) and Contraception.
Understanding the Chemistry of Lust, Love, and Attachment
● According to anthropologist Helen Fisher (2016) there are three stages of falling in love. In
each stage, a different set of brain chemicals run the show. These stages are lust, attraction,
and love.
1. Lust
● When people are in the

stage of lust, they feel Source: https://goo.gl/rKRP9d
physically attracted and
drawn to their object of
affection. There are
elements of mystery that
make things exciting.
● Lust is driven by the desire

for sexual gratification. The
evolutionary basis for this
is from people’s need to
reproduce, a need shared
among all living things.
● Through reproduction,
organisms pass on their
genes, and contribute to the
perpetuation of their
species. The hypothalamus
of the brain plays a big role
in this, stimulating the production of the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen from the testes
and ovaries.
● While these chemicals are often stereotyped as being male and female, respectively, both play
a role in men and women. As it turns out, testosterone increases libido in just about everyone.
The effects are less pronounced with estrogen, but some women report being more sexually
motivated around the time they ovulate, when estrogen levels are highest.

2. Attraction
● Attraction is characteristic that causes pleasure or interest by appealing to a person’s desires or

tastes, and causes one to be drawn to the other.
● In this stage, a person may begin to be obsessed about their object of affection and crave for
his presence. A person may don’t feel like sleeping or eating. People can certainly lust for
someone they are attracted to, and vice versa, one can happen without the other.
● .Attraction has brain pathways that controls “reward” behavior, which explains the first few
months of a relationship. Dopamine is the main player in the brain’s reward pathway. When it
is released, people feel good. In this case, these things spending time with loved ones with high
levels of dopamine and related hormones (norepinephrine) are released.
● These chemicals make

people energetic, and euphoric
that can lead to decreased
appetite and insomnia – which
actually means a person is so
“in love” that this person
cannot eat or cannot sleep. In
addition, norepinephrine plays
a large role in the fight or flight
response, which has a say
when people are stressed and
kept them alert.
● Brain scans of people in love have actually shown that the primary “reward” centers of the
brain. Finally, attraction seems to lead to a reduction in serotonin, a hormone that is involved
in appetite and mood. In the end, everyone is capable of defining love for themselves. And, for
better or for worse, if it’s all hormones, maybe each of us can have “chemistry” with just about
anyone.
3. Attachment
● This stage involves wanting to make a more lasting commitment to your loved one. All the
goals are dedicated to the object of affection being a part of a person’s life. dopamine decreases
and attraction goes down.
● If things are going well, it gets replaced by the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin, which
create the desire to bond, affiliate with, and nurture your partner. You want to cuddle and be
close and share your deepest secrets with her. You plan and dream together.
● Understanding the science of lust, attraction, and attachment can help a person develop more realistic
expectations of their relationships.
● Most romantic relationships begin with two individuals falling into love with each other. The singer
Robert Palmer compares love with an addiction. This was verified in a study in which 17 participants
who were madly in love were asked to go to the lab and bring a picture of their loved one. Participants
were placed in a brain scanner (fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging) which measures the

neural activity of the brain. Their
brain activity was recorded that when
participants gazed at a photo of their
beloved, regions in the brain were
activated. Those parts are closely
associated with the anticipation of
reward and with focused attention.
This is the dopamine system in the
brain which is the same system
involved in pleasure and addiction.
Fisher, et al (2006) concluded that,
rather than defining love as an
emotion, “being in love” can be
considered a strong motivation – an
addictive craving to be with the other
person (Hewstone et al, 2015).
● Thus, early passionate love is not an emotion in and if itself. Rather, it is best characterized as a
“motivation or goal oriented state that leads to various specific emotions, such as euphoria aor anxiety”.
Unlike many emotions, love is not associated with any specific facial expression, and I am focused on
a single reward. The emotions associated with love – elation, anxiety, joy, fear – may come and go. But
motivation to be with the beloved – remains.
● Love can be characterized by concern for other’s well-being, a desire for physical presence and
emotional support. In a study of Tennov in 1979, though sex is an important component of romantic
love, 95% of women and 91% of male respondents did not agree with the statement that “the best thing
about love is sex”.
● John Lee’s Love Styles:
1. Eros (EH-ros). Love is based on a strong sexual and emotional component. This type of love
creates initial excitement of a new relationship. A romantic and passionate love which emphasizes
physical attraction and sexual desire. The Eros lover dreams of the ideal characteristics of a partner
and usually experiences love at first sight. The relationship, however, seldom lasts forever because
they tend to be quick to fall in and out of love.
2. Agape (AH-gah-pay). This is altruistic and selfless love. The person shows his love without
expecting to receive the same in return. He considers the wishes of his partner as more important

than his own. He may not have a
perfect partner but he will always
be there to support and offer his
love.
3. Storge (Store-gay). This is love-

related friendship and based on
nonsexual affection. The person
experiences love as a gradual and
slow process. When love is storge,
love takes time. Storgic lovers do
not suddenly fall in love with an
idealized lover. Commitment,
stability and comfort are their
goals.
4. Ludus. For ludic lovers, love is

just a game, something for fun or
entertainment. They do not experience jealousy. They do not value commitment or intimacy. They
manipulate their partners by lying, cheating and deceiving.
5. Mania. This is characterized by an intense feeling which may lead to obsessive and possessive love
towards the loved one. Manic lovers always check the partner’s whereabouts. They easily get
jealous and their experience of love is out of control. They are easily taken advantage of by ludic
lovers.
6. Pragma. This is a practical and business-like love. Pragmatic lovers may plan the best time to get
married, have children, and other future plans. Love is based on what is appropriate. It is not intense
nor out of control.
● The Triangular Theory of Love by Robert Sternberg, According to him, love is made up of three
components:
1. Intimacy. This includes the desire to give and receive emotional closeness, support, caring and
sharing.
2. Passion. This is the hot component of love which can be described as intensely romantic or sexual
desire for another person usually accompanied by physical attraction and physiological arousal.
3. Commitment. This is the cold component of love. It is the decision to maintain the relationship
through good times and bad times.
● Sternberg also described several types of love based on the above components.

1. Liking (Intimacy). This only
involves emotional intimacy and has
no passionate intention for long-term
commitment. It is just a friendly
relationship.
2. Infatuation (Passion). This is

associated with a high degree of
physiological arousal. There is only
passion without intimacy or
commitment. It is usually called
“love at first sight” and may fade
quickly.
3. Empty love (Commitment). This

involves only commitment. A
relationship. With no intimacy and
passion. Couples only stay together
for their children or other important
reasons.
4. Romantic love (Passion and Intimacy). It is a

combination of both passion and intimacy which
may be present during the first phase of a
relationship. This is characterized by emotional
intensity and sexual excitement. The experience of
passionate love may be positive and negative.
5. Companionate love (Intimacy and

Commitment). The components are both intimacy
and commitment which is experienced in long
deeply committed friendship or marriage where
passion has faded. It is more durable than romantic
love and may grow over time.
6. Fatuous love (Passion and Commitment). A

combination of passion and commitment
experienced by a couple who spent a short time in
courtship and suddenly decided to get married.
7. Consummate love (Passion, Intimacy, and

Commitment). There exists a healthy balance of
passion, intimacy, and commitment shared by couples considered to be ideal for each other.
● The psychology of love shows that there are psychological theories that would explain why people
fall in love.
1. Behavioral Reinforcement Theory. When someone received a reward such as free ride or other
favors from another, a positive feeling may be experienced. The better the feeling associated with
the behavior of a person, the more likely it is for the behavior to be repeated.

2. Physiological Arousal Theory. This explains the most acceptable theories about emotions: the
bodies experience a physiological change first, then people assign an emotion to that physical
sensation. It is based on the interpretation of the brain. For instance, when a big spider falls in
front of an individual, the stress reaction would be: the person might gasp, the heart would pound
faster, and breathing would quicken. The brain would interpret an emotion associated with this
experience as the feeling of FEAR. In another situation, a girl who happens to see her crush
walking by will have the same experience as the person who encounters the spider (a person might
gasp, the heart and respiratory rate would elevate): the brain would have different interpretation
in the second case, a feeling of LOVE.
3. Evolutionary Theories. This explains that love arose due to some sociobiological need. Males
tend to look for young, healthy females mates to carry their offspring. Females prefer males who
have the resources to support them and their offspring.
● Based on social psychological data from Rosenthal (2013), the factors that would determine
with whom people fall in love are:
o Physical attractiveness (though beauty is in the eye of the beholder)
o Reciprocity (people tend to like an individual who also like them)
o Proximity (being around anytime physically or virtually)
o Similarities (same age, religion, education, race, physical attractiveness, intelligence,
and socio-economic class)
The diversity of sexual behavior: solitary, heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual and transsexual
● Human sexual behavior is any activity, solitary,

by pair or by group which includes sexual arousal.
● Human sexual behavior may conveniently be

classified according to the number and gender of the
participants.
● Not all sexual arousal can lead to sexual activity.

Humans are constantly exposed to sexual stimuli when
seeing attractive persons or seeing advertisement with
sexual themes through mass media.
● There is solitary behavior involving only one

individual, and there is sociosexual behavior involving
more than one person.
● Sociosexual behavior is generally divided into

heterosexual behavior (male with female) and
homosexual behavior (male with male or female with
female). If three or more individuals are involved it is, of
course, possible to have heterosexual and homosexual
activity simultaneously.
● In both solitary and sociosexual behavior there

may be activities that are sufficiently unusual to warrant

the label deviant behavior. The term deviant should not be used as a moral judgment but simply
as indicating that such activity is not common in a particular society. Since human societies
differ in their sexual practices, what is deviant in one society may be normal in another.
● Solitary behavior – A behavior with the intention of stimulating self that caused arousal
usually done in private. This behavior is more common to males. There is great individual
variation in frequency. Solitary behavior provides pleasure for self with emotional content with
sole control to the degree of pleasure.
● One of the necessary tasks of growing up is learning to cope with one’s sexual arousal and to
achieve some balance between suppression, which can be injurious, and free expression, which
can lead to social difficulties. There is great variation among individuals in the strength of sex
drive and responsiveness, so this necessary exercise of restraint is correspondingly difficult or
easy.
● On the other hand, Rosenthal (2013) defined sexual orientation as a person’s predisposition or
inclination regarding sexual behavior, emotional attachment or physical attraction to one or
both sexes.
● The phrase “sexual orientation” is preferred over “sexual preference” which implies a
conscious or deliberate choice of a sexual partner. The following are types of sexual
orientations:
1. Heterosexuality – it is the attraction to members of opposite sex.
2. Homosexuality – refers to a person whose sexual orientation is toward another of the same
sex. It is the attraction to members of the same sex.
a. Lesbian – is the term used to describe a woman whose sexual and romantic attraction
toward women.
b. Gay - is a man whose sexual and romantic attraction is towards other men.
3. Bisexual – is a person who may be sexually oriented to both men and women
4. Transsexual – these are people experience a gender identity that is inconsistent with, or
not culturally associated with, their assigned sex, and desire to permanently transition to
the gender with which they identify, usually seeking medical assistance.
o According to DSM V (2013), refers to the broad spectrum of individuals who

transiently or persistently identify with a gender different from their natal gender.
o Transsexual denotes an individual who seeks, or has undergone, a social transition
from male to female or female to male, which in many, but not all, cases also involve
a somatic transition by cross-sex hormone and genital surgery (sex reassignment
surgery).
o In clinical viewpoint, a person is suffering from gender dysphoria if there is distress
that may accompany the incongruence between one’s expressed gender or gender
identity and one’s assigned gender.
o Although not all individuals will experience distress as a result of incongruence, many
are distressed if desired physical interventions by means of hormones and/or surgery
are not available.

