Chapt 05

HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
Chapter 5
Basic Design
Revision 100
(Limited Revision)
November 04, 2022

Issued by Engineering Bulletin 22-057
Effective with Design Approval on or after January 01, 2023
BASIC DESIGN 5-2
Section Changes
5.3 Updates to the crash analysis procedures to coincide with the Safety
Investigation Procedures.
Exhibit 5-1b Updated the design year for tunnel alternatives to ETC+30.
5.2.3.7 Adds note concerning simulation model density output and HCM
LOS
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023

BASIC DESIGN 5-3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 6
5.1.1 Project Development & Public Involvement ............................................................. 6
5.1.2 Nonconforming Features ........................................................................................ 6
5.2 SPEED STUDIES, HIGHWAY CAPACITY, AND LEVEL OF SERVICE........................... 8
5.2.1 Traffic Data ............................................................................................................ 8
5.2.2 Traffic Flow Diagrams, Growth Rates and Diversion Analysis ................................ 11
5.2.3 Capacity Analysis ................................................................................................. 15
5.2.4 Updating Traffic Data and Capacity Analysis ......................................................... 19
5.2.5 Speed Studies...................................................................................................... 19
5.3 CRASH ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................... 23
5.3.1 Applicability .......................................................................................................... 23
5.3.2 Timing and Responsibility ..................................................................................... 23
5.3.3 Crash Analysis Procedures................................................................................... 24
5.3.4 Highway Safety Investigation Report...................................................................... 24
5.4 VACANT ...................................................................................................................... 25
5.5 RIGHT OF WAY (ROW)................................................................................................ 25
5.5.1 Abstract Request Maps ........................................................................................ 25
5.5.2 Design Approval Document (DAD) and Preliminary Plans ..................................... 25
5.5.3 Right of Way Determination .................................................................................. 26
5.5.4 Taking Line Review Meeting ................................................................................. 27
5.5.5 Design Phases V-VI, Final Design Stage .............................................................. 28
5.5.6 Types of Right of Way and Access........................................................................ 30
5.5.7 Encroachments .................................................................................................... 36
5.5.8 Excess Right of Way ............................................................................................ 36
5.5.9 ROW Markers ...................................................................................................... 37
5.6 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 39
5.7 DESIGN ELEMENTS.................................................................................................... 44
5.7.1 Design Vehicle ..................................................................................................... 44
5.7.2 Sight Distance...................................................................................................... 46
5.7.3 Horizontal Curves................................................................................................. 47
5.7.4 Vertical Alignment ................................................................................................ 64
5.7.5 Climbing Lanes .................................................................................................... 67
5.7.6 Emergency Escape Ramps .................................................................................. 67
5.7.7 Travel Lanes and Shoulders ................................................................................. 68
5.7.8 Lane Drops .......................................................................................................... 68
5.7.9 Medians ............................................................................................................... 69
5.7.10 Median - Emergency Crossovers .......................................................................... 69
5.7.11 Roadway Clear Zone ............................................................................................ 70
5.7.12 Vertical and Horizontal Clearances ....................................................................... 70
5.7.13 Rollover................................................................................................................ 74
5.7.14 Bridge Roadway Width ......................................................................................... 75
5.7.15 Passive Snow Control .......................................................................................... 75
5.7.16 Parking ................................................................................................................ 77
5.7.17 Access Control ..................................................................................................... 80
5.7.18 Driveways ............................................................................................................ 83
5.7.19 Frontage Roads - Service Roads .......................................................................... 83
5.7.20 High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lanes ................................................................. 83
5.7.21 Complete Streets.................................................................................................. 83
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BASIC DESIGN 5-4
5.8 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................................... 86

5.8.1 Driver Expectancy ................................................................................................ 86
5.8.2 Geometric Considerations .................................................................................... 86
5.8.3 Joint Use of the Highway Corridor......................................................................... 87
5.8.4 Social, Economic, and Environmental Considerations ........................................... 87
5.8.5 Utilities ................................................................................................................. 88
5.8.6 Increasing Capacity Without Adding Lanes ........................................................... 88
5.8.7 Traffic Calming ..................................................................................................... 90
5.8.8 Aesthetics ............................................................................................................ 91
5.9 INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE...................................................................................... 92
5.9.1 Types of Intersections .......................................................................................... 92
5.9.2 Intersection Capacity and Level-of-Service Analysis............................................ 100
5.9.3 Intersection Geometrics...................................................................................... 103
5.9.4 Principles of Channelization................................................................................ 109
5.9.5 Intersection Sight Distance ................................................................................. 116
5.9.6 Access Control on Uncontrolled Access Facilities................................................ 120
5.9.7 Signalization....................................................................................................... 120
5.9.8 Intersection Widening ......................................................................................... 120
5.9.9 Bus Stops/Turnouts............................................................................................ 132
5.9.10 Divided Highway Median Openings in Urban Areas............................................. 134
5.10 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 138
APPENDIX A - NYSDOT POLICY AND STANDARDS FOR THE DESIGN OF ENTRANCES TO STATE
HIGHWAYS……………………………………………………………………………………...5A
APPENDIX B - VERTICAL HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT SIGHT DISTANCE CHARTS .......................... 5B
APPENDIX C - INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE CHARTS ...................................................... 5C
APPENDIX D - LEVEL OF SERVICE AND CAPACITY ANALYSIS ON STATE HIGHWAYS ............ 5D
APPENDIX E - DESIGN OF TOLLING FACILITIES ..................................................................... 5E
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BASIC DESIGN 5-5
LIST OF EXHIBITS
EXHIBIT 5-1A EXAMPLE DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME AS FUNCTION OF AADT ........................................... 9
EXHIBIT 5-1B DESIGN YEAR BASED ON PROJECT TYPE3,4 ..................................................................13
EXHIBIT 5-2 SPEED STUDY LOCATIONS ........................................................................................22
EXHIBIT 5-5 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS PROBLEM TYPES , ANALYSIS METHODS, GUIDANCE IN FORCE, AND
CONTACT FOR MORE INFORMATION .........................................................................................39
EXHIBIT 5-6 HORIZONTAL SIGHT DISTANCE ...................................................................................47
EXHIBIT 5-7 SIDE FRICTION FACTOR ..............................................................................................49
EXHIBIT 5-8 RECOMMENDED SPEED ON HORIZONTAL CURVES TO AVOID SKIDDING (LOW SPEED)..............51
EXHIBIT 5-9 RECOMMENDED SPEED ON HORIZONTAL CURVES TO AVOID SKIDDING ................................52
EXHIBIT 5-10 RECOMMENDED SPEED ON HORIZONTAL CURVES TO AVOID TRUCK ROLLOVERS (LOW SPEED)
.......................................................................................................................................54
EXHIBIT 5-11 RECOMMENDED SPEED ON HORIZONTAL CURVES TO AVOID TRUCK ROLLOVERS.................54
EXHIBIT 5-12 MAXIMUM RELATIVE GRADIENT ................................................................................56
EXHIBIT 5-13 METHOD OF ATTAINING SUPERELEVATION ..................................................................57
EXHIBIT 5-14 METHOD OF ATTAINING SUPERELEVATION – FOUR LANE DIVIDED HIGHWAY * ......................58
EXHIBIT 5-15 SUPERELEVATION RUNOFF LR (FT) FOR HORIZONTAL CURVES .........................................60
EXHIBIT 5-16 CROSS SECTION VIEW OF TRAVEL LANE WIDENING ALONG SPIRAL CURVES ......................62
EXHIBIT 5-17 PLAN VIEW OF TRAVEL LANE WIDENING ALONG CURVES WITHOUT SPIRAL TRANSITIONS ......63
EXHIBIT 5-18 MINIMUM MEDIAN WIDTHS.......................................................................................69
EXHIBIT 5-19 HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE ROAD SECTIONS.................................................................72
EXHIBIT 5-20 MINIMUM HORIZONTAL CLEARANCES .........................................................................73
EXHIBIT 5-21 MAXIMUM ROLLOVER RATES ...................................................................................75
EXHIBIT 5-22 HIGHWAY ACCESS I SSUES.......................................................................................82
EXHIBIT 5-23 ROUNDABOUT I NTERSECTIONS .................................................................................97
EXHIBIT 5-24 DIVIDED HIGHWAY CROSSINGS AND OFFSET I NTERSECTIONS EXHIBIT 5-25 JUGHANDLES AND
INDIRECT LEFT TURNS ..........................................................................................................97
EXHIBIT 5-26 CONTROL DELAY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS)........................................................ 101
EXHIBIT 5-27 CROSS SLOPES FOR INTERSECTING HIGHWAYS .......................................................... 107
EXHIBIT 5-27A CURB AND BARRIER TREATMENTS FOR PEDESTRIAN REFUGE I SLANDS 1 ......................... 111
EXHIBIT 5-28 HIGH-CAPACITY SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION WITH DOUBLE LEFT-TURN LANES AND RIGHT-
TURNING ROADWAYS ......................................................................................................... 114
EXHIBIT 5-29 APPROACH AND DEPARTURE SIGHT TRIANGLES ......................................................... 117
EXHIBIT 5-30 INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE QUICK REFERENCE ................................................... 119
EXHIBIT 5-31 INTERSECTION WIDENING FOR HEAVY THROUGH TRAFFIC............................................. 123
EXHIBIT 5-32 SHADOWING LEFT-TURN LANES ............................................................................. 128
EXHIBIT 5-33 DECELERATION DISTANCES (FT) FOR PASSENGER CARS APPROACHING INTERSECTIONS
(BRAKING AT A COMFORTABLE RATE OF 5.8 FT/S2 (1.8 M/ S2) ....................................................... 130
EXHIBIT 5-34 SAFETY WIDENING AT T-I NTERSECTION ON RURAL TWO-LANE ROAD .............................. 133
EXHIBIT 5-35 LEFT-TURN SLOT WITH DIVIDER ON RIGHT ................................................................ 136
EXHIBIT 5-36 DESIGN OF MEDIAN LANES FOR MEDIANS OVER 25 FT (8 M) WIDE.................................. 137
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023

BASIC DESIGN 5-6
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The Department is committed to developing projects that improve the movement of people and
goods, while recognizing community needs and values. Projects should be safe, serviceable,
constructible, economical to build and maintain, and in har mony with the community and its
environmental, scenic, cultural, and natural resources. Successful designs result from a careful
balance of safety, mobility, and capacity needs with social, economic, and environmental needs.
This chapter provides guidance regarding the basic elements of highway design to designers and
other project developers. The information presented is not all-inclusive, but must be used in
conjunction with information found in other chapters of this manual and documents adopted by
the Department to achieve the most appropriate design meeting the goals and objectives of the
project.
5.1.1 Project Development & Public Involvement
There are various phases of development through which a project design must evolve. These
phases are described in the Project Development Manual. Projects should be progressed through
these phases with the aid and advice of project stakeholders, which include the Regional
Functional Units, the Main Office, the public, and appropriate advisory and regulatory agencies.
Early, effective, and continuous stakeholder involvement fosters meaningful participation and
sense of ownership in the project development process. The open exchange of information and
concerns between the Department and stakeholders benefits projects by identifying key issues
early in the process, developing consensus for project solutions, and building trust among
stakeholders.
5.1.2 Nonconforming Features
During the project development process, design element trade -offs are routinely considered.
Quantitative measures are to be used, whenever feasible, to compare and evaluate the effects of
trade-offs. When the Department evaluates such trade-offs in the course of considering
transportation needs and community needs, public safety (whether driving, riding, walking, or
bicycling) remains the foremost issue to consider.
Variances from standard values established for the critical design elements listed in Chapter 2 of
this manual require a justification and approval as described in that chapter. In addition to the
critical design elements, there are other design elements with established values or parameters
that must be considered when scoping and designing a project. These other elements are
important because they can have a considerable effect on the cost, scope, schedule, and quality
of a project. Any decisions to vary from recommended values or accepted practices for these
elements need to be explained and documented as nonconforming features in the scoping and
design approval documents and, when identified after design approval, in the project files. The
more significant the deviation or the more important an element is to quality design, the more
detailed the explanation will be. For example, an explanation similar in detail to the requirements
for nonstandard features is appropriate if the Department proposes to build an acceleration lane
to 75% of the values in AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018,
or not attain the compound curve ratio. However, not achieving the minimum length of a
superelevation runout by a few feet would only warrant a brief explanation in the report.
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.1

INTRODUCTION
BASIC DESIGN 5-7
The following is a listing of some of the other elements which are described in detail in this and
other chapters. It is being provided to give a representative sample of items to be considered
when scoping and designing a project. It is not in priority order or intended to be all -inclusive.
• Level of service
• Median width
• Minimum pipe size
• Sag vertical curve (Sag vertical curve sight distance is a critical design element where
sight lines are restricted under bridges or other vertical sight obstructions. Refer to
Section 5.7.4.2.B)
• Minimum length of vertical curves
• Lane drops
• Tapers for lane drops
• Driveway grade
• Driveway opening
• Driveway spacing
• Buffer zone for snow storage
• Width of spread for ponding water
• Clear zone
• Objects within the clear zone
• Intersection radii (including accommodation of identified oversized vehicles)
• Intersection and decision sight distance
• Superelevation runoff/runout length
• Broken back curves
• Compound curves
• Auxiliary lane lengths
• Adequate provisions for pedestrians and bicyclists (refer to Chapters 17 and 18 of this
manual)
• Transit and high-occupancy vehicle facilities and accommodations
• Design storm for drainage facilities (refer to Chapter 8 of this manual)
• Curbing
• Guide rail
• Median barrier
• Longitudinal rumble strips
• Horizontal clearance
• Permanent and temporary soil erosion and sediment control
A checklist of common nonconforming features is provided on the Chapter 5 Internet page at:
https://www.dot.ny.gov/divisions/engineering/design/dqab/hdm/chapter -5.
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.1

INTRODUCTION
BASIC DESIGN 5-8
5.2 SPEED STUDIES, HIGHWAY CAPACITY, AND LEVEL OF SERVICE

Traffic data and a capacity analysis are used to develop the geometric design, evaluate
alternatives, design traffic signals, etc. The data collection and analysis depends on the project
type, highway functional class, and the presence of cross roads or major driveways. Refer to
Section 5.2.3 of this chapter for guidance on using older data and capacity analyses.
5.2.1 Traffic Data
5.2.1.1 Study Area
As a minimum, the study area for the traffic analysis should extend one interchange or major
intersection before and after the limits of the proposed work to capture detours and diversions
during and after construction. These include:
• Highway.
• All approaches of intersections and driveways/entrances with one-way volumes of
100 vehicles per hour (vph) or more.
• Ramps.
• Weaving sections.
• Merges and diverges.
• Service roads and frontage roads.
For projects where substantial diversion or more extensive detours may be needed, the study
area should be expanded to enable an analysis of the effects. In general, highways that will
have an additional 30 vehicles per hour per lane or more should be included. A combination of
microscopic and mesoscale analysis may be used for large study areas.
5.2.1.2 Data Acquisition
A. Data for Simplified Capacity Analysis
Secondary traffic data (i.e., data that was not obtained specifically for the project) may
be used for:
• Projects on routes with little delay (LOS B or better). The level of service (LOS)
should be observed during peak periods, which may include:
- The weekday AM and PM peaks.
- Saturday noon-hour peaks near shopping areas or malls.
- Friday and Sunday nights on summer recreation routes.
- Saturday and Sunday AM and PM peaks near ski areas.
- Immediately before and after regular sporting events, concerts, or other special
events.
• Maintenance-type projects (e.g., pavement preventive maintenance and bridge
preventive maintenance projects).
• Construction lane closures or detours. Secondary traffic data includes the annual
average daily traffic (AADT) data from the NYSDOT Highway Traffic Data Viewer.
Additional sources may be available from the Highway Data Services Bureau and
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.2

SPEED STUDIES, HIGHWAY CAPACITY, AND LEVEL OF SERVICE
BASIC DESIGN 5-9
the Regional Planning Group. The Highway Capacity Manual, Regional data, or
Exhibit 5-1a (below), and the Traffic Engineering Handbook, can be used to obtain
the design hourly volume (DHV), directional design hourly volume (DDHV), and
any other required traffic data.
Exhibit 5-1a Example Design Hourly Volume as Function of AADT

Average DHV as a
AADT
% of AADT
0 – 2,500 15.1%
2,500 – 5,000 13.6%
5,000 – 10,000 11.8%
10,000 – 20,000 11.6%
20,000 – 50,000 10.7%
50,000 – 100,000 9.1%
100,000 – 200,000 8.2%
> 200,000 6.7%
Highway Capacity Manual, 6th Edition, TRB, p. 3-12, Exhibit 3-11.
B. Pedestrian and Bicycle Traffic

For most projects, the “Capital Projects Complete Streets Checklist”, as described in
Chapter 18, is used to identify existing, latent, seasonal, and planned pedestrian
traffic needs. However, pedestrian traffic data acquisition may be necessary to
determine the appropriate treatments and design of pedestrian facilities in areas of high
pedestrian volumes and/or special use areas, e.g., central business and walking
districts, colleges, amusement parks, etc. Pedestrian data acquisition can be
accomplished through pedestrian counts, pedestrian questionnaires, and pedestrian
origin and destination studies. For information on pedestrian data acquisition, refer to
the following:
• Sketch-Plan Method for Estimating Pedestrian Traffic for Central Business

Districts and Suburban Growth Corridors:
http://trrjournalonline.trb.org/doi/abs/10.3141/1578-06
• Guidebook on Methods to Estimate Non-Motorized Travel, Volumes 1 & 2:
http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/docs/guidebook1.pdf
http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/docs/guidebook2.pdf
C. Data Requirements for Projects with Potential Capacity Measures
Where crowd sourced data from cell phones, GPS units, etc. will be used, traffic counts
are required along select segments of the highway network to calibrate the data. A
standardized format for turning movement data is provided on the Highway Design
Manual Chapter 5 webpage. Additionally, the following traffic data will generally be
required to perform a full capacity analysis. The Transportation Research Board’s
Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) or software program should be referenced to
determine the specific traffic data and physical data required.
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.2

BASIC DESIGN 5-10
• Percentage of trucks, buses, and RVs

• Highway AADT
• Highway DHV (two-way)
• Highway Directional Design Hourly Volume (DDHV) (one-way)
• Highway two-way (design hour) percent trucks
• Ramp/turning roadway DHV
• Peak-hour factor
• Free-flow speed on highway and ramps
• Weaving volumes
• Ramp volumes and adjacent ramp volumes
• Parking and bus stops per hour
• Average travel speeds
• Bicycle DHV (order of magnitude to determine appropriate facility)
• Pedestrian DHV (for existing or proposed sidewalks, signalized intersections,
and transit-related pedestrian facilities)
Traffic volumes are to be generated from:

• Full 24-hour 7-day count with class and speed
• Turn counts for at least two hours that encompass the peak hour*
• Turn counts on Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday
• Turn counts while school is in session and no major events
• Turn counts on two separate days, if feasible
• Midday typically only in areas with commercial shopping
* Some highways have a midday peak period that should be shown and considered
in the project's geometric and traffic signal design. Also, there may be a need
to give traffic volumes for other peak periods for commercial generators or special
events (e.g., Saturday peak shopping hours, concert performances, fairs).
Calibration factors for the models are to be taken within the same time frame as the traffic
counts. These include:
• Queue lengths during counts for calibration
• Travel time and delay runs using the following car method
• Signal timings
• Travel speeds
Note: A major intersection, for traffic count purposes, is a signalized intersection, an

intersection approaching any of the warrants for signalization in accordance with the
Official Compilation of Codes, Rules and Regulations of the State of New York Title
17 Transportation (B) Chapter V (a.k.a., New York State Supplement to the Manual
on Uniform Traffic Control Devices [NYS Supplement]), or an intersection approaching
the warrants for a turn lane as contained in Chapter 9 of AASHTO’s A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018.
For methods of gathering motorized traffic counts, refer to the Regional Planning
Group, the Traffic Engineering Handbook, and New York State Traffic Monitoring
Standards for Short Count Data Collection.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-11
E. Submissions of Collected Traffic Data to Highway Data Services Bureau
Upon collection, all traffic data collected is to be formatted in accordance with the
templates on the HDM Ch 5 web page and posted in a central repository located on
ProjectWise, located at NYSDOT/Documents/Main Office/Traffic Count Material for
Highway Data Services Bureau/
The following naming convention is to be used for files:
County_Mile Marker_Direction or Cross Road_Collection Date (YYYYMMDD)
5.2.2 Traffic Flow Diagrams, Growth Rates and Diversion Analysis
5.2.2.1 Diversion Analysis
A diversion analysis may be required when a significant change in a traffic network is

proposed and alternate routes exist and are expected to be used.
Significant changes may include:
• Design changes to a facility that have a significant effect on capacity or LOS