5. Pansexual – is a new sexual orientation of persons who are sexually attracted to people
regardless of their sex or gender identity. The word “pan” is a Greek word for “all r every”.
Thus, they may also be called “gender blind” for they believe that gender and sex are not
determining factors for getting sexually attracted to both males and females whereas
pansexual is more fluid. Aside from men and women they may also be attracted to
transgender, transsexual, androgynous and other gender categories.
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD)
● Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) are also known as Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI),
together with venereal disease, these are infections that are commonly spread by sexual
intercourse. These are infections that are passed from one person to another through sexual
contact, blood transfusion, breastfeeding, and a certain amount of saliva.
● Most STD’s affect both

men and women, but in many
cases the health problems they
cause can be more severe for
women. If a pregnant woman has
an STD, it can cause serious
health problems for the baby.
Antibiotics can treat STDs
caused by bacteria, yeast, or
parasites. There is no cure for
STDs caused by a virus, but
medicines can often help with the
symptoms and keep the disease
under control.
● Some causes of STDs

are: bacteria, parasites, yeast, and
viruses. These STDs can be
dangerous, although in today’s
generation it can be treated in
different ways, but if not it can
lead to Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
or even Acquired immune
deficiency syndrome or acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS).
● The following are some

examples of STIs:
1. HIV/AIDS. HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus with AIDS stands for
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Thus, HIV is a virus while AIDS is a condition or
syndrome. HIV can lead to infections that attack and destroy the CD4 (Tcells) of the

immune system which is the body’s natural defense against such illness as tuberculosis,
pneumonia, and cancer.
o HIV without treatment

can lead to AIDS but not all cases
of HIV develop AIDS. Only
untreated HIV may lead to AIDS.
Presently, there is no effective
cure for HIV. But the condition
can be controlled with proper
medical care.
o The antiretroviral
therapy (ART) is a combination
of medications that are used to
prevent HIV from replicating to
protect the body against the virus
and infection. However, ART is
not a cure. It helps those with HIV
positive to live longer and happier
and lowers the risk of advancing
the condition into AIDS.
o In the statistics of Philippine Department of Health (DOH), in 2008), there is one (1)
newly diagnosed HIV case per day. In 2010, it increased to four (4) cases per day. In
2012, it became nine (9) per day. In 2014, it has blown to seventeen (17) cases per day
and in 2016, there are twenty-sex (26) reported daily cases of newly diagnosed HIV.
2. Genital Herpes. This is a sexually transmitted infection caused by a large family of viruses
of different strains. These strains produce other non-sexually transmitted diseases such as
chicken pox and mononucleosis.
o Most individuals have no or only minimal signs or symptoms. When signs do occur,
they typically appear as one or more blisters on or around the genitals or rectum. The
blisters break, leaving tender sores that may take two to four weeks to heal the first
time they occur. Typically, another outbreak can appear weeks or months after the first,
but it almost always is less severe and shorter.
o The virus remains in the body for life and the lesions may recur from time to time.
Severe or frequently recurrent genital herpes is treated with one of several antiviral
drugs that are available by prescription. These drugs help control the symptoms, but
do not eliminate the herpes virus from the body.
3. Genital Warts. Genital warts (also called venereal warts or Condylomata Acuminata) are
caused by the human papillomavirus, a virus related to the one that causes common skin
warts. Certain high-risk types of HPV can cause cervical cancer and other genital cancers,
but these are different from the types that cause genital warts.

o Genital warts usually first appear as small, hard painless bumps in the vaginal area or
around the anus. If untreated, they may grow and develop a fleshy, cauliflower-like
appearance.
4. Gonorrhea. This a sexually transmitted infection caused by bacterium Neisseria

gonorrheoeae which thrives in the moist mucous membranes linings of the mouth, throuat,
vagina, cervix, urethra, and the anal tract.
o Most women who are infected have no symptoms. Even when a woman has symptoms,
they can be so non-specific as to be mistaken for a bladder or vaginal infection. The
most common symptoms of gonorrhea are a vaginal discharge or vaginal bleeding
between periods. Untreated cases can lead to serious complications, including PID,
ectopic pregnancy and infertility.
o Symptoms for males are discharge from the penis and burning sensations during
urination.
5. Syphilis. This is a sexually transmitted infection caused by bacterium Treponema

palligum, a spirochete. If left untreated, syphilis may progress through four phases: Primay
(chancre sores appear), Secondary (general skin rashes occur), latent (a period that can last
for several years with no overt symptoms), and tertiary (cardiovascular disease, blindness,
paralysis, skin ulcers, liver damage, mental problem and even death may occur).
6. Chlamydia. This is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections, named for
Chlamydia trachomatis, an organism that spreads through sexual contact and infects the
genital organs of both sexes.
o Many people with chlamydial infection, however, have few or no symptoms of

infection; it often goes undiagnosed and untreated. Once diagnosed with chlamydial
infection, a person can be treated with an antibiotic.
Methods of Contraception (Artificial and Natural)
● There are a lot of reasons why people use contraceptives. Some purposes of birth control are
to prevent pregnancy, many women choose to use contraception because of certain health
advantages. For example, some hormonal birth control methods may help regulate your
period, reduce acne, and/or lower endometriosis-related pain.
● In general, with the exception of male and female sterilization, all methods that are appropriate
for healthy adults are also potentially appropriate for healthy, post-pubertal adolescents. Once

puberty has been achieved,
methods that are physiologically
safe for adults are also
physiologically safe for
adolescents.
● In reality, contraceptive use

entails consideration of more than
just medical safety. Before
discussing contraceptive options,
a person must be given the
opportunity to express their needs
and to decide freely whether they
want to protect against pregnancy
or need to protect against
STI/HIV.
● Once a decision is made for protection, sexually active individual should be presented with
options that, if used consistently and correctly, will prevent pregnancy and, depending upon an
individual’s circumstances, prevent sexually transmissible diseases. When selecting a method,
a person should consider the nature of their sexual relationship, sexual behaviors engaged in,
frequency of intercourse, risk of Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) or even HIV, ability to
comply with the use, ability to tolerate side effects, cost, convenience, religious beliefs and
other personal factors that may affect their decisions.
● Some of the methods of contraception:
1. Hormonal method of contraception (prevents the release of an egg or ovulation)
a. Oral Contraceptives (Pills) – These are daily oral contraceptives. Some contain estrogen and
progesterone; others are progestin only and are over 99% effective if used according to
instruction. Often reduces bleeding and period pain, and may help with premenstrual
symptoms. Missing pills, vomiting or severe diarrhea can make it less effective.
b. The Patch – It is a small patch you stick on the skin that releases estrogen and progestogen. It
stops ovulation. It can make
bleeds regular, lighter, and less
painful, however, may be seen and
can cause skin irritation.
c. The ring – The contraceptive

vaginal ring is a small plastic ring
a woman inserts into her vagina
every month and releases
hormones to stop ovulation. One
ring stays in for three weeks – you
don’t have to think about
contraception every day and must
be comfortable with inserting and
removing it.

d. Implants - A small, flexible rod put under the skin of the upper arm releases progestogen.
Works for 3 years but can be taken out sooner. It requires a small procedure to fit and remove
it.
e. Injectable - An injection of progestogen. Works for 8 or 13 weeks – you don’t have to think
about contraception during this time. Can’t be removed from the body so side effects may
continue while it works and for some time afterwards.
2. Barrier methods (methods that physically or chemically block the sperm from reaching an egg
and provide a barrier between direct skin to skin contacts)
a. Diaphragm - A flexible latex (rubber) or silicone device, used with spermicide, is put into the
vagina to cover the cervix. Can be put in any time before sex.
b. Cervical Caps – These are similar to the diaphragm, though they are generally always made of
silicone. They are put into the vagina to cover the cervix and are 92 to 96 percent effective
when used correctly.
c. Male and Female Condoms or spermicides - For Males: A very thin latex (rubber) polyurethane
(plastic) or synthetic sheath, put over the erect penis. For Females: Soft, thin polyurethane
sheath that loosely lines the vagina and covers the area just outside. Condoms are the best way
to help protect yourself from sexually transmitted infections
3. Behavioral Methods
a. Rhythm or Calendar Method – It is a way to determine a woman’s most fertile and interfile
times by charting the menstrual cycle. It is also known as natural family planning or fertility
awareness.
b. Abstinence or celibacy – It refers to the avoidance of sexual intercourse.
c. Outercourse – It is a sexual activity that does not include the insertion of the penis into the
vagina.

d. Withdrawal – it happens when a man removes his penis from vagina and ejaculate outside of
the woman’s body.
4. Sterilization (procedures that make an individual permanently incapable of conceiving or

fertilizing a partner)
a. Tubal Ligation /Sterilization – It is a surgery for

women in which fallopian tubes are tied to prevent
eggs from travelling to the uterus so a woman cannot
get pregnant.
b. Vasectomy – It is an operation in which the

surgeon makes a small cut in the upper part of the
scrotum then ties or blocks the vas deferens. Men can
still have orgasm or ejaculation after the operation.
5. Intrauterine Device (IUD) – It is a small device

that is placed in the uterus by a doctor to prevent
pregnancy.
6. Emergency Contraception - It is a measure that protects against pregnancy after unprotected sex
has already occurred. It could be through IUD or higher dosage of pills.
References:
Inc.
Marshall, E. and Tanner, S. Introduction to Psychology. Accessed July 28, 2020.

https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/6-3-adolescence-developing-independence-and-
identity/
Master, A. and Johnson, T. Human Sexual Response. Accessed July 28, 2020.
https://canvas.du.edu/courses/24161/files/1152570
Remez, R. Developing Adolescene. Accessed July 28, 2020.

https://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/develop.pdf
Rosenthal, M. (2013). Human Sexuality from Cells to Society. Asia: Cengage Learning
Seventeeth congress (First Regular session). Accessed July 20, 2020.
http://www.congress.gov.ph/legisdocs/first_17/CR00101.pdf

WEEK 11: MATERIAL SELF
The Material Self
This section focuses on how people maintain extensions of themselves through

material possessions and maintenance of particular lifestyles. In the context of what
the society values as needs and wants, this section discusses how an individual
acquires goods, the factors that shape his/her economic decisions, and what these
things say about one’s sense of self.
● Our possessions are a major contributor to and reflection of our identities. A variety of evidence
is presented supporting this simple and compelling premise. The Material self suggest that the
environment surroundings affects what we think we need versus to what we really need. This
also develops on thinking alone or thinking and deciding with other people in terms of
purchasing.
I shop, therefore, I am. I have, therefore, I am?
● Identities can be reflected on the possessions that people have. Some research are identified
and drawn upon in developing this concept which the concept is from consumer behavior. To
be able to identify this consumer behavior, people need to gain some understanding of the
meanings that consumer attach to possessions. People should first recognize that possessions,
intentionally or unintentionally, regard their possessions as parts of themselves.
● People are likely to purchase products that can relate to their personality. Material possessions
signify some aspects of one’s sense of self and identity.
● Possessions, tell a lot about their owners. Thus, one’s sense of self and identity is influential
on how an individual chooses to purchase his/her wants and how he/she makes economic
decisions that will address his/her personal and social needs
● The decisions that go into the purchase of items and certain services is dependent on a number
of factors, including financial constraints, availability of items and services, and the influence
of family and friends.
● However, the most important factor is determining whether these items and services fall under:
o Wants. Synonymous with luxuries. People buy them for reasons that do not warrant
necessity.
o Needs. These are importants for survival. Food, clothing, and shelter are basic needs
so people purchase them out of necessity.
● In the process of acquiring material goods, people generally consider 2 things:

o Utility. Concerned with how things serve a practical purpose.
o Significance. Concerned with the meaning assigned to the object. It is also concerned
with how objects become powerful symbols or icons of habit and ritual which can be
quite separate from their primary function.