• Addition of a facility
• Removal of a facility
• Development
• Long Term Construction (For guidance regarding construction-related diversions,
see HDM Chapter 16)
Diversions may result in an increase or a decrease in volumes on a facility. For example,

diversions resulting in an increase in volume could occur when a facility increases in capacity
and attracts volume from other facilities. Conversely, diversions resulting in a decrease in
volume could occur when a facility’s capacity is reduced and volume diverts to other route
choices.
During project scoping, it should be determined whether the proposed project has the potential
for traffic diversions. In these cases, the study area shall be determined based on alternate
route choices and roadways/intersections that may be affected by the traffic diversions. The
Regional Travel Demand Model, maintained by the MPO, or a dynamic traffic model using
crowd sourced data such as cell phone or fleet GPS data should be used to generate revised
roadway volumes and intersection turn counts to be used in the analyses of the project
alternatives.
5.2.2.2 Origin Destination Studies
An Origin–Destination (O-D) study may also be required when a significant change in a traffic
network is proposed, regardless of how long the duration will be for this change. An O -D
study may be desired in the absence of a Regional Travel Demand Model or to provide
updated site-specific data to be utilized to update to the Regional Travel Demand Model.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-12
O-D studies can be performed in a variety of ways, with surveys and vehicle tracking being the
most common. A thorough explanation of many of these techniques is provided in a research study
performed in Indiana: https://trid.trb.org/view/864635.
This research reviews the various techniques used to perform O-D studies. Topics of discussion
include accuracy of data, general costs for some O-D studies previously performed, and selection
of the O-D technique based on the study objectives.
It is also important to understand and document what elements require additional work and where
it is not possible to perform this work given the unavailability of information or exorbitant cost of
obtaining the information and performing the analysis. These considerations should be weighed
during the early stages of the analysis process and should be discussed during scoping.
5.2.2.3 Design Year Projections for Future Traffic
The projected traffic volumes for future years are to be determined using the existing traffic data,
background growth rates and should include the added traffic volumes from planned development
and other reasonably anticipated/foreseeable projects. Reasonably anticipated/foreseeable
projects include:
• Projects that have had an environmental determination (e.g., SEQRA or NEPA Record of
Decision), which includes all Department projects with Design Approval.
• Private development that has completed the SEQRA process or has started the SEQRA
process and is very likely to complete the SEQRA process before the project letting.
• Public projects on the approved TIP and under design.
Contact the Regional Planning Group, MPO, and municipal planners, as needed for growth rates
and the traffic volumes from planned development and reasonably anticipated/foreseeable
projects.
The year selected as the Design Year for future traffic will assist in determining how well the project
meets the objectives for capacity, delay and Level of Service over the expected service life of the
project. Design years are based on the estimated time of completion (ETC), which is when the
construction work is complete. The ETC is normally rounded up in 5 year increments to avoid
revisions required by §5.2.4. Refer to the Exhibit 5-1b for the appropriate Design Year based on
the project type. Refer to Chapter 2 of this manual, §2.2 for definitions of project type.
Design years for traffic forecasts other than shown in Exhibit 5-1b below shall not be used since
they could result in an incomplete analysis that does not identify opportunities for operational
improvements. To project future pedestrian or bicycle traffic volumes, refer to the documents
referenced in Section 5.2.1.2.B.
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.2

BASIC DESIGN 5-13
Exhibit 5-1b Design Year Based on Project Type 3,4
PROJECT WORK TYPE3,4 DESIGN YEAR

Pavement Preventive and Corrective
Maintenance (including 1R and 2R projects)1 Not Usually Required2
Culvert Replacements and Culvert Rehabilitations

(where the project scope is within that of a 1R or
2R project) 1
HIGHWAY 3R - Resurf acing, Restoration, and Rehabilitation

WORK ETC+10
Minor Intersection Reconstruction
Reconstruction and New Construction ETC+20

Major Intersection Reconstruction
Tunnel ETC+30
Element Specific Cyclical Bridge Work 1,4 Not Usually Required2
Element Specific Bridge Work1,4 Not Usually Required2

BRIDGE
WORK ETC+10 or ETC+ 205
Bridge Rehabilitation4,6
New and Replacement Bridges4,6 ETC+20

1
OTHER WORK & MISCELLANEOUS/SPECIAL WORK Not Usually Required2
Notes:
1. In some cases, these types of projects can be accomplished with minimal impacts to the traffic using the highway.
However, closure of highway travel lanes generally requires an analysis to assure that the traffic lanes that remain
open are sufficient to use for Work Zone Traffic Control during closure. ETC traffic should be used for the analysis
and also to schedule work operations outside peak travel periods where feasible or determine the appropriate
detour routes around the proposed highway work zone.
2. Design Year is not usually required for these types of projects as traffic analyses are not generally required. However,
if the project proposes permanent changes that affect roadway capacity, then the designer should check at least
ETC+10 traffic for any effects to capacity, delay or Level of Service
3. See Highway Design Manual Chapter 2, Section 2.2 for project work type definition s.
4. Refer to the NYS Bridge Manual for descriptions of Bridge Project Work Types.
5. For projects that include superstructure replacement, a design year traffic forecast of ETC+20 shall be used. For
all other bridge rehabilitation projects, use a design year traffic forecast of ETC+10.
6. Where the project includes a bridge replacement or superstructure replacement in close proximity to an intersection,
the future capacity needs of the intersection (through ETC+20) shall be analyzed and the bridge width shall
accommodate the future width of the intersection as identified by the analysis.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-14
5.2.2.4 Proposed Signal Installations
The Estimated Time of Completion (ETC)+5 peak-hour turning movement volumes should be
determined for proposed signal installations that will meet the signalization warrants in the design
year, but do not meet the warrants for the ETC+0 year. The analysis of th e ETC+5 traffic data can
be used to determine if a signal should be installed as part of the project or in a future signal
requirements contract. Regardless, the highway geometry (e.g., pavement width) should be
designed to accommodate the proposed signal.
5.2.2.5 Traffic Flow Diagrams
Traffic flow diagrams should be developed for the study peak hours (e.g., A.M., midday, P.M.) for
existing, ETC, and the design year (typically ETC + 20). The diagrams should show:
• For each link, the current AADT, DHV, DDHV, and design-hour percent trucks.
• For all major intersections with crossroads or commercial driveways, the current
design-hour turning movement volumes, design-hour percent trucks, and AADTs on
all approaches for intersections.
Screen captures from traffic simulation software may be used, if legible.

For controlled and partially controlled segments, the traffic volumes in the diagram should be
balanced to avoid vehicles disappearing and appearing mid-node during traffic simulations.
For uncontrolled access facilities, sections that are unbalanced by more than 10% should
include side roads, major driveways, or a representative driveway to account for the vehicles
entering and exiting the network mid-block.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-15
5.2.3 Capacity Analysis
5.2.3.1 Capacity Analysis Requirements
Capacity analysis is a set of procedures used for estimating the traffic-carrying ability of facilities
over a range of defined operational conditions. It provides tools to assess facilities and to plan and
design improved facilities. Capacity analysis is performed using existing and projected (design
year) design-hour traffic volumes for each alternative, including the no-build alternative.
For projects with an objective to reduce congestion, estimates of the existing and design-year
vehicle hours of delay should be determined for the build and no-build alternatives. The results of
the analysis should be included in the project’s design approval document for evaluation of the
various project alternatives.
For projects using a simplified capacity analysis per Section 5.2.1.2 A, the simplified analysis can
be performed using the HCS or the Appendix D charts available on the HDM Chapter 5 Internet
page. Section 5.2.3.3 does not apply to simplified capacity analyses.
5.2.3.2 Capacity Analysis Methodology
Capacity analyses are to be consistent with the most recent version of the HCM. General
announcements of the availability of HCM revisions will be made via Engineering Bulletins.
Department policy requires the designer to use capacity analysis software consistent with the
HCM (however, see 5.2.3.7 below). For economic, efficiency, and quality assurance purposes, the
Department preapproves a limited number of software programs for general use. The approved
software programs and contact persons are shown on the “Department Approved List of Traffic
Analysis Software Programs” on the webpage for Chapter 5. Before running the software, designers
should apply the latest patches or updates linked on the Department’s Internet site to help ensure
the software produces reasonably accurate results.
The same software should be used for all alternatives when practical. A roundabout, complex
interchange or freeway alternative may necessitate separate software programs to be used.
When microsimulation analysis is performed, the setup and calibration of the model should follow the
guidelines outlined in the Traffic Analysis Toolbox, Volume III: Guidelines for Applying Traffic
Microsimulation Software (FHWA, 2004) and the HCM. Some target parameters for a
microsimulation analysis include
• At least 10 runs with different random seeds.

• Run seeding for 15 min. (30 min. if the LOS is D or less).
• Run for 1 hour or until the queue lengths diminish (whichever is worse). In urban areas, a
minimum run of 2 hours should be used.
• Calibrate to match existing observed conditions.
• Traffic signals should be optimized for no-build alternatives, and models should include
traffic from approved development.
5.2.3.3 Calibration
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Calibration is needed to verify that that model can reasonably predict the existing conditions and can be
relied on to accurately portray future conditions. Calibration factors for the models (which are to be
taken within the same time frame as the traffic counts) include:
• Queue lengths
• Travel speeds
• Delays
Latent demand occurs when vehicles are not able to enter the model. Generally, a high latent
demand indicates that the model extents need to be extended to capture the demand. Latent delay
occurs as a result of the latent demand; vehicles that are not able to enter the model experience
delay outside of the model extents.
A calibration report or section is to be provided in the Traffic Impact Study. A sample calibration
report is available at:
https://www.dot.ny.gov/divisions/engineering/design/dqab/hdm/chapter-5.
The queue lengths should be calibrated to within 20% for queues over 1,500 ft. and to within 300 ft. (12
vehicles) for shorter queues. Travel speeds should be calibrated to within 10 mph. Delay runs should be
calibrated so that 85% of the runs are within 1 minute. Discrepancies that are not resolved by adjusting the
model require an explanation.
5.2.3.4 Measures of Effectiveness
A. Level of Service (LOS)
Level of service is a qualitative measure describing operational conditions within a traffic

stream, based on service measures such as speed and travel time, freedom to maneuver,
traffic interruptions, comfort, and convenience. Levels of service are given letter
designations, from A to F, with LOS A representing the best operating condition and LOS
F the worst. Level of service is specifically described for various types of highways or
portions of highways in the Highway Capacity Manual.
Character Minimum for the Design Year

Rural C
Urban D
Some projects, especially in urban areas, may provide levels of service below those shown
due to social, economic, and environmental and/or policy/intergovernmental decisions made
during project scoping and design. Decisions for lesser levels of service are to be made as
nonconforming features in accordance with Section 5.1 of this manual and explained as
appropriate.
The correlation between volumes and level of service is not direct. Level of service
computations based on volume may not accurately represent the traffic conditions on
congested highway segments when vehicles are moving very slowly. The volume at LOS F
can be the same as the volume for a higher level of service due to slow speeds and low
throughput. Therefore, travel speeds are essential for assessing whether the traffic volumes
reflect a forced-flow condition or a free-flow condition in potentially congested areas.
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B. Delay
Delay is a quantitative measure describing the additional time it takes to travel through a
segment.
• Control delay is the additional time required to travel a segment due to stopping for
a stop sign, traffic signal, etc., usually measured in seconds per vehicle. Control
delay can be calculated using common analysis tools and is the basis for the LOS.
Delay runs account for control delay.
• Geometric delay is the time required to negotiate added roadway curvature,
additional travel distances, etc. regardless of other traffic and is usually measured
in seconds per vehicle. Roundabouts create several seconds of geometric delay.
Geometric delay requires calculations of travel times based on the geometry and
anticipated off peak speeds. Delay runs account for geometric delay.
• Delay runs measure the total time for the average vehicle to travel a segment in each
direction and is usually measured in minutes per vehicle. Simulation of delay runs
require more complicated analysis tools and should be done on projects with LOS
of D or less. Existing delay run simulations should be calibrated, typically using a
following car technique.
• Total delay is typically the total additional hours for all of the vehicles in one day
travelling though the segment. Total hours of delay is useful when comparing build
and no build alternatives.
C. Queue Lengths
A traffic queue is a line of stopped or very slowly travelling motorists waiting to proceed.
Queue lengths are a quantitative measure of the traffic demand. Where alternate routes are
available, the queue length is only a part of the total demand. Queue lengths should
represent 95% to 100% of the maximum queue during the peak period.
• In saturated conditions, queue lengths are essential measures of unmet demand. A

building queue indicates a worsening of the congestion and more demand than
capacity. Queues can build up to create gridlock and delay at upstream intersections
and interchanges that would otherwise be free flowing.
• In unsaturated conditions, queues that develop can be processed by an intersection
within a single cycle.
• In free flow conditions, queue lengths are not measurable.
D. Peak Period Travel Speeds
Travel speed is a quantitative measure of the mobility during peak periods and can help
determine route choices and diversion rates. This measure is useful when the LOS is D or
less and is essential for origin and destination studies.
Where the existing mainline level of service is D or worse (refer to Section 5.2.3.4.A), the
average travel speeds, averaged over the hour measured, should be determined for the peak
hours of the day. The average speeds over a segment of highway may be determined
using the test vehicle, license plate, or photography methods, as described in the Traffic
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Engineering Handbook. Peak-period traffic volumes and average travel speeds can be fed
into the Congestion Needs Assessment Model used by Regional Planning to assess vehicle
hours of delay (VHD).
5.2.3.5 Capacity Analysis Updates
Judgment must be used whenever a new software release becomes available or when revisions
to the HCM are made, as to whether previously completed analyses should be reevaluated.
While many factors may enter into this decision, the overriding consideration is whether it is
likely that a new analysis will significantly change the design, investment, and/or environmental
decisions. The final determination on whether to redo an analysis rests with the Regional
Design Engineer. Refer to Section 5.2.4 for updating traffic data and traffic analyses.
Refer to Section 5.9.2 for guidance regarding intersection capacity and level of service analysis.
Additionally, refer to the roundabout pages on the Department’s Internet
(https://www.dot.ny.gov/main/roundabouts) and IntraDOT sites for guidance and requirements
on roundabout capacity and level of service analysis.
5.2.3.6 Capacity Analysis Results
Refer to the HDM Chapter 5 Internet page for the traffic analysis report format. The report
includes a summary of the methodology, the tabulated results, a summary of the results, and
turning diagrams.
Tabulate for Existing, ETC and Design Year(s) for all peaks:
• LOS
• Delays
• Queues (from VISSIM or Sim Traffic but not from Synchro since Synchro will
underestimate queues in oversaturated conditions)
• Travel speeds
Software files are to be named logically and placed in ProjectWise. Output reports are to be
printed to pdf, named logically, and placed in ProjectWise.
5.2.3.7 Exceptions to the Required Capacity Analysis Methodology
Proposals to use an analysis procedure other than the HCM or the Department-approved
capacity software must be submitted to the Main Office for approval. Proposals for projects in
preliminary planning, up through the project scoping stage, should be submitted to the Statewide
Policy Bureau. Proposals for projects in either the preliminary design or detailed design stages
should be submitted to the Design Quality Assurance Bureau.
There are cases when capacity and level of service are inadequate measures to document the
traffic performance of an existing or proposed facility. These cases often involve complex
geometric and/or signal control situations (e.g., Intelligent Transportation System/Advanced
Traffic Management System); roadways or ramps which are oversaturated; or where the proximity
of controls (e.g., signalized intersections) cause spillback, affecting nearby locations.
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In these cases, use of queue analysis and/or traffic simulation models to estimate other traffic
performance measures should be considered in addition to capacity and level of service. Contact
the Design Services Bureau or the Statewide Policy Bureau for guidance in these situations.
Also, note that the definition of Level of Service in simulation models such as Vissim is different
than the HCM definition and therefore, the density output reported by the model should not be
used to compute HCM LOS, but rather used as is.
5.2.4 Updating Traffic Data and Capacity Analysis
Accurate design-year traffic data is needed to help evaluate the effectiveness of feasible alternatives
and to produce the most cost-effective designs that achieve full expected service life. Desirably,
current traffic data should be used. However, since regathering data and redoing analysis is
costly and time consuming, it may be acceptable to use older data and analysis under certain
conditions. Consider updating the capacity analysis, traffic diagrams, and design year traffic
forecast (prior to distribution of the draft Design Approval Document, Design Approval, and PS&E)
if any of the following factors have the potential to impact the proposed design:
• The estimated project completion date is postponed by more than 4 years (e.g., the
ETC+20 design year is changed from 2025 to 2030).
• New development has or is expected to occur that will substantially affect the traffic
analysis.
• Travel patterns have or are expected to change substantially.
• Project limits have been expanded or modified substantially.
Where volumes are low, LOS is A or B and the project is postponed or the limits have changed,
updating the analysis is often not practical.
Traffic data, forecasts, and analyses, whether current or not, should be reviewed with the
Regional Transportation Systems Operations Engineer. If updated information is being considered,
consult with the Regional Planning & Program Manager and the Regional Transportation Systems
Operations Engineer on the need for, and how to do, an update of the design-year traffic volumes,
traffic diagrams, and capacity analysis.
If the older data will be used, consider spot checking current traffic patterns to determine if the older
data projected to the current year is representative of current conditions. Average hourly speed data
can be checked using the floating car method. Critical turning movements should be recounted, as
necessary, to ensure adequate storage length, number of turn lanes, etc., is provided.
The rationale for the retention and use of older data needs to be documented in the Design
Approval Document or, if design approval has already been obtained, in the permanent project files.
5.2.5 Speed Studies
Speed studies provide an essential measure for evaluating highway geometry. The speed study
results also serve as the basis for selecting a design speed within the acceptable range for the
highway’s functional class (refer to Section 2.7 of this manual). The Regional Transportation
Systems Operations Group should be consulted on how to conduct these studies in order to obtain
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statistically reliable results.
As an exception to a formal speed study, the Regional Transportation Systems Operations

Engineer can select an off-peak 85th percentile speed equal to or above the regulatory speed based
on their expertise and experience.
Note: The regulatory speed alone is generally not a reasonable indicator of the off-peak 85th
percentile speed. Numerous studies (including FHWA’s “Effects of Raising and Lower Speed Limits
on Selected Roadway Sections,” 1997) have shown that speed limits have only a very minor effect
on operating speeds and cannot reliably be used to predict the operating speed.
5.2.5.1 Speed Terminology
A. 85th Percentile Speed (Operating Speed)
The operating speed is a single speed that reflects the majority of motorists. Rather than
use an average speed, which may only accommodate half the highway motorists, the
Department and most transportation agencies use the internationally accepted off- peak 85th
percentile speed to represent the operating speed. The 85th percentile speed is the operating
speed that only 15% of the motorists exceed during off-peak hours.
B. Recommended Speed
The recommended speed is the maximum speed, under optimal conditions, considered
appropriate for a particular location. The recommended speed should consider the
alignment and sight distance. Other physical conditions, such as narrow lanes, roadside
development, steep grades, etc., may also be considered.
The recommended speed based on the vertical sight distance should be determined from
Appendix B of this chapter. The recommended speed based on the horizontal sight distance
should be based on Section 5.7.2.4. The recommended speed based on the superelevation
and radius should be determined by (in order of preference):
• Calculating the speed from the geometry and equation from Section 5.7.3 of this
chapter.
• Using a ball bank indicator reading of 10° for horizontal alignment.
• Using Figures 5-8 and 5-9 of this chapter when horizontal alignment when the
radius and superelevation are known.
Note: Each method will result in slightly different results.
C. Advisory Speed
The advisory speed is defined as the recommended speed rounded to the nearest 5 mph,
but not more than the posted speed.
D. Regulatory or Legal Speed Limit
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The Regulatory or Legal Speed Limit is the maximum speed along a highway segment
allowed by local or state regulations. It may also be referred to as the posted speed when
regulatory signs are posted. When regulatory signs are not posted, the speed limit is the
statutory speed.
E. Statutory Speed Limit
The statutory speed limit is 55 mph as established by the NYS Vehicle and Traffic Law.
5.2.5.2 Speed Study Methods
The existing operating speed can be determined or estimated during the off-peak hours by
using (in order of preference):
1. Speed measuring devices.