● According to John Heskett, a British writer and lecturer on the economic, political, cultural and
human value of industrial design, design combines “need” and “desire” in the form of a
practical object that can also reflect the user’s identity and aspirations through its form and
decoration. For him, there is a significance and function behind everyday things. He explains
the effect of design in everyday life. This reflects the personal identity wherever the person is:
home, work, and restaurant or at a leisure place. This design really matters from the smallest
things like toothpick, spoon and fork, the kind and presentation of food that people eat up to
the bigger gadgets, equipment and cars.
● Roland Barthes (1915 – 1980) the

French theorist, was one of the first
to observe the relationship that
people have with objects, and in
particular looked at the objects as
signs or things which could be
decoded to convey messages
beyond their practical value.
● In the 1950s, he popularized the

field of Semiology (the study of
objects as signs). A sign is anything
that conveys meaning. It was
Barthes who revealed that
everyday objects are not just things
but a complex system of signs
which allows one to read meaning
into people and places. What
people increasingly produce are not material objects, but signs.
● In Semiotic analysis, objects function as signifiers in the production of meaning. For example,
clothes may have a simple functional meaning, to cover and protect the body but also double
up as a sign. They construct a meaning and carry a message, which as member of a culture one
can understand.
● According to him, a sign has two elements: signifier which refers to its physical form and
signified, the mental concepts it refers to. Hence, objects are not just things but are reflections
of the wider lives of communication and individuals. Not surprisingly, the clothes one wears,
the car one drives and the furnishing of one’s home, are all expressions of one self, even when
they act as disguises rather than reflections.
● As Tuan (1998) argues, “Our Fragile sense of self needs support, and this we get by having and
possessing things because, to a large degree, we are what we have and possess”. This premise
regarded possessions is a part of self of a person that is not a new concept. This is concluded
by William James who laid the foundations for modern conceptions of help, he said that “a
man’s self is the sum total of all the he can call his, not only his body and his psychic powers,
but this clothes and his house, his wife and children, his ancestors and friends, his reputation
and works, his lands, and yacht and bank-account.
● All these things give him the same emotions. If they wax and prosper, he feels triumphant; if
they dwindle and die away, he feels cast down,-not necessarily in the same degree for each

thing, but in much the same way for all.” If people define possessions as things they call theirs,
James was saying that people are the sum of their possessions.
● Some of the evidence is found in the nature of self-perceptions, particularly found in the
diminished sense of self when possessions are unintentionally lost or stolen. Anthropologically,
the role of possessions are treated ritually and after death.
● In addition, the self-have areas that are not reviewed more on the relationship between
possessions and sense of self. Essentially, the having, doing, and being can be a focus on
understanding material self that is relevant to the question of how people define who they are.
● In addition, material self can be explained in understanding self-extension. That is, both good
and bad aspects of objects are seen to attach to people through their physical contact or
proximity. This can result in multiple levels of self. On the other hand, to give importance on
the number of categories of possessions that are commonly incorporated into the sense of self.
Categories may be collections, money, pets, other people, and body parts.
● The Theory of the meaning of material possession suggest that material goods can fulfil a range
of instrumental, social, symbolic and affective functions:
1. Instrumental functions relate to the functional properties of a product. For example, a

person bought a pick-up style car for family and business functions.
2. Social symbolic function signifies personal qualities, social standing, group affiliation and
gender role. For instance buying Iphone instead of other mobile phones.
3. Categorical functions refers to the extent to which material possessions may be used to
communicate group membership or status.
4. Self-expression functions reflect a person’s unique qualities, values or attitudes. There are
people who may represent themselves by collecting objects with a Hello Kitty brand and
the like.
● Also Objects or Materials as Process of Self-Extension, which includes the following:
1. Ways of incorporating Possessions into the Extended Self
● Sartre suggests that there are three primary ways through which a person learns to regard an
object as part of self. One way is through appropriating or controlling an object for personal
use.

● This can be done through appropriate intangible or non ownable objects by overcoming,
conquering, or mastering them. . Similarly, it is only through learning to ride a first bicycle,
manipulating a new computer system, driving a first car, or successfully negotiating rapids in
a new kayak that these objects really become parts of the extended self. Sartre also sees giving
possessions to others as a means of extending self-a special form of control.
● A second way of having an object and incorporating it into self is by creating it; this view
echoes anthropological findings and Locke's (1690) political philosophy. Whether the thing
created is a material object or an abstract thought, the creator retains an identity in the object
for as long as it retains a mark or some other association with the person who brought it into
existence.
● This identity is codified through copyrights, patents, and scientific citations that preserve
associations between people and their mental creations. Sartre feels that buying an object is
merely another form of creating the object, and that even the latent buying power of money
contributes to a sense of self.
● The third way in which objects become a part of self is by knowing them. Whether the object
known is a person, place, or thing, Sartre maintains that the relationship in knowing the object
is inspired by a carnal and sexual desire to have the object.
2. Contamination
● Goffman (1971, pp. 44-47) suggests six modes of interpersonal contamination. An important
omission in this list of modes of interpersonal contamination is the acquisition of possessions
of another person that have been intimately associated with that person. The following are some
of the contamination a person may experience:
Violation of one's personal space
Touching and bodily contact;
Glancing, looking, and staring;
Noise pollution;
Talking to/addressing one
Bodily excreta. Corporeal excreta (spittle, snot, perspiration, food particles, blood,
semen, vomit, urine, and fecal matter-and stains of these); b. Odor (e.g., flatus, tainted
breath, body smells); c. Body heat (e.g., on toilet seats); d. Markings left by the body
(e.g., plate leavings-leftover food).
3. Maintaining Multiple Levels of Self
● As previously noted, some possessions are more central to self than are others. The possessions
central to self may be visualized in concentric layers around the core self, and will differ over
individuals, over time, and over cultures that create shared symbolic meanings for different
goods.
● However, there is another sense in which the individual has a hierarchical arrangement of levels
of self, because people exist not only as individuals, but also as collectivities. They often define
family, group, subculture, nation, and human selves through various consumption objects.

● Boorstin (1973) suggests, one of the key ways of expressing and defining group membership
is through shared consumption symbols. Such symbols help identify group membership and
define the group self. Just as an individual may use personal possessions such as jewelry,
automobile, make-up, and clothing to help define an individual sense of self, a family is most
apt to use distinct family possessions to define a family self for its members.
● The first is that the house is a symbolic body for the family. Just as clothing alters the
individual's body, furnishings and decorations alter the family's body. The second important
point is that the expressive imagery of the house that is definitional of the family is only fully
acquired during consumption. At the point of acquisition, only a portion of the ultimate
meaning of these objects is present
● In considering the functions of extended self, discussion was directed toward the relative roles
that having, doing, and being play in people’s lives and identities. Developmental evidence
suggests that this identification with things begins quite early in life as the infant learns to
distinguish self from the environment and then from others who may envy a person’s
possessions.
● Emphasis on material possessions tends to decrease with age, but remains high throughout life
as people seek to express themselves through possessions and use material possessions to seek
happiness, remind themselves
of experiences,
accomplishments, and other
people in their lives, and even
create a sense of immortality
after death. The accumulation
of possessions provides a
sense of past and tells people
who they are, where they came
from and where they are going.
● Self-extension occurs through

control and mastery of an
object, through creation of an
object, through knowledge of
an object, and through
contamination via proximity
and habituation to an object.
The extended self operates not
only on an individual level, but
also on a collective level
involving family, group,
subcultural, and national
identities. These additional levels of self were posited to account for certain behaviors that
might be seen as selfless in the narrower individual sense of self.

The role of Consumer Culture on the Sense of Self and Identity
● Consumers unconsciously (and sometimes consciously) know that their possessions are
intimately tied to their sense of the self. Product ownership and use help consumers define and
live out their identity. By implication, then, the current view construes a dichotomy between
what one is sans possessions and what one becomes due to or with possessions.
● Consumer Identity is the pattern of consumption that describes the consumer. People may no
longer consume goods and services primarily because of its functional satisfaction. This
develops the consumer culture. Consumption has become increasingly more meaning-based:
brands are often used as symbolic resources for the construction and maintenance of identity.
● Brands and products are now being used by many consumers to express their identities. People
may construct their social identities through the consumption of commercial brands or luxury
commodities. This is one of the basic features of people in the modern era, a behavior that leads
to consumerism.
● Consumerism is the preoccupation with an inclination towards the buying of consumer goods.
This is because of the availability of the pen market or technology based market. High class
consumption is attached to the identities of people in the society and it legitimizes consumer
culture in the daily lives of people.
● To fully explicate that view and tease out the underlying theory, it is first necessary to dissect
this sans possessions' self. Decomposing the sans possessions' self would help us place
possessions in a better context—how possessions fit into the consumer's self. The sans
possession' view of self is populated in the consumer behavior literature by two visibly
different discourses.
● The first is a 'personal identity' view, wherein self is seen as a multi-faceted, multi-layered,
social and psychological being, reflecting, deeply and continually, on itself. This conception
has blossomed richly in the post-modem, interpretivist consumer research literature where it is
referred to as the core self.
● A consumer's identity is deemed to reside in a personal narrative —the story consumers

constantly construct and play out in their minds about who they are and/or are striving to
become. Self is viewed as a sum of personal qualities, more or less enduring, that an individual
sees himself in possession of. These include personality traits in their subjective version (i.e.,

personality traits as perceived by the person himself/herself) as well as any superficial
behavioral and body appearance traits.
● The self-narrative conception of identity offers a rich literary view against which products and
brands may be appraised for potential fit. But it calls for intensive high-skilled ethnographic
research. The self-image view lends itself to easy, quantitative measurement. But as already
argued, this view is anchored and embedded entirely in personality-like dispositions and
surface characteristics and ignores other content' —described below.
● This view serves, if at all, to appraise consumers' superficial images of self, and to deploy this
brand of research in self-image brand-image congruence models (e.g., Malhotra, 1981; Todd,
2001). However, brand choices, particularly those made to primarily enact and advance one's
self concept, often go beyond such superficial image' congruence.
● Purchase can be the consumer's self-concept or self-identity. This includes both sans
possessions' self and the extended self, and is often the object of introspection among most
consumers at one time or the other. Although the concept of 'I' can include virtually everything
a person ever come to own and live with, a systematic list would include six components: (a)
their bodies; (b) their values and character; (c) their success and competence, (d) their social
roles, (e) their traits, and, finally (f) their possessions.
● Not all products a person consumes become possessions. Some are clearly consumables, not
possessions. And not all products that qualify to be called possessions become part of the
extended self. Even so, products (consumables and durables alike) can relate to one's self-
concept without becoming part of the self-concept. This would be the case when products are
instrumental in furthering some component of the self-concept.
● If a person had to invest a lot of resources (money, time, energy) finding and selecting a product
then to psychologically justify that kind of investment, people tend to view that product as part
of their extended self. For this reason, more expensive purchases and hard to find purchases,
and purchases for which they saved for a long time are more likely to become part of the
extended self.
● Products thus can relate to one's self in two ways: (a) by being instrumental to enhancing their
self sans possessions,' and (b) by becoming a valued possession. As to the second role, product
possessions become part of self (actually extended self by six mechanisms described above: by
self-based choice, by investment in acquisition, by investment in use, by bonding during use,
as collections, and as memory markers.