2. A radar spot speed study of at least 30 vehicles (preferably 50 vehicles) that can be
performed during off-peak periods. This is generally only practical for highways with
250 vpd or greater.
3. The data used to set a speed limit at the project site, if such data is still representative of
current and anticipated operating conditions.
4. Test cars or following-car techniques during off-peak periods.
5. The statewide operating speed study for a similar facility. This information is available
from the Highway Data Services Bureau in the Office Technical Services.
5.2.5.3 Speed-Study Location
Select a speed-study location where motorists are not affected by localized nonstandard features
or traffic control devices (e.g., stop signs, narrow bridges, sharp curves). The study may need
to analyze both directions to ensure that it measures the highest speeds. Refer to Exhibit 5-2
for examples of how to locate the speed study.
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Exhibit 5-2 Speed Study Locations
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5.3 CRASH ANALYSIS
Identifying the cause(s) of crashes will usually provide an insight into what corrective measures may
be taken to minimize potential future crashes. Around 1,000 fatal crashes and nearly 200,000 injury
crashes occur per year on New York state and local highways. Approximately 40 percent of the fatal
crashes and 30 percent of the injury crashes occur on the State Highway System. The estimated
average cost of a fatal crash in New York State is $12,258,933 and the cost of a serious injury crash is
$689,924.
The purpose of a crash analysis is to identify crash patterns which may be correctable by studying and
quantifying crashes within and immediately adjacent to the project limits. The analysis should then
isolate and identify the causes of crash patterns and clusters, and identify potential countermeasures.
The Regional Traffic Group can either perform the analysis or assist in its conduct and interpretation.
5.3.1 Applicability
An Initial Crash Screening and either an Intermediate or Advanced Crash Analysis shall be
performed on every highway and bridge project that offers an opportunity to address crash causes or
severity as identified by the Department’s CLEAR application (see below) or the Highway Safety
Manual (HSM) formulas.
Examples of projects that will not likely benefit from a crash analysis include:
Element-Specific maintenance projects, such as sidewalk/ADA curb ramp repair, pavement marking
contracts etc.
Bridge preventive maintenance projects, such as Element-Specific Cyclical Bridge Work, joint repair,
bearing replacement, etc.
5.3.2 Timing and Responsibility
A crash analysis and previous Highway Safety Investigations or Operation Studies can aid in the
development and evaluation of project alternatives, and in determining the need for potential safety
improvements. Therefore, a crash analysis and study review should be performed early in project
scoping and documented in the Project Scoping Report and in the Design Approval Document
(DAD).
Project developers, in conjunction with the Regional Traffic Group, are responsible for retrieving and
analyzing crash data in accordance with this procedure and for incorporating scope appropriate crash
countermeasures or other safety enhancements which address the identified crash patterns into
each capital project. To achieve the Department's goal of continually improving highway safety for
the public, effective crash countermeasures and enhancements should be considered for inclusion
into its projects. Any identified mitigation measures which are not included should be considered for
future project programming.
During the project development process, the crash analysis should be reviewed when the latest data
used in the analysis is 5 or more years old OR if substantial changes have occurred at the project site
that may affect crashes. These changes may include different traffic patterns or substantial volume
changes; increased intensity or change in type of development (commercial, industrial, residential,
etc.); new/different traffic control devices (signals, signs, markings, etc.); roadway feature changes,
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BASIC DESIGN 5-24
etc. The crash analysis should be updated if a new crash pattern or cluster has appeared, and cost -
effective mitigation measures should be recommended, as appropriate. Any re visions to the
recommendations or proposed mitigation measures should be documented in the either the Design
Approval Document (prior to design approval) or a reevaluation statement if design approval has
been obtained.
5.3.3 Crash Analysis Procedures
The crash analysis steps and level of review depend on the project type and opportunities for
practical improvements. The Department’s Crash Location and Engineering Analysis Reporting
(CLEAR) application “Site Investigation” can assist in determining the potential for safety
improvement compared to other similar highway sections. CLEAR will calculate the “Potential
for Safety Improvement” based on New York State Safety Performance Functions (SPF) and the
CLEAR Facility Type. The Initial screening will also identify specific crash types that are
overrepresented for the selected facility type. This information can be used to determine if the
Intermediate or Advanced analysis procedures are appropriate. For details on the initial screening
process and the CLEAR Site investigation procedures, refer to the New York State Highway Safety
Investigations Manual (which is available on the Highway Safety and Traffic Operations webpage).
The Regional Traffic engineer or designee should confirm the level of analysis required.
5.3.4 Highway Safety Investigation Report
The Regional Traffic Group can provide a number of project supporting documents based on a
safety investigation. Depending on the level of analysis performed, this may include summary
crash statistics, collision diagrams, site reviews, safety recommendations, and alternatives
analysis. These documents are not all required as part of a crash analysis for a capital project
but the problems identified and proposed solutions should be discussed early in the project
development process
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5.4 VACANT
5.5 RIGHT OF WAY (ROW)
The designer is responsible for determining the right of way needs necessary for the construction
and maintenance of a proposed project. An assessment of right of way needs should be made
during the project scoping stage. Specific right of way needs are determined after the various
design alternatives have been identified and evaluated. Each alternative's potential impact upon
the residents, environment, neighborhood, businesses, land use, and users should be examined
and evaluated. The designer should coordinate with all involved program area groups to gain a
varied perspective on the impacts of all alternatives. This should be done as early as possible
and programmed into the project schedule.
The right of way processes described in this section are applicable to Design Build projects. Refer
to the NYSDOT ROW Instruction Manual and the NYSDOT Design Build Procedure Manual for
additional information.
5.5.1 Abstract Request Maps
Once properties which are affected by the various alternatives being considered are identified,
the designer should submit the proposed right of way limits to the Right of Way Mapping Group
(i.e., consultant or Regional). These proposed right of way limits will be outlined on base mapping,
as described in Chapter 3 of the Right of Way Mapping Procedure Manual, to create an Abstract
Request Map (ARM). The Right of Way Mapping Group sends the ARM to Regional Real Estate
for forwarding to the Department of Law (DOL).
An ARM is prepared to obtain the necessary title data for the properties that may be acquired by
the project. It provides the DOL with a means of identifying the properties for which title data is
required. Supplemental ARMs should be submitted whenever changes in a project’s work limits
occur which will affect which properties are being acquired. DOL requires title data be fore they
can provide title certification of most right of way acquisitions. Title certification is required by
Real Estate (i.e., Regional and Main Office) before compensation offers can be extended to land
owners.
The size of the ARM will vary depending upon whether it includes just the preferred alternative,
or all of the feasible alternatives. The decision on how many alternatives to include should be
based upon the size of the project, the amount of time needed to research the title data, the cost
to the Department for requesting additional title searches, and the complexity of the title data
along the project’s corridor. The designer should consult with the Regional Real Estate Group
and review the project schedule to determine when this information needs to be available. ARMs
should generally be submitted to the Real Estate Division a minimum of 12 to 24 months prior to
the PS&E for the project, depending upon the amount and complexity of the title data requested.
A “Table of Temporary Reference Numbers” (TRNs) is generated as part of the ARM. This table
lists all proposed acquisitions from properties that could be affected by the project. (Refer to
Chapter 3 of the Right of Way Mapping Procedure Manual for more information on TRNs). This
table will be updated and further expanded during later stages of the project to tabulate the
anticipated right of way acquisitions.
5.5.2 Design Approval Document (DAD) and Preliminary Plans
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The designer should provide information about the magnitude, types, and overall cost of
preliminary right of way for each of the feasible alternatives in the Design Approval Do cument
(DAD), for both federally and state-funded projects. This information is provided to the public and
other evaluators of the project to assist them in determining the magnitude of the right of way
acquisitions and the proposed limit to which the acquisitions extend into private and public
properties for each feasible alternative.
All feasible alternatives which involve right of way acquisitions should be shown on the preliminary
plans in the appendix of the DAD. These preliminary plans should inclu de, along with existing
and proposed highway alignments, the schematic delineation of the approximate limits of existing
and proposed right of way (Refer to Appendix 7 of the Project Development Manual).
Note: Right of Way Plans, for use in a separate right of way approval process, are not required
as part of the documentation of right of way required for a project. The contract plans will provide
the Department’s documentation of what right of way was determined to be necessary to be
acquired for a project.
In addition, the DAD should also include (in the appendix) for each feasible alternative, a “Table
of Anticipated ROW Acquisitions” which lists all property owners from whom right of way is
anticipated to be acquired (Ref. Project Development Manual, Chapter 4). A tabulated list is not
required for a project which does not have ROW acquisitions.
The “Table of Anticipated ROW Acquisitions” should include the following information for each
property from which a ROW Acquisition will be appropriated:
• Land owner’s name

• Type of acquisition
• Estimated ROW area to be acquired
This summary of ROW information will be utilized by private land owners, municipalities, and
FHWA (if federally funded) to evaluate the magnitude and limit of the ROW acquisitions as part
of the project review process. This information will also be used by the Regional Real Estate
Group (upon receipt of the final Design Approval Document) to obtain Acquisition Phase
Authorization.
5.5.3 Right of Way Determination
The design should include proposed ROW lines on the working plans which encompass the areas
required to access, construct, and maintain the proposed facility. The designer shall allow room
beyond the construction limits (toe or top of slope) for construction equipment and for future
maintenance operations, such as mowing or cleaning ditch lines. The type of acquisitions should
be determined by the use for which the land is taken, the party for whom the access will be
provided, and whether the need for the land will continue after the construction contract is
completed. If no work extends beyond the existing highway boundary, there is no need to acquire
additional ROW General guidance for width of right of way to be acquired beyond the construction
limit includes:
• A distance of approximately 10’ (3 m) is desirable when it can be obtained with little extra
cost or impact to the adjacent property, such as in rural areas with no nearby dwellings.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-27
• A minimum of 1.5’ to 5’ (0.5 m - 1.5 m) should be used where right of way costs are
more expensive or impacts are more significant, such as on front lawns of houses or in
commercial areas with limited building setbacks.
• A minimum of 1’ (0.3 m) should be considered in urban settings where buildings are set
close to the roadway, or outside of sidewalks which are separated or detached from the
highways by a wide utility strip or grass area.
In addition to cost, consideration should be given to visual aesthetics, maintenance activities,

roadside safety (i.e., clear zones and clear areas), regional guidance such as "Guidelines for the
Adirondack Park", future development (e.g., zoning setbacks), accommodation of utilities,
drainage design, soil erosion and sediment control during construction, and disruption to adjacent
property owners, when determining taking lines. Discussion with all involved functional units,
municipalities, utility companies, and regulatory agencies should occur early in the design process
to ensure all impacts are fully evaluated.
The reestablishment of driveways, private sidewalks, and other approaches to private lands
should be accomplished by use of releases. This work shall only include what is necessary to
reconnect a privately owned approach to the adjoining highway. Th is work should not include
any construction activities that are critical to the successful completion of the project. Therefore,
work done within a release should not include grading for roadway support, installation of highway
drainage (as opposed to those driveway culverts which do not form a part of the highway drainage
system), municipal utility lines or structures, or construction of public sidewalks. Refer to Section
5.5.6.6 for additional guidance regarding reestablishment of approaches to private lands.
Taking lines should generally avoid frequent angle points. When angle points in the taking lines
are necessary, they should generally be kept a reasonable distance ( 10’ (3 m) minimum) from
property lines which are transverse to the roadway, to avoid being mistaken for property line
corners between adjacent owners.
Refer to Section 5.5.6 for additional guidance regarding types of right of way and access.
5.5.4 Taking Line Review Meeting
Once the preferred alternative is chosen for a project and the initial right of way taking lines are
detailed, the designer is to schedule a meeting (commonly referred to as a “Taking Line
Review”) to discuss the limits and types of the proposed right of way acquisitions, any concerns,
the project schedule, and make f inal determinations regarding the size and type of acquisition(s)
to be mapped. On large projects, it may be advisable to break the project into segments and
schedule separate meetings to discuss each segment The taking line review meeting is to
include the project designers, consultant manager (for consultant-designed projects), and
Regional representatives from:
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BASIC DESIGN 5-28
• Real Estate
• Survey
• Landscape Architecture
• Environmental Services
• Right of Way Mapping
Representatives from Regional Construction, Maintenance, Transportation System Operations,