WEEK12: SPIRITUAL SELF
THE SPIRITUAL SELF
This chapter discuss the different world religions, the beliefs of early
Filipinos on different gods and goddesses, superstitious beliefs, beliefs in faith
healer, soul and spirit and how those beliefs was changed since the Spanish and
American colonization. It also discuss the different rituals, ceremonies, the
practice of religion, magic and witchcraft and also finding and creating the
meaning of life.
The practice of religion: belief in supernatural being and power
● According to Giddens (2006), religion is a cultural system of commonly shared beliefs and rituals
that provide a sense of ultimate meaning by creating an idea of reality that is sacred, all-
encompassing and supernatural.
● He identified the key elements of

religion such as (a) religion is a form of
culture-shares all characteristics of
culture such as shared beliefs, values
that create an identity, (b) religion
involves beliefs that take the form of
ritualized practices - all members
engage in behaviors that identify them
as members of the community, and (c)
religion provides a sense of purpose-
feeling that life is ultimately
meaningful.
● In addition, Durkheim (1912) defined

religion as a unified system of beliefs
and practices relative to sacred things,
things set-apart and forbidden beliefs
and practices which unite into one
single moral community called a
Church, all those who adhere to them.
https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2016/08/22/understand-todays-world-more-
students-should-study-religion-essay
● Statistics indicate Christianity as the world’s largest religion with a 33% population. It is followed
by Islam with a 21% population, Hinduism with a 14% population, Buddhism with 6% population,
Chinese Traditionalism at around 6% and Judaism at only about 0.22%.

● Philippines is the only Christian country in the South East Asia. Filipinos show their religiosity
through participating on different religious practices such as baptism, fiestas, “sinakulo,” prayer,
fellowship, communion, and other activities related to church.
● Before the Spanish colonization, Filipinos believed in animism, a belief that all objects have
spirits. They also believed in supernatural being. According to McClenon (1991), the concept of
supernatural has been shaped by the Western notion of nature and causality and it is culturally
specific.
● Filipinos praised the trees, plants, sun, moon, stars and other living and non-living things. They
also praised the spirit of their ancestors, which is called “cult of the dead.” They believed on the
immortality of the soul. An evidence of this is the Manunungul Jar where the remains of the dead
were kept. This image shows the belief of life after death by early Filipinos.

https://pt.slideshare.net/topengpogi/sculpture-72009328
● The memories of the dead are remained through carving their image using gold and stone. This is
called “larawan” or “likha” in Tagalog, “diwata” in Bisaya and “bul-ol” in Ifugao. They also
offered sacrifices and prayers for guidance, sympathy and beseech. Not all “anitos” are good, there
are few who are evil.
● The priestess which is also called as “baylan,” “babaylan,” or “katalona” does the ritual or offering.
Early Filipinos practiced polytheism, a belief in many gods, which was brought by the early
Chinese and Indian merchants. Some of their gods are Bathala, the Almighty God, Agni, God of
Fire, Mandarangan, God o War, Sidapa, God of Death, Lalahon, God of Harvest, and Siginarugan,
God of Hell. These beliefs are passed orally to the next generation.
https://www.silent-gardens.com/culture.php
● However, there were some changes on the beliefs of the early Filipinos when the Spaniards
brought Christianity in the archipelago. The changes were not immediate because early beliefs are

already practiced in the country. What the Spaniards did was, they adopted the Christianity in the
belief of Filipinos on animism. Monotheism was introduced by Spaniards, a belief in only God,
which has three personas, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.
● According to the Holy Bible, they already existed before the creation of the world. God the Father
sent his son, Jesus Christ to save humanity, which whoever believes in Him should not perish but
have an eternal life. When Jesus Christ died and rose after three days, the holy spirit was left in
humanity which serves as the conscience that guides the human beings in doing right things and
avoiding committing sins.
● Not all tribes are converted into Christianity,

some of them remained in their animism
beliefs. At present, where modern technology
is part of the lives of Filipinos, there are some
who are still following and practicing the
superstitious beliefs.
● According to Daskeo (2012), many Filipinos

still spice their life with superstitious beliefs that they strongly believe could help them cope
with day to day activities especially most important events in life such as marriage, finding a job,
and moving to a new house.
● Common Superstitions:
o If a person bites their tongue, it means somebody is thinking of them;
o A girl with shite spots on her fingernails is inconstant in love;
o It is bad to sweep the floor at six o’clock in the evening for it means driving away good
fortune and graces
o One should not open an umbrella while inside a house; a centipede is likely to fall from
the ceiling;
o If a pregnant woman sews her dress while wearing it, her baby will born without hole in
the rectum;
o Appearance of a comet foretells war
https://www.shopback.ph/blog/tabi-tabi-po-top-10-pinoy-superstitions https://blog.rarejob.com.ph/archive/10-superstitious-beliefs-filipino-funerals/

● These superstition beliefs are passed by the early ancestors orally and still practiced by some of
the Filipinos in recent times. With the influence of Americans and science, the numbers of
Filipinos following superstitious beliefs were diminished.
● One of the influences of American colonization is the introduction of science in the day to day
lives of Filipinos especially on health and sanitation. Their influence taught the Filipinos that
believing in superstitious beliefs may be detrimental to health. Like do not throw the dusts outside
the house after sweeping the floor, because you may experience difficulty in money matters.
The Concept of “Dungan” (Spirit or Soul)
● The term animism is one of the oldest beliefs which is taken from the Latin word Anima meaning
breath or soul. Animism is the belief that everything in nature – living things like trees, plants, and
even non-living rocks or streams – have their own spirit or divinity. Animism beliefs are still
present, accepted and never entirely disappeared.
● The soul according to the indigenous Filipinos is known as Kaluluwa, Ikararuwa or kararuwa. It
is taken from the root word duwa which means two. The soul has two parts – one is the physical
part, where it is connected to the body and its life, and other spiritual, where it exists on its own.
● For Ibanags, the soul is the principle of life in man. Body is the matter; soul is the form. As long
as the body and soul are one unit, man is alive.
● Death is the separation of the soul from the body. The body cannot stay alive without the soul. But
the soul can live without the body. Freed from the body, it ceases to experience thirst and hunger,
cold and heat. As spirit, the soul is the opposite of the body which is matter.
● The Dungan may leave the body voluntarily while the person is asleep according to BIsayans.
Among the ancient Filipinos, when the person is asleep they should not be awakened quickly in
order to give ample time for the Dungan to return to the body.
● While the Dungan is travelling outside of the body it should be free from accidents because there
is a possibility that it might be trapped in a jar or be poured out with liquid from a vessel. When
the soul has safety returned home to the body of its owner, they could then be awakened.
● It is for this reason that the Dungan needs protection and nurture. Soul-nature, the folks believe,
means the performance of age-old spirit rituals many of which are still followed in the local
provinces today. Examples of these are birth, illness and death rituals consisting of trances,

prayers, and animal sacrifices. An adult person with a healthy Dungan properly lodged in his
physical body will have bodily health and well-being, intelligence and good sense.
Religion, Spirituality, Magic, Witchcraft and Identity
The Function of Rituals

● Ritual traditions of Filipinos are best understood in terms of their intentions. At the core of any
ritual, balance between man and nature, and the spirit world is very important. Rituals is an attempt
to enhance and maintain this balance.
● This is evident in some villages which perform rituals to restore the state of affairs when the
balance is lost. Human nature are innumerable reasons for causing a shift in this balance. There
are equally innumerable rituals that can be done to correct the imbalance. This is the reason for
having a broad range of ritual practices in the Philippines (Obusan, 2015).
● Rituals have several functions. There are rituals to have a good harvest, ask for the guidance and
protection from their ancestors and unseen forces, to heal the sick, to bring good luck and to
conceive.
● Like in the case of Ifugao. They have rituals for marriage. If the two couples are planning to tie
the knot, they will ask guidance from their ancestors. The butcher opens the body of a sacrificial
pig and they examine if the internal organs of the pig are healthy or not. If it is healthy, they have
the approval to tie the knot this year, if not, they may try again in the following year. The purpose
of this ritual is to study the carcass for omens that guides them in their decision like marriage.
● Dance and chants are a very essential part of their ritual. Rituals are usually accompanied by
dances. It is the higher symbolic form for the Filipino. It represents the distillation of collective
memory, affect, religious piety, humility, and purity of intention. Even a complex message can be
articulated or maybe understood through dance (Obusan 2015).
http://philippineslifestyle.com/punnuk-an-ancient-celebration-of-harvest-at-the-ifugao-rice-terraces/

Rituals and Ceremonies
● Magos (1997), discussed the mara-it or dangerous zone of Panay Island. According to her,
Panaynon believes in spirit beings in the sea like siokoy (half-man, half fish sea monster) and
the mangingilaw (half man, half monkey man eating monster) forest which are very harmful. They
also believe that the earth and the universe has a layered structure with spirit beings live in each
layer.
● Lupan-on are spirits beings who live on land, the idalmunon are spirit beings who live underneath
the surface of the earth and the tubignon are spirit beings who live in water. These folks remind
them that the earth is sacred, inhabited by the spirit and thus dangerous. If Panaynon uses the
earth's resources with discourtesy or greed, they will make the spirits angry. There are necessary
fishing and farming rites to be performed regularly to gain the favor from spirits such as daga
(bloodletting) and the samba (communal fishing rite).
● People of Zambales also conduct a ritual in building their house. According to the official website
of the Provincial Government of Zambales, residents of this province perform rituals before
building a house. The ritual starts with choosing which day is specified in the Pilaton as a good
day to start the project.
● According to Ms. Cristeta Acebes, principal of Uyugan Elementary School (2012), “pilaton,”
refers to a list of dates, including the phases of the moon, that would ensure the success of any
major undertaking or activity of residents in the province. The second step is burying coins in the
first hole during laying of foundation. Fresh animal blood is allowed to be dropped in the same
place. On the day set to roof the house, relatives, neighbours and friends usually come to help.
Those who cannot perform actual construction work normally offer akhad (anything that can be
served or cooked as food) or tudung (drinks, usually wine) (Provincial Government of Zambales).
http://www.batanes.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/rituals2.jpg

Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft
Religion
● Religion came from the
Latin word religio means
to respect or care for. It is
generally defined as;
“belief in, worship of, or
obedience to a
supernatural power or
powers considered to be
divine or to have control
of human destiny."
● According to Santrock
(2014), religion is an
organized set of beliefs,
practices, rituals and
symbols that increases an
individual’s connection to
a sacred or transcendent
other (God, higher power,
ultimate truth).
● It may also be referred to as an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, rules used to worship
god. Another description for religion is, an interest, a belief, or an activity deemed to be of utmost
importance to a person or group.
● However, there is no exact definition of religion. Religion is functional especially in the unification
of a certain place or country. It binds the people through its teachings, practices and the end goal
that everyone wants to attain. If there is no religion, what would be the content and priority of the
law making body in creating and proposing a bill in the congress? Probably, that would be the
earthly things in the world.
● Religiousness is the degree by which one is affiliated with an organized religion in terms of the
person’s participation in the prescribed rituals and practices, connection with its beliefs and
involvement with its community of believers.
● Spirituality, on the other hand, involves experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent
manner and living in a way that benefits others and society. It could be related to a search for the
sacred.
● The term “sacred” may signify a person, an object, a principle, or a concept that transcends the
self. The sacred can include a divine being or a divine object that is “set apart” and considered as
holy or beyond ordinary. The reference to what religion is, also refers to the dynamics of the
meaning attached to spirituality. It emerges as people relate to the developmental and existential
challenges of the search for the meaning of existence amidst the ambiguity of life.
● Spiritual identity is the persistent sense of self that addresses ultimate questions about the nature,
purpose and meaning of life. It results in behavior that are consonant with the individual’s core

values. The definition of a sense of
spiritual identity focuses on the
individual construction of a
relationship to the sacred and
ultimate meaning.
Magic
● Magic is the power apparently
influencing the course of events by
using mysterious or supernatural
forces. It is the ability to use
supernatural forces to make
impossible things happen, such as
making people disappear or
controlling events in nature.
● A magician is usually a worker in the kind of magic that is on the whole public and good, whereas
a sorcerer is generally considered an evil figure, one who deals in matters that his or her clients
would rather keep secret and one whose work may be downright antisocial (Frankle and Stein,
2005).
● A sorcerer is translated from the Greek word pharmakos, and carries with it the idea of medicine,
magic potion, drugs, and poison. A wizard is one who is thought to be acquired with the secrets
of the nonmaterial or unseen world while a necromancer is one who is “seeking unto the dead”. It
is a term that includes all forms of attempt to make contact with departed spirits.
● Balang is the Filipino term for a sorcerer. It is used to describe malignant sorcery or familiar spirits
(usually a swarm of destructive insects, specially carnivorous beetles). In the Philippines, it
swarms small invisible insects residing in bamboos that enter the body through open space causing
the intestine, stomach, lungs, and liver to swell during high tides and shrink during low tides.
Mambabarang is a person who practices this specific type of sorcery or witchcraft. Binarang is
the target (usually a person) of sorcery or witchcraft.
● Kulam is the Tagalog word for “voodoo” or “witchcraft”. It is one of the most well-known aspects
of Philippine folklore. The fear of kulam usually has an effect on how a person conducts himself
in the community and on how people treat each other in a community. A mangkukulam is a person
who uses black magic or spells on a victim. After the spell is cast, the victim will experience a
form of illness which cannot be cured by modern medicine, misfortunes to himself and loved ones,
inability to concentrate, lack of sleep, loss of appetite, freak accidents, and other unexplained
events.
● Albulario/mananambal is a Filipino practitioner of traditional medicine; he is also a medicine man

who is also capable of performing sorcery. Albulario is a Filipino witch doctor, folk healer or
medicine man. When the person feels that his ailments and misfortunes are caused by kulam, he
consults an albulario who performs rituals in order to defeat the spells of the mangkukulan and
bring the person back to normalcy.
● Most Filipinos aside from being a superstitious people believe in the mythical creatures of local
folklore which includes the aswang, manananggal, kapre, dwende, sirena, syokoy, engkanto,
sigbin, tikbalang, tianak and many others. According to local folklore such creatures inhabit dark

forest and unexplored regions of barrios in the provinces. Each region has their own mythical
creature which usually comes out in the night looking for food in the form: fresh blood, pregnant
mothers (they target the fetus), and human organs like the liver or for victims to take them into the
other world.
Finding and Creating Meaning
● Everybody is experiencing different challenges and problems in life. Some have common
problems, but some do not. Some have different strategies in solving the same problems. There
are some who are good at hiding their problems or sufferings. Some people may think their
problems are bigger than the problems of others. However, when they ask some people or have an
open forum, they will realize that they are wrong. There are other people who have bigger and
more difficult problems than them.
● Viktor Frankl an Austrian neurologist and psychologist

founded Logotherapy. Logotherapy is based on the
premise that the human person is motivated by a “will to
meaning,” an inner pull to find a meaning in life (Frankl
1988). Finding and creating meaning in life is what Viktor
Frankl would like to teach to everybody. The following
list of tenets represents basic principles of logotherapy:
http://pagehanify.com/7criteria/coaching/mans-search-for-meaning-dr-viktor-frankl/
1. Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones.
● Every occurrence in one’s life has meaning. People tend to find the meaning of that occurrence
especially if it is a good incident or circumstances. However, they tend to ask themselves or God
for the occurrence of bad happenings in their lives. Sometimes, they ask themselves and God,
“why did it happen to them?” “why did it happen to their love ones, despite that they are good
people, they do not deserve to experience that such sufferings, but why them?” There are things
beyond the control of humanity, cannot explain by their minds and intelligence, but Almighty God
can. Individuals must realize that whatever circumstances they have, even if it is good or not, they
must find that life has meaning. Those circumstances have purpose and meaning in their lives.
2. Our main motivation for living is our will to find meaning in life.
● People experience different sufferings in life in terms of relationship, love, studies, money, job,
etc. Finding meaning in life despite the sufferings should be the main motivation for living. An
example of this is, an individual who developed an inner hatred towards her family when she knew
that her mother tried many times to abort her due to poverty and her siblings bullied her that she
was an adopted child. She developed a thought that she is not part of the family and even at the
start, she is an unwanted child. This pushes her to be the black sheep of the family and be involved
in different vices. Time is a good healer. During her rebellious stage, she realized that she was
only destroying herself, it will not change the attitude and personality of her family. She also
realized that she only needs to accept her family as they are and forgive the family members who
caused her pain. Being a rebellious person will not make her family to change. The change will
start on one’s initiative and not by other people. Finally, she found the meaning of her life. The
feeling of rejection disappeared as times went by. She was alive when she was still an unborn child
because someday, she will serve as the light of other people living in a dark life and will be an

inspiration to the youth. Those are her motivations for living. She is thankful to the Almighty God
for discovering the meaning of her life.
3. We have freedom to find meaning in what we do, and what we experience, or at least in the
stand we take when faced with a situation of unchangeable suffering.
● Problems and challenges are inevitable. These make individuals strong and hold their faith to their
God. These also make them to be flexible in a changing and dynamic society, to win in the battle
or to accept the defeat but with satisfactory adjustment. Everybody is entitled to have and practice
freedom in finding meaning in whatever they do or experience. They are not slaves to anyone and
are not manipulated by other people. Their actions should not be dictated by anyone, rather, it is
their will that will be done. It is the right of everybody to look for the meaning in their lives when
faced with a situation of unchangeable suffering. Situations with unchangeable suffering may
cause pain, but at the end of the day, individuals will find its purpose in their lives.
● According to Frankl, everybody can discover the meaning in their life in three different ways:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tCpa0AFepoM
1. By creating a work or doing a deed

o Individuals will find the meaning in their lives through the works, accomplishments, and
achievements they have. This will give insights and realization to individuals that creating
or doing something specially to fulfill not only their needs but also the needs of other
people, that they will find the meaning of their life.
2. By experiencing something or encountering someone

o Individuals will discover the meaning in their lives by opening opportunities to experience
something or to meet other people. Confining themselves in a four corner of their room
will only limit themselves to new experiences of life. If they tend to open themselves to
new experiences or to encounter other people, their world will be wider. They will realize
that others’ problems and situations are more difficult than them; that they are less
fortunate people; that they have to give importance to their lives and to the people that
love them; and to change themselves to become good and responsible individuals.

3. By the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering and that everything can be taken from
a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms—to choose one's attitude in any given
set of circumstances
● Individuals will find meaning in their lives by having a positive attitude towards circumstances.
Failures in life, for example, is unavoidable suffering that gives pain to individuals. Facing those
failures in a positive way with a positive and right attitude will make individuals more mature,
more responsible, and think more ways to solve the problems. Having a positive attitude in facing
the problems will also help individuals to cope up with the problems like death of a love one. It
will make them cope up easily and move on with their lives without losing their cherished
memories.
References:
Acebes, C. Understanding the Self. Accessed July 28, 2020.

https://www.actionresearch.net/living/rawalpdf/Chapter7.pdf
Daskeo , K. Self-awareness and Self-knowledge. Accessed July 28, 2020.

https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/30157/1/gupea_2077_30157_1.pdf
Frankle, V & Stein, G. Examination of Self. Accessed July 28. 2020.

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1163278.pdf
Frankl, V. Man’s Search for meaning. Accessed July 28, 2020.

https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/3403095/mod_resource/content/1/56ViktorFrankl_Mans%20Sea
rch.pdf
Inc.
Giddens, A. Self-Identity in Modernity. Accessed July 30, 2020.

https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/12134/1/Self-Identity%20in%20Modernity.pdf
Magos.J. Invisible Voices. Accessed July 28, 2020. https://www.diva-

portal.org/smash/get/diva2:788803/FULLTEXT01.pdf
McClenon, J. Handbook of Self and Identity. Accessed July 29, 2020.

https://dornsife.usc.edu/assets/sites/782/docs/handbook_of_self_and_identity_-_second_edition_-
_ch._4_pp._69-104_38_pages.pdf
Santrock, J (2014) Adolescence. New York, USA: McGraw Hill International edition

WEEK 13: POLITICAL SELF: DEVELOPING ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP
This section discusses the nature of politics, elements of active citizenship,

and how they shape one’s political self. It details how one can become
actively involved in political and communal affairs, and how they are
significant to the shaping of the self.
The brief primers on Politics, Citizenship and the Self and Active Citizenship were accessed July 27, 2020
from https://utsged101portfolio.wordpress.com/section-1-the-political-self-developing-active-
citizenship/rio's
POLITICS, CITIZENSHIP AND THE SELF
 As members of the society, people are naturally obligated to participate in a political system as social
citizens. Politics refers to the actions or activities concerned with achieving and using power in a
nation or society. It is also defined as the ways that power is shared in an organization and the ways
it is affected by personal relationships between people who work together.
 As Aristotle stated, “man is, by nature, a political animal.” This is because man is a social being and
that people naturally drawn to various political involvements in order to satisfy their social needs.
 Politics as imbibed by man implies several things:
1. Politics is concerned with power. Power inequalities can be observed within societies. The one
who holds power holds influence.
2. Politics functions based on a particular social economic and cultural context. The nature of
politics and political systems is dependent on the culture of the state. Political claims made by
advocates are influenced by their geographical location and ideology.
3. The political is also personal. One’s personal choices reflect his/her personal politics; both are
indistinguishable.
4. Politics goes hand in hand with the society. Politics pervades the structure of society, and thus
influences inhabitants in their beliefs, ethics, and behavior.
 However, the political self is not only shaped by one’s political affiliation or beliefs. One’s sense of
accountability should be manifested in promoting certain advocacies through healthy political
engagement. This is aligned with the concept of active citizenship.

ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP
 Active citizenship refers to the structured forms of engagement with political processes and
everyday forms of participation in society. It is also defined as the process of sharing decisions which
affect one’s life and the life of a community in which one lives. Participation is the fundamental right
of citizenship.
 Active citizenship is anchored on one’s cognitive and behavioral engagement to participate in
formal and informal political activities. Different people manifest different levels of active
citizenship; some they take a more active approach in making their voices heard.
 Active citizenship is a practice of democracy. Democracy should not only be thought of as a form
of government. It is a communal system that allows volitional freedom of citizens to make
informed choices that allow them to be heard.
 Active citizenship is a social construct. It fosters social relatedness and belongingness.
 The most important goal of active citizenship is to instil change and influence society at large.
Active citizenship is also associated with the “sense of community.” People, including adolescents,
participate in communal activities because it gives a sense of belonging in a particular group. Active
citizenship may facilitate ethnic pride and provide a voice to the woes of their social group.
For the younger generation, active citizenship can contribute to their social development. Engaging
in such activities can also enhance efficacy and competence of the younger generation, as they are
considered to be the “future leaders” of the society. The participation of the youth in nation-building
activities enhances their value orientation and fosters integrity, compassion, and the sense of justice,
which are crucial to the holistic development of a citizen of a nation.
Active citizenship helps an individual embrace his/her individuality through the choices he/she
makes and the behavior he/she manifests. The political self is a result of various personal and
environmental factors that impact the individual. The participation of the youth in political discourse
and social activities can result in cultural and political paradigm shifts that may be felt even by future
generations. Thus, the future begins now.
SOURCE: The Political Self: Developing Active Citizenshp. Steven C. Valerio's Blog. Accessed July 19, 2020.
https://utsged101portfolio.wordpress.com/section-1-the-political-self-developing-active-citizenship/rio's

WEEK 14: DIGITAL SELF
This section explores the impact of technology on the society. It focuses on

how technology use enables people to become digital citizens, how it
sustains relationships and forge collaborations with other people, and what
kind of digital identities are being forged while outlining the responsible
use of technology.
The brief primer on The Self in the Digital World was accessed July 27,
2020 from https://utsged101portfolio.wordpress.com/section-2-the-digital-
self-uncovering-digital-citizenship
THE SELF IN THE DIGITAL WORLD
 The millennial generation is known to be the generation of digital natives because millennials were
born in an era of rapid technological advancement. As a result, daily life is almost always dependent
on the functions of technology, especially the internet which provides people with a venue of
presenting their identified through social media platforms.
 The advent of technology comes with a corresponding challenge: to ensure that technology is used
properly. This is the essence of digital citizenship, which refers to the norms of appropriate and
responsible behaviour towards technology use. Digital citizenship is anchored in 3 general
principles: respecting, educating, and protecting oneself and others. Digital citizenship serves the
purpose or regulating human behaviour in a highly-technological and digital world.
 A major concern of living in the digital era is how technology shapes one’s sense of self and identity.
One concept that is related to the concept of the digital self is online disinhibition. It is defined as
the lack of restraint one feels when communicating online in comparison to communicating in
person.
 Some individuals lose their inhibition in social interactions because there is an aspect of being
present only in the virtual, a sort of anonymity. Anonymity may serve as an option for individuals
who are naturally shy and introverted to express their thoughts, without threat to their self-esteem.
 Nowadays, however, people are more inclined to show their own personalities via online channels.
The internet becomes a multi-media venue for showcasing personal traits, qualities, and even
experiences. The values and beliefs he/she upholds are also expressed in his/her online behavior.
Thus, technology, through the development of virtual spaces and communities accessible through
the internet, can be a basis of evaluating the consistency of the self.
 The permeating nature of technology has also influenced various technological and online behaviors
people manifest. Within the concept of digital citizenship, there are 9 themes that cover these
behaviors:

 The themes listed above emphasize the proliferation of technology in the world and how they are
used for specific purposes. Suffice it to say, technology is here to stay. There is a need to adapt to
the dynamic changes that technology entails.
 Technology offers limitless opportunities; its presence is inevitable. However, technology need not
control the society and people’s lives. An individual must define himself/herself based solely on
his/her terms.
Source: The Digital Self: Uncovering Digital Citizenship. Steven C. Valerio's Blog. Accessed July 19,
2020. https://utsged101portfolio.wordpress.com/section-2-the-digital-self-uncovering-digital-citizenship/

This article was accessed July 27, 2020 from https://sensum.co/blog/the-digital-self-why-do-we-express-
ourselves-on-social-media-like-we-do
THE DIGITAL SELF: WHY DO WE EXPRESS OURSELVES ON SOCIAL MEDIA LIKE WE

DO?
The Development of the Digital Self

The idea of the digital self developed from the original phenomenon of the ‘extended self’, pioneered by
Russell Belk in 1988. He believed our possessions are a major contributor to and reflection of our identities.
Back in the day, it was external objects, such as clothes, jewellery and cars etc. that he believed we used
and considered as part of ourselves. Think about it, could you live without your smartphone or laptop? (Be
honest…)
Nowadays however, it isn’t merely tangible belongings that researchers consider as part of our extended
self. Our digital possessions such as photos, videos, statuses, texts, and emails are now seen to be
significantly important to shaping our digital self.
Why do we have a Digital Self?

The idea of the Digital Self is an interesting and relatively new topic discussed in consumer behaviour
research. Researchers, such as Stone (1996) and Hemetsburger (2005) claim that the digital web allows us
to try out different personas that differ from our real life identities. But why would we want to even do this?
We were especially interested in looking at why we express ourselves online the way we do and we wanted
to share the most common reasons:
 We want to meet the expectation of others: research shows over 50% of women would edit their
social media photos to look better and meet the expectations that the media and magazines have set
 We want to boost our self-esteem: people upload photos and statuses online that they feel will
receive ‘likes’ and positive feedback in which ultimately helps their egos
 To feel a sense of belonging: Some of us want to fit in with the crowd and upload things that are
‘down with the trend’ - for instance, who notices the amount of people posting pictures of their
food increasing? It didn’t come from nowhere.
 Bigger sense of freedom: Unlike real life, digital platforms allow us to express ourselves in any
way we want to without anyone there to physically judge us
 Striving to be our ideal selves: Digital Apps, such as Facetune, that allow us to improve our
appearances on photos (through teeth whitening, skin smoothing and body shape editing) helps
consumers to express as their ‘ideal’ self online and inevitably feel better about themselves
In conclusion, the digital world has provided us with greater opportunities to express our identity in any
form we want to. But what we all need to remember is: how will we feel if we go so far to express ourselves
differently online that we forget what reality is, or worse, we end up resenting it?
Accessed July 27, 2020 from https://sensum.co/blog/the-digital-self-why-do-we-express-ourselves-on-

social-media-like-we-do.

WEEK 15-17: MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF
In this section you are expected to develop your own self-care routine plan to demonstrate your
understanding of managing and caring for one’s self. This section focuses on learning to be a better student,
goal setting for success and taking charge of one’s health.
WEEK 15: A. LEARNING TO BE A BETTER STUDENT
There is no doubt that being the better student is advantageous. The better
student you are, the more you will learn, and that knowledge will serve you
well throughout your life.
Read the articles on How Learning Happens in the Human Brain;

Metacognition and Study Strategies; and Managing Your Own Learning:
Self-Regulated Learning. And answer Activity # 17.
HOW LEARNING HAPPENS IN THE HUMAN BRAIN
To understand the way learning occurs in the brain, here’s a brief primer.
 Learning is simply what the brain does. Whether you are studying Math, refining your dance
moves, remembering a conversation with a dear friend, or reading the lecture notes, it’s all about
learning.
 Learning is a physical process in which new knowledge is represented by new brain cell
connections. The strength and formation of these connections are facilitated by chemicals in the
brain called growth factors.
 As a result of breakthroughs in neuroscience research, including neuroimaging and neuroelectric

monitoring of neurons (brain cells) firing, we now can observe how the brain responds during
learning. These technologies provide visible representations of the brain's response to instructional
practices, revealing neurological activity as information travels from the body's sensory intake
systems through the attention and emotional filters, forming memory linkages and activating the
highest cognitive networks of executive function (Accessed July 27, 2020 from
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/119008/chapters/How-the-Brain-Learns-Best.aspx).
 Brain is an enormous network of neurons. Each tiny neuron is a pretty complicated little machine.
Each neuron connects with many other neurons. It “listens” for electrical and chemical signals from
other neurons and fires its own signal, an action potential, when it receives enough input from the

neurons that connect to it. The action potential gets “heard” by other neurons and influences their
firing as well. Put together billions and billions of these neurons into a network; wire up some of
the inputs to senses like vision, touch, and hearing; wire up some of the outputs to muscles… and
you get an amazingly complex system capable of thought, learning, memory, and emotion
(Accessed July 27, 2020 from https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2018/01/26/what-processes-are-
taking-place-in-our-brains-when-we-learn-new-things/#2f6543a951f9).
 The article below presents evidence based explanation on how the brain learns.
How the Brain Learns
Accessed July 27, 2020 from https://trainingindustry.com/articles/content-development/how-the-brain-

learns/
The brain acts as a dense network of fiber pathways consisting of approximately 100 billion (1010)
neurons. The brain consists of three principle parts – stem, cerebellum and cerebrum – as shown in Figure
1 below. Of the three, the cerebrum is most important in learning, since this is where higher-ordered
functions like memory and reasoning occur. Each area of the cerebrum specializes in a function – sight,
hearing, speech, touch, short-term memory, long-term memory, language and reasoning abilities are the
most important for learning.
Figure 1: The Human Brain
So how does learning happen? Through a network of neurons, sensory information is transmitted by
synapses (see Figure 2) along the neural pathway and stored temporarily in short-term memory, a volatile
region of the brain that acts like a receiving center for the flood of sensory information we encounter in our
daily lives.

Figure 2: Synapse Across Two Neurons
Once processed in short-term memory, our brain’s neural pathways carry these memories to the structural
core, where they are compared with existing memories and stored in our
long-term memory, the vast repository of everything we have ever experienced in our lives. This process
occurs in an instant, but it is not always perfect. In fact, as information races across billions of neurons’
axons, which transmit signals to the next neuron via synapse, some degradation is common. That’s why
many of our memories are incomplete or include false portions that we make up to fill holes in the real
memory.
Neuroscientists have long believed that learning and memory formation are made by the strengthening and
weakening of connections among brain cells. Recently, researchers at the
University of California Irvine’s Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory proved it. In
experiments with mice, they were able to isolate and observe the actions of the brain while learning a new
task. Researchers found that when two neurons frequently interact, they form a bond that allows them to
transmit more easily and accurately. This leads to more complete memories and easier recall. Conversely,
when two neurons rarely interacted, the transmission was often incomplete, leading to either a faulty
memory or no memory at all.
As an example of this, consider your daily commute. You don’t really need to think consciously about how
to get to work, because it is a trip you have taken so many times that the memory of how to navigate is
ingrained. The neurons that control this memory have communicated so often, they have formed a tight
bond, like a group of old friends.