and Program & Project Management are to be invited to attend the meeting . If taking line changes
become necessary after the meeting, the group should be reconvened to discuss the changes.
For a taking line review meeting, the designer should portray the following information on project
base mapping so that it is easily understood by the attendees. Colored lines or colored shading
may be used to improve clarity.
• Baselines and center lines.
• Proposed construction work limits such as toes and tops of slopes or safety-related clear
areas.
• Anticipated construction operations and stages, traffic control plans, erosion and
sediment control plans.
• Proposed structures such as bridges with wingwalls, buildings, sidewalks, retaining
walls, and sign and lighting structures.
• Existing private underground services such as utility lines, wells, septic systems, and
storage tanks (especially when the site is known as a former gasoline station location).
• Approximate boundary of contaminated soils, if known.
• Existing and proposed access control delineated and labeled.
• Existing and proposed aboveground and underground private and municipal utilities
(e.g., fire hydrants, underground utility lines & structures, utility poles, signal poles, pull
boxes.
• Proposed drainage facilities, including piping, underground structures, headwalls, open
ditch lines with the direction of flow indicated, and stormwater management facilities.
• Existing highway boundary lines and proposed right of way acquisitions.
• Types of acquisitions indicated and labeled with the purpose of each easement.
• The limit of work on all side roads and driveways.
• Any building acquisitions and all structure encroachments into the ROW.
• The separate identification of all properties from which ROW is being acquired but were
not identified, or were identified but are no longer needed, on the Abstract Request Map.
In addition to the project mapping, the designer is to provide cross sections with the pro posed
construction work limits and right of way limits shown for reference during the Taking Line
Review.
5.5.5 Design Phases V-VI, Final Design Stage
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The contract plans will document what right of way acquisitions were determined to be necessary
to construct and maintain the project with the ROW acquisition maps serving as documentation
of the actual right of way acquisition. Thus, the contract plans should include an accurate
representation of all the right of way acquisition maps which demonstrate the proper ties which
are to be appropriated for that project. To provide this documentation, the contract plans should
include a graphical presentation of all acquisitions on the general plans. Separate “Acquisition
Plans” should be prepared for projects in which the general plans would otherwise be too
congested to clearly portray both the construction improvements and the right of way acquisitions
on the same plan sheets. In addition to the general plans or acquisition plans, a “Table of Right
of Way Acquisitions” shall be prepared. This table is expanded from the Design Approval
Document “Table of Anticipated Right of Way Acquisitions.” To keep this information current and
inclusive of all changes that occur during design refinement, frequent communication bet ween
the designer and ROW Mapping Group is necessary, so that all changes can be reflected on both
the contract plans and the ROW Acquisition Maps. The designer should also contact other groups
when changes affect their interests.
Design changes in areas of land acquisitions need to be communicated to the Regional Real
Estate Group during final design, so they are aware of potential impacts to adjacent landowners.
Regional Real Estate meets with each of the affected landowners along a project to describe the
type and size of the acquisition that the State is appropriating from their property. These
discussions include how the project will affect the topography, structures, and landscaping of a
property. Therefore, Regional Real Estate needs to be kept abreast of construction impacts and
any changes to those impacts on adjacent land parcels and receive periodic updates of general
highway plans, profiles, and cross sections.
Design changes in areas of land acquisitions that impact environmental issues (e.g., historic,
parkland, wetland) need to be communicated to the Regional Landscape and Environmental
Section during final design, so that they are aware of any changes to permits or mitigation needs.
The “Table of Right of Way Acquisitions” shall include:
• Reputed owner’s name.

• Map and parcel numbers.
• Types of acquisitions. PEs and TEs shall include the purpose of the easement.
• ROW area to be acquired.
• State highway number (on projects which include more than one state highway).
•
A copy of this table should be forwarded from Design to Regional Real Estate at least two
weeks prior to PS&E, for Real Estate’s use as a checklist to determine if all acquisitions have
been processed, and for obtaining ROW Certification. This list in the plans will provide a
tabulation of all ROW acquisitions for use by the Contractor and EIC, as well as for historic
reference of what ROW was acquired for that specific project.
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5.5.6 Types of Right of Way and Access
Right of way is usually acquired by appropriation. Appropriation is the acquisition of property by

the government through the right of eminent domain. The amount of right of way acquired
shall be limited to only what is necessary to access, construct, or maintain a highway and
its designed features and appurtenances.
The different types of right of way acquisitions and access are described in Sections 5.5.6.1
through 5.5.6.9.
5.5.6.1 Fee with full access - Fee (W/A)
A. Definition
Acquiring absolute right, title, or estate to a parcel of land for use by the state for purposes
related to highways or other transportation related facilities.
B. Types of Use
Fee with full access is used for the construction or maintenance of roadway pavements,
structures, appurtenances, and their supporting foundations. Fee acquisitions should be
appropriated to include all permanent structures which are part of the highway
infrastructure, but are not within the existing highway right of way. These should include
wing walls, headwalls, guide rail, sign structures, signal equipment, public sidewalks,
drainage structures, and retaining walls used to support the highway. In addition, fee
acquisitions should be appropriated to include all highway elements which are necessary
to support or protect the integrity of the highway (e.g., roadside ditches or side slope
protection installations) or to mitigate environmental impacts associated with the proposed
project (e.g., the acquisition of land for wetland creation).
In certain situations, such as in highly developed commercial areas, a fee acquisition may
reduce a commercial property to below a standard size lot required by local zoning or
reduce a building setback below the minimum requirement. These two situations could
cause undue hardship on the owner should they end up with a substandard lot. The
implications of a fee acquisition in these cases far outweighs the cost of the land, therefore,
a Permanent Easement acquisition may be more appropriate.
Acquisition of ROW should be avoided around areas which include private wells and septic
systems, underground tanks, private drainage systems which collect, transport, or
discharge storm water from a private property, and retaining walls which support private
property embankments. Appropriation of these facilities will implicate the state for their
maintenance responsibility or liability in the future.
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5.5.6.2 Fee without access - Fee (W/OA)
A. Definition
Same definition as Fee W/A, except that the remainder parcel of the abutting owner is
denied direct access across the fee parcel to the public highway. Fees W/OA that are
purchased to limit access are usually acquired at a minimum width of approximately 1 ft,
but can include the entire acquired parcel.
B. Types of Use
Fee without access is used to control (deny) access onto “limited access” types of
highways such as interstates or parkways, or to control access in highly congested or
crash prone portion of highways. Fees W/OA may also include all of the types of use
listed under Fee W/A.
5.5.6.3 Permanent Easement (PE)
A. Definition
Permanent easement is the acquisition of certain rights and interest to use or control a
property for a designated purpose. In most cases, the property owner retains the use of
the property for other functions which do not interfere with the purpose of the easement.
B. Types of Use
Permanent easements provide for the limited use of private property which is necessary
for highway purposes. The PE Map must describe the specific right that is being acquired
and for what purpose. Examples of this use are:
• Drainage - To control the direction and maintain the flow of storm water. This may
include minor underground drainage lines which collect storm water from low areas
adjacent to the highway, or discharge storm water to naturally occurring
watercourses which lie adjacent and downstream of the highway. (See also,
discussion of rights of entry in Section 5.5.6.8.)
• Sight Distance - To allow for clearing and maintaining of a critical sight distance
area.
• Slopes - To maintain the stability of a side slope along a highway which does not
support a critical highway element, (e.g., large back slope out from a ditch line).
• Viewsheds - To allow for the conservation and development of roadside view
sheds and natural features.
• Maintenance Operations - To allow maintenance crews access to highway
structures or other appurtenances for the intent of maintaining their integrity or
purpose.
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• Bank Stabilization - Banks of streams or rivers which are susceptible to erosion

near a highway may require stabilization efforts to be maintained.
• Commercial Access Control - Along highways, where commercial access control
is desired, a PE can be acquired for highway purposes to allow for construction of
roadside traffic control elements (PEs can be used in these instances, as a last
resort, where minimum commercial lot sizes, setbacks, or green spaces would be
reduced and property value would be significantly compromised by a fee taking).
• Clear zones and clear areas - To create and maintain clear zones and clear areas.
• Railroad properties - For construction of any permanent highway bridge structures
across an operating railroad property, in most situations a PE is acquired from the
applicable owner. In some situations, specific railroad companies have not agreed
to PEs, but have provided permits to allow for the construction work and future
maintenance.
• Contaminated soil - To acquire the rights of access and/or use a piece of real
estate without owning the underlying fee and contamination liability. Refer to
Section 5.5.6.9 A for additional guidance.
• Snow fence - to allow for the construction and maintenance of permanent snow
fence installations.
5.5.6.4 Temporary Easement (TE)
A. Definition
Temporary easements acquire the use or control of a piece of property for specific use(s)
during a construction project, for a set or limited duration of time (usually the length of the
construction contract). The owner is compensated for their inconvenience, loss of value,
or loss of access on the TE.
B. Types of Use
Temporary easements should be used for work which is essential to the proper, timely,
and safe completion of the project, but not for work which restores private access to a
highway. Examples of temporary access are:
• For construction and removal of a temporary detour or onsite diversion, including
bridges.
• For construction and removal of temporary pedestrian bridges or walkways.
• To demolish or raze a structure on a property where the state has taken title to the
structure, but does not own the underlying property.
• To slightly modify the land features or grade characteristics of an adjacent property
that improves the safe use or integrity of the highway while not affecting the
existing land use.
• To allow access for specialty construction equipment such as pile drivers or
cranes.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-33
• For stream realignment including the excavation or clearing of a new streambed