Contrast your daily commute with the experience of driving to a location you have never visited. To make
this trip, your brain has to work much harder. You need to get directions, write
them down or print them and then pay extra attention to road signs along the way. In this case, the neurons
involved in navigating to this new destination have not shared synapses frequently before and so they
communicate incompletely or inefficiently. This requires forming new connections within the brain, which
results in greater conscious effort and attention on our part.
This research has important implications for learning, especially regarding how we acquire new knowledge,
store it in memory and retrieve it when needed. When learning new things, memory and recall are
strengthened by frequency and recency. The more we practice and rehearse something new and the more
recently we have practiced, the easier it is for our brain to transmit these experiences efficiently and store
them for ready access later. This process is called fluency.
Another recent study at the Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology,
Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School found that the structural core of the brain
receives sensory information from different regions and then assembles bits of data into a complete picture
that becomes a memory of an event. This memory is strengthened by multiple sensory inputs. For example,
if we both see and hear something, we are more likely to remember it than if we only hear it.
If we experience an emotional reaction to something – fear, anger, laughter or love – that emotion becomes
part of the memory and strengthens it dramatically. In recalling memories, subjects who had experienced
an emotional reaction were far more likely to remember the event and with higher accuracy than those who
simply witnessed an event without any emotional attachment. That explains why highly emotional events
– birth, marriage, divorce and death – become unforgettable.
What does this neuroscience research suggest about learning? We need to ensure that learning engages all
the senses and taps the emotional side of the brain, through methods like humor, storytelling, group activities
and games. Emphasis on the rational and logical alone does not produce powerful memories.
A third recent discovery at the University of Michigan’s Biopsychology Program confirmed that the brain
behaves selectively about how it processes experiences that enter through our five
senses. The brain is programmed to pay special attention to any experience that is novel or unusual. It does
this by making comparisons between the new information brought through the senses and existing
information stored in our brain’s long-term memory. When the brain finds a match, it will quickly eliminate
the new memory as redundant.
When new information contradicts what’s already stored in memory, however, our brains go into overdrive,
working hard to explain the discrepancy. If the new information proves useful to us, it becomes a permanent
memory that can be retrieved later. If this new information does not seem useful or if we do not trust its
source, we are likely to forget it or even reject it altogether, preferring to stick with the information we
already possess.

Since learning inherently requires acquisition of new information, our brains’ propensity to focus on the
novel and forget the redundant makes it a natural learning ally. In fact, our brains are hard wired to learn,
from the moment we are born. Our native curiosity is driven by our brain’s inherent search for the unusual
in our environment.
On the other hand, past memories can be an impediment to future learning that contradicts previous
information. As we age and gain more experience, we tend to rely too much on our past knowledge. We
may miss or even reject novel information that does not agree with previous memories. Recent brain
research is unlocking many of the mysteries of learning. Learning professionals should stay abreast of these
developments and derive learning methods based upon the way the brain learns naturally.
The table below summarizes the three recent research findings and their implications for training.
Table 1: Learning Implications of Brain Science
Recent Brain Research Finding Implications for Learning
Increase frequency through

Frequency and recency of neuron
practice and maintain fluency through
synapses increase memory
use
Appeal to and engage emotions

Emotions strengthen memory
while learning
Learning causes changes to the Engaging in learning increases

physical structure of the brain our ability to learn throughout our lives
Memories are stored in multiple

Engage all senses when learning
parts of the brain
Learning should tap into the

Our brains are programmed to
brain’s natural curiosity and intrinsic
focus on new and unusual inputs
motivation
Source: Ford, Donald J. How the Brain Learns. Accessed July 27, 2020 from
https://trainingindustry.com/articles/content-development/how-the-brain-learns/

METACOGNITION AND STUDY STRATEGIES
Source: Arcega, A M., Cullar, D. S., Evangelista, L. D. & Falculan, L. M. (2018). Understanding the Self.
The brain serves as the control unit of the body. Human beings’ physiological, behavioral and cognitive
functions depend on it. The brain can perform many forms of complex and covert behaviors like thinking
and other higher order functions like metacognition.
Metacognition is often defined as “thinking about your own thinking.” In 1979, it was termed by American
developmental psychologist John H. Flavell. Cognition means thinking while Meta means beyond so the
phrase means beyond thinking. It is a person’s awareness of ones thoughts and one’s ability to control it.
Metacognition is a higher order thinking which control the cognitive process involved in the learning
process.
Metacognition consists of two components: the knowledge and regulation (Lai, 2011; Flavell, 1979). The
learner’s awareness of one’s ability to understand and learn concepts, and knowledge about one’s learning
strategies is called metacognitive knowledge while the learner’s ability to observe one’s method of
thinking, planning, evaluate the effectiveness of the own learning strategies and identifying the outcomes
is called metacognitive regulation.
Metacognitive knowledge has three types. First, the declarative knowledge (person knowledge) is the
understanding of ones capacities. It is one’s subjective assessment. For example Albert is aware that he has
above average mathematical ability and Diane assessed her knowledge in arts as excellent. Second is the
procedural knowledge (task knowledge) it is the person’s awareness of one’s knowledge and assessment
whether a task is easy or difficult. For example, Albert thinks that painting is a difficult task while Diane
considers the task as easy and stress-free. Last is the strategy knowledge (conditional knowledge) is the
person’s ability to use strategies to acquire information, learn new skills or understand concepts. It also
refers to one’s ability to cope or adapt other strategies to different situations. For example, Diane would
like to learn more about algebra and considered lecture as ineffective, so she tried other methods like
answering online algebra tests and participation in group studies.
Metacognitive regulation on the other hand is a person’s ability to monitor and assess their knowledge.
Monitoring involves observing one’s knowledge and assess whether one did well or not. A person may also
evaluate the outcome or output of one’s knowledge and distinguish whether such outcome is what the
person expected and whether it can be improved.
Metacognition has an important role in acquiring knowledge or skill therefore it is important to teach
learners metacognitive control. Metacognitive strategies can be taught and learned gradually. Teaching
students self-evaluation skills help facilitate learning. Below are some metacognitive study strategies that
students may use to learning effectively.

Here are some metacognitive study skills and strategies:
1. Listening to your own thoughts by speaking clearly.

2. Self-monitoring. Observing and evaluating one’s behavior or performance on specific task.
3. Reflection. Think deeply about what is being learned.
4. Awareness of rubrics. Identify basis for evaluation which aids in planning and decision
making.
5. Self-tests.
6. Observing overt teacher demonstration and modeling.
7. Comprehension. Knowing the meaning of the text being read or concept being learned.
8. Rehearsing. Repeatedly doing a skill or acquiring information and adapting strategies to
ensure better performance or retention.
9. Knowing one’s limits. Awareness of one’s mental and physical capacities for specific task.
Being aware of one’s traits and capacity leads to a better understanding of ourselves. Assessment tools help
a person identify these traits.
MANAGING YOUR OWN LEARNING: SELF-REGULATED LEARNING
Students who are conscious of their strengths and weaknesses, and can induce themselves to undertake and
improve their learning are self- regulated learners. The ability to manage ones learning is definitely an
advantage for individuals.
In the Self-Regulated Learning model, pioneered by Barry Zimmerman, self-regulation is composed of

three phases: forethought, performance control and self-reflection. In the first phase, (forethought) the self-
regulated student expects and prepares for the approaching learning task. Then in the second stage
(performance control) the student organizes and performs the procedures while learning. This consists of
self-talk and self-monitoring to make the most of the learning opportunity. In the last phase, (self reflection)
the self-regulated student reflects at the end of the learning task. The student matches the result of their
performance to their objectives.
Questions that a self-regulated student asks themselves
Phase 1: Forethought Phase 2: Performance Control Phase 3: Self-Reflection

When is the best time for me to Am I following the plan Did I meet the goal?
get the task done? correctly?
Which condition distracted me
Where is the best place to Am I focused or not? or helped me succeed?
complete the task?
What strategies can I use to help Which strategies are most
How will I start? me keep working? effective?

Zimmerman (2001) and colleagues claimed that when students become engaged, they take greater
responsibility for their learning and their academic performance improves. The self-regulated learning
(SRL) model uses a continuing sequence of planning, practice and evaluation.
The illustration below shows the series of feedback cycles
What is the problem?

-Review prior performance
Plan it -Conduct a task analysis
Am I doing the plan correctly?

Evaluate Practice -Set processing goals to implement
it it a learning strategy
-Self-observe your strategic
behavior and outcomes
Did the plan work?
-Self-evaluate strategy use and
goal achievement
-Maintain or adapt the strategy
ACTVITY # 17 EFFECTIVE LEARNING STRATEGY (10 points)
Answer the question. Express your thoughts in 1-5 sentences.
What effective learning strategies did you adopt during this

quarantine period?
Write your answers in a clean sheet of paper. Take a photo and turn it in using Google Classroom (GED
101 Class) and/or GED 101 group chat via FB messenger.

WEEK 15: B. SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS
Understanding the importance of goals and the techniques involved

in setting achievable goals is vital to becoming successful.
THE IMPORTANCE OF GOALS
A goal is the desired outcome anticipated by a person or organization. It may be a long term vision or a
short term outcome which can be achieved through careful planning, execution and evaluation. Goal setting
establishes a standard or objective to serve as target of one’s actions. It is involved in all the self-regulation
/metacognitive process. Whereas forefront is to goal setting; as performance control is to goal directed
action; as self-reflection is to evaluation of goal progress.
Goals help us to concentrate our energy, arrange strategies, consciously having a purpose-centered life, and
provide us a sense of accomplishment. Locke (1969) said that working toward a goal is also a major source
of motivation and improves performance and that clear goals and appropriate feedback motivates a person.
Based on reviews, 90% of laboratory and field studies on the effects of goal setting on performance showed
that specific and challenging goals led to higher performance. Goals influence performance by directing
attention, mobilizing effort, increasing determination, and encouraging plan development. Burton (1983)
claimed that people who use goal setting effectively suffer less from stress and anxiety, concentrate better,
perform better, confident and are satisfied.
Locke (2002) claimed that a person’s uppermost moral goal is the attainment of one's own happiness and
even coined the phrase 'pursuit of happiness,' in his book An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. In
setting goals for life and happiness, Locke’s writings focus on building the best qualities in life. In the
person level it focuses in positive personal traits (e.g. capacity for love, courage, interpersonal skill) while
group level focuses on civic virtues and actions leading to enhanced social responsibility (e.g. work ethic,
altruism, responsibility).
GOAL- SETTING THEORY
Read and reflect on the attached article - What is Goal-Setting Theory? The article comprehensively
discuss the technical definition of goal-setting theory; the five effective goal-setting principles; and the
practical application of effective goal-setting.

What Is Goal-Setting Theory?
Accessed July 21, 2020 from https://gostrengths.com/what-is-goal-setting-
theory/#:~:text=Goal%2Dsetting%20theory%20refers%20to,who%20set%20general%2C%20easy%20goals.
The Technical Definition
Goal-setting theory refers to the effects of setting goals on subsequent

performance. Researcher Edwin Locke found that individuals who set
specific, difficult goals performed better than those who set general, easy
goals. Locke proposed five basic principles of goal-setting: clarity, challenge,
commitment, feedback, and task complexity.
Huh? What does that mean?
One of the most effective ways to stay motivated is to set goals for yourself.
However, the type and quality of goals you set affects how well they will work.
Imagine you are 30 pounds overweight and want to drop some extra weight. When setting your goal, you
have several options. You could say, “I want to lose weight within the next year. I will go on a diet to lose
the weight.” This goal is pretty vague and poorly defined; you haven’t specified how much weight you
want to lose or what concrete steps you will take to lose it.
Alternatively, you could say, “I want to lose two pounds a week for the next four months. I will exercise
for at least 30 minutes, five days per week. I will also change my diet to include three servings of fruits and
vegetables as well as whole-grain products. I will also limit myself to eating out just one day per week.”
This goal is much more specific and includes actionable steps.
The simple act of setting an effective goal gives you a better chance of realizing that goal. In fact, listed
below are several principles crucial to setting effective goals.
Effective goal-setting principles:
1. Clarity. A clear, measurable goal is more achievable than one that is poorly defined. In other words,
be specific! The most effective goals have a specific timeline for completion.
2. Challenge. The goal must have a decent level of difficulty in order to motivate you to strive toward
the goal.
3. Commitment. Put deliberate effort into meeting this goal. Share your goal with someone else in
order to increase your accountability to meet that goal.
4. Feedback. Set up a method to receive information on your progress toward a goal. If losing 30
pounds in four months turns out to be too hard, it is better to adjust the difficulty of your goal mid-
way through the timeline than to give up entirely.

5. Task complexity. If a goal is especially complex, make sure you give yourself enough time to
overcome the learning curve involved in completing the task. In other words, if a goal is really
tough, make sure you give yourself some padding to give you the best chance at succeeding.
How do I use this in my life?
Setting a goal is a great way to encourage achievement and stay motivated. However, many of us set goals
that are ineffective at pushing us to do our best. When you are helping your youthling with a project or
trying to improve an aspect of your daily life, think carefully about the goals you set. Ensure that each goal
accounts for some or all of the principles above: clarity, challenge, commitment, and feedback.
Work with your youthling to set goals that are appropriate and achievable given her abilities. Begin by
letting her set her own goal. Perhaps she wants to get 100% on her next Math test. This goal meets the
criteria of being clear, challenging, and is something she has committed to. Talk together about whether
that is an attainable goal. If she routinely gets C’s on math assignments, achieving a perfect score might be
a poor goal. Next, set a clear action plan for achieving the goal. Consider the complexity of the task and
how much time will be needed to be successful.
In the end, her goal might read something like this: “I want to get 100% on my next Math test. I will perform
5 algebra problems every night for the next two weeks. My mom will give me feedback on whether I am
getting the problems correct and how to fix my mistakes.” This clear, achievable goal provides motivation
and a specific plan for receiving feedback. Even if she does not reach 100% on her test, goal-setting theory
states that she will perform much better than had she made a non-specific, easy goal.
What are Goal Setting Tools?

Accessed July 22, 2020 from https://positivepsychology.com/goal-setting-exercises/
It’s one thing to know about goal setting, and how it can help you, but another entirely to know how to
actually set goals and stick with them. Goal setting tools are a great way to help you set goals, keep track
of, and stay focused on what you’re trying to achieve.
These tools and can be informal, for example:
 A handwritten diary or journal tracking your goals and smaller daily achievements
 Using your mobile phone to set daily reminders or countdown apps for when you want to achieve
certain things by
 Motivational notes and posters set around your home or work desk as friendly reminders
 Telling friends and family what you’re working towards so they can offer support
 Visualization activities including meditation, positive affirmations, and mindfulness

Or they can be formalized, such as:
 Regular meetings/reviews with your line manager at work to keep you accountable (if your goals
are work related)
 Joining groups or meet-ups with individuals trying to achieve the same goals (such as weight loss,
or athletic groups/fitness classes)
 Working with a peer coach or mentor to help motivate you to stay on track
 Utilizing goal setting software tools and apps to help keep you on track (Milestone Planner and
Goal Scapeto name a few)
Which tool is right for you will depend on what you’re specific goals are, how long you want to take to
achieve them, and whether it is an individual or group goal.
GOLDEN RULES OF GOAL SETTING

Five Rules to Set Yourself Up for Success
Accessed July 22, 2020 from https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newHTE_90.htm
Have you thought about what you want to be doing in five years' time? Are you clear about what your main
objective at work is at the moment? Do you know what you want to have achieved by the end of today?
If you want to succeed, you need to set goals. Without goals you lack focus and direction. Goal setting not
only allows you to take control of your life's direction; it also provides you a benchmark for determining
whether you are actually succeeding. Think about it: having a million dollars in the bank is only proof of
success if one of your goals is to amass riches. If your goal is to practice acts of charity, then keeping the
money for yourself is suddenly contrary to how you would define success.
To accomplish your goals, however, you need to know how to set them. You can't simply say, "I want" and
expect it to happen. Goal setting is a process that starts with careful consideration of what you want to
achieve, and ends with a lot of hard work to actually do it. In between, there are some very well-defined
steps that transcend the specifics of each goal. Knowing these steps will allow you to formulate goals that
you can accomplish.
Here are our five golden rules of goal setting:
The Five Golden Rules
1. Set Goals That Motivate You

When you set goals for yourself, it is important that they motivate you: this means making sure that they
are important to you, and that there is value in achieving them. If you have little interest in the outcome, or
they are irrelevant given the larger picture, then the chances of you putting in the work to make them happen
are slim. Motivation is key to achieving goals.

Set goals that relate to the high priorities in your life. Without this type of focus, you can end up with far
too many goals, leaving you too little time to devote to each one. Goal achievement requires commitment,
so to maximize the likelihood of success, you need to feel a sense of urgency and have an "I must do this"
attitude. When you don't have this, you risk putting off what you need to do to make the goal a reality. This
in turn leaves you feeling disappointed and frustrated with yourself, both of which are de-motivating. And
you can end up in a very destructive "I can't do anything or be successful at anything" frame of mind.
Tip:
To make sure that your goal is motivating, write down why it's valuable and important to you. Ask yourself,
"If I were to share my goal with others, what would I tell them to convince them it was a worthwhile goal?"
You can use this motivating value statement to help you if you start to doubt yourself or lose confidence in
your ability to actually make the goal happen.
2. Set SMART Goals
You have probably heard of SMART goals already. But do you always apply the rule? The simple fact is
that for goals to be powerful, they should be designed to be SMART. There are many variations of what
SMART stands for, but the essence is this – goals should be:
 Specific.
 Measurable.
 Attainable.
 Relevant.
 Time Bound.
Set Specific Goals

Your goal must be clear and well defined. Vague or generalized goals are unhelpful because they don't
provide sufficient direction. Remember, you need goals to show you the way. Make it as easy as you can
to get where you want to go by defining precisely where you want to end up.
Set Measurable Goals

Include precise amounts, dates, and so on in your goals so you can measure your degree of success. If your
goal is simply defined as "To reduce expenses" how will you know when you have been successful? In one
month's time if you have a 1 percent reduction or in two years' time when you have a 10 percent reduction?
Without a way to measure your success you miss out on the celebration that comes with knowing you have
actually achieved something.
Set Attainable Goals

Make sure that it's possible to achieve the goals you set. If you set a goal that you have no hope of achieving,
you will only demoralize yourself and erode your confidence.

However, resist the urge to set goals that are too easy. Accomplishing a goal that you didn't have to work
hard for can be anticlimactic at best, and can also make you fear setting future goals that carry a risk of non-
achievement. By setting realistic yet challenging goals, you hit the balance you need. These are the types
of goals that require you to "raise the bar" and they bring the greatest personal satisfaction.
Set Relevant Goals

Goals should be relevant to the direction you want your life and career to take. By keeping goals aligned
with this, you'll develop the focus you need to get ahead and do what you want. Set widely scattered and
inconsistent goals, and you'll fritter your time – and your life – away.
Set Time-Bound Goals

Your goals must have a deadline. Again, this means that you know when you can celebrate success. When
you are working on a deadline, your sense of urgency increases and achievement will come that much
quicker.
3. Set Goals in Writing
The physical act of writing down a goal makes it real and tangible. You have no excuse for forgetting about
it. As you write, use the word "will" instead of "would like to" or "might." For example, "I will reduce my
operating expenses by 10 percent this year," not "I would like to reduce my operating expenses by 10
percent this year." The first goal statement has power and you can "see" yourself reducing expenses, the
second lacks passion and gives you an excuse if you get side tracked.
Tip 1:
Frame your goal statement positively. If you want to improve your retention rates say, "I will hold on to all
existing employees for the next quarter" rather than "I will reduce employee turnover." The first one is
motivating; the second one still has a get-out clause "allowing" you to succeed even if some employees
leave.
Tip 2:
If you use a To-Do List , make yourself a To-Do List template that has your goals at the top of it. If you
use an Action Program , then your goals should be at the top of your Project Catalog.
Post your goals in visible places to remind yourself every day of what it is you intend to do. Put them on
your walls, desk, computer monitor, bathroom mirror or refrigerator as a constant reminder.
4. Make an Action Plan
This step is often missed in the process of goal setting. You get so focused on the outcome that you forget
to plan all of the steps that are needed along the way. By writing out the individual steps, and then crossing
each one off as you complete it, you'll realize that you are making progress towards your ultimate goal.
This is especially important if your goal is big and demanding, or long-term.

5. Stick With It!
Remember, goal setting is an ongoing activity, not just a means to an end. Build in reminders to keep
yourself on track, and make regular time-slots available to review your goals. Your end destination may
remain quite similar over the long term, but the action plan you set for yourself along the way can change
significantly. Make sure the relevance, value, and necessity remain high.
Key Points
Goal setting is much more than simply saying you want something to happen. Unless you clearly define
exactly what you want and understand why you want it the first place, your odds of success are considerably
reduced. By following the Five Golden Rules of Goal Setting you can set goals with confidence and enjoy
the satisfaction that comes along with knowing you achieved what you set out to do.
So, what will you decide to accomplish today?
ACTIVITY# 18 PLANNING WITH GOAL-SETTING SHEET (20 points)
The activity is designed to assess your understanding of the principles of

effective goal-setting: clarity, challenge, commitment, and feedback. Write
your answers in a clean sheet of paper. Take a photo and turn it in using Google
Classroom (GED 101 Class) and/or GED 101 group chat via FB messenger.
Think about what is your best possible future self might look like. Set your goals
using the pre-built Goal Setting Sheet. In completing the worksheet you will have
a simple and easy to use guide for setting your goal and creating your plan of action.

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WEEK 8: SEXUAL SELF

THE SEXUAL SELF: BODY IMAGE AND SELF ESTEEM

● In Ancient Greece, it is the male that assumes the dominant

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

● This perspective studies how evolutionary forces

● Beauty is more than just cultural standard. It is

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and Reproductive System

● This part is understanding the sexual self in Biological manner.

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

o (1) liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in the reproductive cycle;

● The male reproductive system essential parts are as follows:

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

● The female reproductive system essential parts are as follows:

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

● In some males, hair also grows on the

For boys, these include For girls, these include

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

● It is also responsible for the profound biological,

● Puberty proceeds through five stages from

● Puberty Stages (Female )

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

P2 Early increase in testicular size, scrotum

P3 Testicular length 3.3-4 cm

P4 Testicular length 4.1-4.5 cm, increase in

Discussing Erogenous Zones

● This part could be understanding the sexual self in a Psychological manner.

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Understanding Human Sexual Response

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

It is characterized by an increase in heart rate and blood pressure as

Plateau This is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm

It is characterized by intensification of the changes begun during the

Orgasm This is characterized by waves of intense pleasure (climax), often

Resolution In this phase the body returns to its non-excited stage.

Marshall, E. and Tanner, S. Introduction to Psychology. Accessed July 28, 2020.

Remez, R. Developing Adolescene. Accessed July 28, 2020.

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

ACTIVITIES ON SEXUALL SELF

ACTIVITY #9: SEXUAL SELFHOOD (15 points)

1. Describe your own Sexual Selfhood.

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Understanding the Chemistry of Lust, Love, and Attachment

● When people are in the

● Lust is driven by the desire

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

● Attraction is characteristic that causes pleasure or interest by appealing to a person’s desires or

● These chemicals make

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

● John Lee’s Love Styles:

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

3. Storge (Store-gay). This is love-

4. Ludus. For ludic lovers, love is

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

2. Infatuation (Passion). This is

3. Empty love (Commitment). This

4. Romantic love (Passion and Intimacy). It is a

5. Companionate love (Intimacy and

6. Fatuous love (Passion and Commitment). A

7. Consummate love (Passion, Intimacy, and

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

● Human sexual behavior is any activity, solitary,

● Human sexual behavior may conveniently be