or backfilling and seeding a former streambed both of which reside on the same
owner’s property.
• For use by the contractor for the temporary storage of equipment or materials used
on the construction project (if deemed beneficial to the Department), or for
temporary access by the contractor across private property.
• To install and maintain temporary soil erosion control measures.
5.5.6.5 Temporary Occupancy (TO)
A. Definition
A temporary occupancy maps a specific area of private property, which under Section 404
of the Eminent Domain Procedure Law and Section 30 Subdivision 17 of the Highway Law
allows the state or its designees (contractors) to enter upon for project -related business.
A TO allows for compensation to the landowner up to $2500 for loss of use or damage to
their property during construction activities. However, since the land is not appropriated,
some situations have arisen during which construction work has bee n delayed by the
landowner, or the assessed damages have exceeded the $2500 limit. In some cases, the
TOs have been reprocessed as TEs; duplicating much of the effort.
B. Types of Use
Temporary occupancies are discouraged and shall only be processed with the
concurrence of the Regional Real Estate Group. TOs are only to be used in isolated
situations where there is a definite advantage to the state, and then, only used on areas
which are noncritical to the completion of the project.
5.5.6.6 Reestablishment of Approaches to Private Lands
Section 54a of the Highway Law, Reestablishment of Approaches to Private Lands, allows
the Department to reestablish existing entrances, approaches, or driveways to meet the new
highway grade. Entrances, approaches, and driveways have been interpreted to include
driveway, curbs, sidewalks, stairs, etc. Before the contractor is allowed to make any
adjustments outside the State’s ROW, a release from the property owner must be obtained
as discussed in Section 107-14 of the Contract Administration Manual, MURK Part 1A. The
release provided in Section 107-14 should be used. A release is a nonbinding agreement
(without compensation) between a landowner and the state to allow for the reconnection of a
private or commercial access to a highway. No TE or TO maps are used for this purpose,
and no compensation is paid to the land owner since the reconnection is for their benefit. No
project-related work should be included under this release that, if the owner were to deny
access, would prohibit the contractor from completing an essential element of a project.
Refer to Appendix A of this chapter for the Driveway Design Policy
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5.5.6.7 Planting Trees and Shrubs Along State Highways
Section 19 of the Highway Law, Planting Trees and Shrubs Along State Highways, allows the
Department to plant trees and shrubs on private property with the consent of the property
owner. If plantings on private property are to be specified, form HC91, illustrated in Section
107-14 of the Contract Administration Manual, MURK Part 1A must be used to obtain the
property owner’s permission before the work can begin.
5.5.6.8 Rights of Entry
The rights of entry discussed in Sections 5.5.6.8 A and B should be used wit h caution. If
exercised inappropriately or without proper cause, it could lead to claims filed by the adjacent
land owners. These rights do provide for access in situations where the integrity of the
roadway is threatened or the safety to the public users of the highway could be in jeopardy.
For any work in a stream or creek which is performed outside the existing highway boundary
and alters the channel location, flow characteristics or the underlying land use, should be
accomplished within ROW acquired by appropriation. This appropriation should compensate
the adjoining land owner for any change in the riparian rights they had prior to this work.
A. Section 45 of the NYS Highway Law
This section states that DOT employees or contractors working for the state can enter
upon lands adjacent to a state highway or which contain a stream or creek to:
• Open, maintain, or construct an existing ditch or drain for the free passage of water
for drainage of such highway.
• Construct, reconstruct, or maintain drainage channels in order to keep the waters
of such streams or creeks within their proper channel and prevent their
encroachment upon state highways or bridges.
• Remove or change position of a fence or other obstruction, which in DOT’s
judgment prevents the free flow of water under or through a state bridge or culvert.
• Remove private fences or obstructions which cause snow to drift in and upon a
state highway, or to construct or remove temporary snow fences which prevent the
drifting of snow in or upon a state highway.
• Inspect, remove, or prune trees which in DOT’s judgment constitute a danger to
the users of the adjacent highway.
B. Section 404 of the Eminent Domain Procedure Law (EDPL) and Section 30,
Subdivision 17 of the Highway Law
These sections of the law allow for DOT employees or contractors working for the state to
enter upon private land, prior to acquiring any real property, to engage in work connected
with a proposed public project. This right of entry shall be for the purpose of mak ing
surveys, test pits and borings, or other investigations needed for the project. The state’s
representatives shall be responsible to notify the private land owners, by mail, prior to
entry upon the land. The state shall also be liable to the landowner for any damages
caused by or as a result of entry.
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5.5.6.9 Special Considerations
A. Contaminated Soil
Acquisitions along properties which have in the past or still do contain commercially sold
or used hazardous materials (including petroleum based) should be investigated for
possible contamination of the soil on the site. Hazardous waste and contaminated
materials procedures described in the Environmental Manual should be followed and
investigations coordinated with the Regional Environmental Contact. When acquisitions
are deemed necessary on properties which have been determined as contaminated, care
should be used in determining the limits and types of acquisitions due to possible legal
implications. Therefore, the following guidance is provided to assist in these
determinations:
• Outer limits of the soil contamination in areas of possible ROW acquisitions should
be determined as closely as present technology allows.
• Existing sources of the contamination should be investigated, and appropriate
action taken to prevent further contamination. If any possible sources of
contamination are located within a proposed acquisition, (such as underground
petroleum storage tanks or piping system which leaks), it shall either be avoided,
or removed and appropriately disposed of. This removal shall be performed under
the use of a Temporary Easement.
• Acquisitions of hazardous waste contaminated soils which are abso lutely
necessary, (other than petroleum-based contamination) shall be acquired as
Permanent Easements. This action avoids acquiring the underlying fee title and
the possible contamination liability. Final determinations of these type of
acquisitions should be coordinated with the Department’s Office of Legal Affairs.
• Acquisitions of petroleum-based contaminated soils, (which do not include any
remaining sources of the contamination) are regulated by different federal and
state statutes than other hazardous wastes, and thereby have different liabilities
associated with them. Thus, fee acquisition of petroleum contaminated soils may
be permitted, if the Department does not acquire any part of the system from which
the release is believed to have occurred. If uncertain of the potential implications
of a specific acquisition, seek legal counsel from the Department’s Office of Legal
Affairs.
B. Utility Easements
Utilities acquire easements from private land owners for the purpose of locating their
facilities across private property. These easements are generally affected when a
proposed project requires acquisition of some or all of the land rights of the same property
that the easement is located upon. The two ways the Utility easement may be affected
are as follows:
• An acquisition in which the Utility is required to relocate their facility - In this case,
all project-related relocations of utility facilities located on private property will be
reimbursed from construction funds pursuant to Section 10 (24-b) of the Highway
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RIGHT OF WAY (ROW)
BASIC DESIGN 5-36
Law, and Chapter 13 of this manual. By reimbursement for this relocation, all
existing Utility easements located within proposed acquisitions shall be assumed
to be compensated for and extinguished.
• An acquisition in which the Utility is not required to relocate their facility - In this
case, the Utility retains their easement rights that they held prior to the proposed
acquisition. The proposed acquisition is thus made “subject to” the rights
previously held by that Utility.
5.5.7 Encroachments
Encroachments exist on many highway rights of way. Generally, the owners should be requested
by Regional Transportation Maintenance to remove these encroachments. However, an
encroachment may be allowed to remain if it can be shown that the structure in no way impairs
or interferes with the free and safe flow of traffic on the highway. Encroachments are allowed to
occur when a "Use and Occupancy Permit" has been granted, however, FHWA must also approve
an encroachment that remains on a project requiring FHWA’s design approval. The designer, in
consultation with the other program area groups, may recommend to the Regional Director that
the encroachment remain. If approval is granted, the Real Estate Group is responsible for
managing the encroachment.
5.5.8 Excess Right of Way
Excess right of way is defined as existing transportation property beyond that which is sufficient
to ensure safe, efficient operation of the highway as it exists and as it will exist in the foreseeable
future. Changes in the highway alignment often result in an excess of right of way, or an existing
excess is noticed in the design process. Excess right of way is established on a project specific
basis. When determining excess right of way, the designer must consider the following:
• Probability of the need for future improvement (check the present volume/capacity ratio,
level of service, crash rate, etc.).
• Horizontal sight distance.
• Adequate clear zone widths.
• Surface and subsurface drainage.
• Snow storage.
• Pedestrian facilities.
• Bicycle facilities.
• Bus turnouts.
• Traffic control devices.
• Utilities.
• Access control.
• Effects on property owners.
• Wetland mitigation.
• Preservation of views and aesthetics.
The Real Estate Group has responsibility for the disposal of excess right of way. See M.A.P. 7.8 -
5-1 Disposal of Surplus Real Estate and A02-5-29 Excess Property Identification for details of the
procedure.
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RIGHT OF WAY (ROW)
BASIC DESIGN 5-37
5.5.9 ROW Markers
Right of Way (ROW) Markers along a highway delineate the right of way:
• To assist adjacent land owners in the identification of the limits of the highway boundary
adjacent to their property.
• To assist maintenance crews in determining the limits of the highway which they are
maintaining.
• To monument the limits of the right of way, which provides secondary control for future
reestablishment of the highway boundary.
5.5.9.1 Where and When to use ROW Markers
ROW Markers are intended to delineate the boundary between the highway and private
property, and mark any changes in the direction of that boundary line. All new right of way
limits should be monumented as part of their associated construction projects. RO W Markers
should be installed at all angle points along the proposed or new right of way boundary.
ROW Markers are not intended to monument the property lines between private properties.
Therefore, no markers should be placed at property lines, except in unavoidable situations
where an acquisition has to end at a property line. Recommendations on where and when to
place ROW Markers should be reviewed by the Regional Land Surveyor.
5.5.9.2 Which ROW Markers to Use
The Department uses concrete and steel pin and cap ROW markers. Refer to the
Department’s 625 series standard sheets for the ROW marker details. The following factors
need to be considered when choosing between the various types of ROW markers. Proposed
ROW Marker locations and types should be reviewed by the Regional Land Surveyor.
• Safety - Consider whether pedestrians, bicyclists, land owners, or vehicular traffic could
be exposed to a hazard by placing a high or low concrete marker adjacent to , or within
a sidewalk, public path, lawn area, or driveway.
• Aesthetics - Consideration should be given to the visual impact of ROW markers on a

project area. For example, the placement of a line of high concrete markers (fence post
look) may be visually intrusive to the project area. In situations where markers will be
visually evident and could potentially create a less than desirable effect on the area’s
aesthetics, use of low or steel pin markers should be considered. Any use of concrete
markers on or adjacent to historically significant or contributing properties, should be
coordinated with the regional contact for historic and cultural resources.
• Land Use - Consider the present or anticipated land use for the adjacent properties. It
is not desirable to install concrete markers in existing or proposed parking lots,
driveways or sidewalks, maintained lawn areas, or on parklands. In contrast, it is
advisable to consider the use of either high or low concrete markers near cultivated fields
(since they need to be seen to be avoided), and use high concrete markers in
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RIGHT OF WAY (ROW)
BASIC DESIGN 5-38
unimproved areas that have heavy underbrush, wetlands, or include standing water, to
simplify their rediscovery in the future. Low concrete or steel pin markers are appropriate
along interstates which also have fencing to delineate the right of way limits. Low
concrete or steel pin markers should be used on or near commercial properties,
depending on proximity to walks or driveways, and the resulting landscaped appearance
after installation.
• Ground Conditions - Consider the types of ground materials or the underground utilities
where markers are to be set. Rock outcroppings may necessitate the use of steel pin
markers (by drilling and grouting), and high water table or unstable soils may warrant
concrete markers to ensure their stability. While underground utilities warrant care on
the contractor’s part during installation, the designer may need to include a special note
to establish the depth that a marker is to be set over utilities or pipes.
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ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
BASIC DESIGN 5-39
5.6 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
The objective of economic analysis is to help select the most efficient transportation project or
plan that minimizes the use of valuable resources (money, land, time, materials, manpower, etc.).
A variety of methods exist for selecting the most cost-beneficial projects or f or selecting a superior
alternative from among a group of proposals. The following are brief descriptions of four common
methods used by the Department, with simple examples of each. Exhibit 5-5 offers a reference
to determine which method is usually used for various project types, and the functional unit
generally responsible for the analysis.
Exhibit 5-5 Economic Analysis Problem Types, Analysis Methods, Guidance in Force,
and Contact for More Information
Analysis Type Method Guidance Contact
Bridge Rehabilitation Bridge Manual Office of

vs. Replacement Life Cycle Cost Section 19 Structures
Bridge Abandonment Economic Analysis

User Benefits Statewide Policy
vs. Preservation Worksheet for
Agency costs Bureau
Decisions Bridges
Comprehensive
Pavement
Pavement Design Materials
Rehabilitation Life Cycle Cost
Manual Bureau
Alternatives
Chapter 3
Highway Safety
Safety B/C Ratio Improvement
Crash
(Safety Benefits / Program Procedures Office of Traffic
Reduction
Project Costs) and Techniques Safety & Mobility
Treatments
Manual, a.k.a. the
‘Red Book’.
Highway User
Mobility Incremental Statewide Policy
Cost Accounting
Betterment B/C Ratios Bureau
Package
Social, Economic & Environmental Environmental

B/C Ratios
Environmental Impacts Manual Science Bureau
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ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
BASIC DESIGN 5-40
Methods
1. Present Worth Method - When two or more alternatives are capable of performing the same
functions, the superior alternative will have the largest present worth when determining the
present worth of benefits, and the smallest present worth when determining the present worth
of costs. All alternatives must have the same lives and be mutually exclusive. The present
worth for a single future benefit is calculated from the equation:
Ps = F(1 + i) -n
The present worth for uniform annual benefits is calculated from the equation:
Where: P= Present Worth
Pu = A (1 + i) -1 n F= Future Benefit
i (1 + i) n A= Benefits per period (usually annual)
i = Interest rate per period (usually annual)
n= Number of compounding periods
The present worth of the net benefit of each alternative should be calculated by subtracting
present alternative costs from present worth benefits.
Example: Given two projects, A and B, i= 5%. A costs $10,000 today and has a single future
benefit of $11,500 two years in the future. B costs $8,000 today and has benefits of $4,500
in each of the next two years.
Present worth of the net benefit (Alt. A) = - $10,000 + $11,500 (1 + .05) -2 = $431
Present worth of the net benefit (Alt. B) = - $8,000 + $4,500 x (1 + .05) 2 -1 = $367
0.05 (1 + .05) 2
Alternative A is superior, since the present worth of the net benefit for Alt. A is higher than
the present worth of the net benefits of Alt. B.
2. Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost (EUAC) - (also called Annual Return Method and Capital
Recovery Method). The EUAC method assumes that each alternative will be replaced by an
identical twin at the end of its useful life. The alternatives must be mutually exclusive and
infinitely renewed up to the duration of the longest-lived alternative. The annual cost is given
by the equation:
Where: A = Annual Cost
A=P i(1 + i) n P = Present Cost
(1 + i) n -1 i = Annual interest rate
n = Number of years
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ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
BASIC DESIGN 5-41
Example: Given two highway improvement projects and the following information, determine
which is superior over a 30-year period at an annual rate of 4%.
A B
Type Rehabilitation Pavement Resurfacing
Life 30 years 10 years
Cost $1,800,000 $450,000
Maintenance $5,000/year $20,000/year
EUAC(A)= $1,800,000 x 0.04(1+.04)30 + $5000 = $109,040

(1+.04) 30 -1
EUAC(B)= $450,000 x 0.04(1+.04) 10 + $20,000 = $75,485

(1+.04) 10 -1
Alternative B is superior, since its annual cost of operation is the lowest. It is assumed
that three pavement resurfacing projects each with a life span of 10 years and cost of
$450,000 will be built to span the 30-year period.
3. Capitalized Cost Method - There are times when a series of equivalent uniform annual costs
(EUAC) will start at some future date and must be combined with lump sum payments in
other years. This is accomplished by converting the EUAC to a capitalization amount in the
year the annual payments start. The capitalization amount is the amount of money th at when
invested today at the effective interest rate would give an annual return equal to the annual
payments. It can be determined by the following equation:
Where: CA = Capitalization amount in year annual payments

CA = EUAC start
i EUAC = Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost
i = Effective interest rate
The Capitalization amount in some future year can be converted to a Present Cost in a similar
manner as the present worth is calculated above.
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ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
BASIC DESIGN 5-42
Example: A decision must be made whether to spend $500,000 on a bridge rehabilitation

project now or to do nothing and replace the bridge in the future at a cost of $1M. Without
the rehabilitation, the bridge would last ten years before replacement. The rehabilitation
would add 15 years to the life of the bridge and, thus, the bridge would require replacement
in 25 years. The effective interest rate is 4 percent and a new bridge life is 50 years. For
perpetual bridge replacement:
EUAC = $1,000,000 x 0.04(1+.04) 50 = $46,500

(1+.04) 50 -1
CA = $46,500 = $1,164,000
0.04
Bridge Rehabilitation
1. Present Cost of Rehabilitation $500,000
2. Present Cost of Capitalization Amount occurring
in 25 years: P = $1,164,000 (1+.04) -25 $437,000
3. Total Present Cost of this Alternative $937,000
Delay Rehab and Replace in Ten Years

Present Cost of Capitalization Amount in 10 years
P = $1,164,000 (1+.04)-10 $786,000
The analysis shows that delaying the rehabilitation and replacing the bridge in ten years
will have the lowest life-cycle cost.
4. Benefit-Cost Ratio Method - To determine the B/C Ratio, the present worth of all benefits is
divided by the total present worth of all costs. The project is usually considered acceptable
if the B/C Ratio exceeds 1.
When the Benefit/Cost Ratio is used, disbursements by the initiators, or sponsors, are costs.
Disbursements by the users of the project are known as disbenefits. It is often difficult to
determine whether a cash flow is a cost or a disbenefit. The numerical result can be
considerably different, since if it is disbenefit, it is subtracted from the numerator, and if it is
a cost, it is added to the denominator.
Example: Given a public works project with:
Estimated benefits = $ 1,600,000

Present costs = $ 650,000
Additional cash flow item(s) = $ 200,000
Assume additional item(s) is a cost: B/C = $ 1,600,000 = 1.88

$650,000 + $200,000
Assume additional item(s) is a disbenefit: B/C = $1,600,000 - $200,000 = 2.15

$ 650,000
For this reason, the B/C method should not be used to rank competing alternatives unless
an incremental analysis is used. The optimum alternative may not necessarily be the one
with the greater B/C. In order to do an incremental analysis, first determine that the B/C is
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greater than one for each alternative. Then, for each possible pair of alternatives, calculate
the ratio:
B2 - B1
C2 - C1
If the ratio exceeds 1, alternative 2 is superior to alternative 1. Otherwise, alternative 1 is

superior.
Example: Given two highway improvements with the following information:
Annual Road Annual Highway

Condition User Costs Costs
Existing Roads $ 5,730 $ 46
Plan 1 4,760 234
Plan 2 4,697 264
Annual Annual
Incremental Incremental
Comparison Benefits Costs B/C
Plan 1 vs. Existing $ 970 $ 188 5.2
Plan 2 vs. Existing 1,033 218 4.7
Plan 2 vs. Plan 1 63 30 2.1
Both Plans are superior to the existing situation. However, when compared to each other,
Plan 2 is superior to Plan 1.
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5.7 DESIGN ELEMENTS
5.7.1 Design Vehicle
The Design Vehicle is the largest vehicle that frequently uses a facility. Projects with several types
of facilities may have different design vehicles for each part. The physical and operating
characteristics of the design vehicle are controlling parameters in highway design. Designs should
accommodate the size and maneuverability of the design vehicle to allow it to operate without
encroachment into adjacent travel or parking lanes. Such designs help reduce collisions and
operational delays from lane encroachments.
5.7.1.1 Minimum Design Vehicle for Various Routes
The geometric characteristics of the various design vehicles are found in Chapter 2 of
AASHTO's, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. Below are the
minimum required design vehicles for various highway categories for checking the horizontal
alignment:
• For interstate highways, Designated Qualifying and Access Highways on the Designated
Truck Access Highway Network, and their interchanges, the minimum design vehicle is
the WB-67.
• For parkways, the design vehicle is the largest vehicle that will be regular ly used on the
highway, typically either an SU vehicle representing a maintenance vehicle or large
school bus (S-BUS 40). (Note that Parkways are highways where commercial traffic is
prohibited.)
• For most other non-interstate highways, the minimum design vehicle is the single unit
truck (SU), which will also accommodate a large school bus (S-BUS 40). Some projects
may require the larger city transit bus (CITY-BUS), articulated bus (A-BUS), WB-40,
WB-62, WB-67, or larger design vehicle.
Based on the AutoTrack library for US Design Vehicles and the 2010 NCHRP 659 Ground
Clearance Vehicles, below are the minimum required design vehicles for various highway
categories for checking the vertical alignment:
• For arterial highways, including Interstates and other freeways; collectors; and railroad
crossings on local roads and streets, the minimum design vehicle is the low boy trailer
with a 5” minimum ground clearance.
• For local roads and streets (except at railroad grade crossings), the minimum design
vehicle is the passenger car vehicle with a trailer since it governs the profile compared
to a single unit truck (SU), large school bus (S-BUS 40), city transit bus (CITY-BUS), or
articulated bus (A-BUS). Where low ground clearance vehicles are known to operate,
the low boy trailer with a 5” minimum ground clearance may be considered.
5.7.1.2 Encroachments
Vehicle encroachments occur when any portion of a vehicle extends beyond the vehicle's
lane. With the exception of some low speed local streets and roads, designs that cause
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frequent encroachments are undesirable as they may increase the likelihood of delays and
collisions. However, designs that eliminate encroachments may also reduce safety since large
turning radii allow faster turning speeds and wide turning paths cr eate longer walking
distances for pedestrians and may increase confusion for motorists confronted with large
paved areas. In order to provide a balanced design, encroachments are generally acceptable
for:
• Shoulders at intersections (Refer to Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5.2 for a discussion of

additional shoulder pavement thickness at intersections).
• Intersections along low-speed urban streets.
• Intersections along low-volume rural roads.
• Single left turns that require two receiving travel lanes.
• Double left and right turns that cannot accommodate side by side operation of the
design vehicles. (Designs should accommodate a passenger car along side the design
vehicle.)
5.7.1.3 Oversized Vehicles
The selected design vehicle is often not the largest vehicle that may use the facility. Oversized
vehicles require additional paved areas that are often not practical to construct due to the
infrequency of these vehicles. We recognize that these oversized vehicles will occasionally
be present and may encroach into other lanes and/or traverse shoulders and curbs. Designers
should check proposed designs using the largest oversized vehicle anticipated to use the
facility. This helps determine what changes would be needed to accommodate the oversized
vehicle and helps decision makers determine whether or not such changes are practical.
Designers should contact their Regional Transportation Systems Operations Group to help
determine an appropriate oversized vehicle. For many areas, the oversized vehicle is a
modular home unit on a WB 20 trailer. The dimensions of the trailer load may be assumed to
be a maximum of 16 ft (4.9 m) high including the trailer, 16 ft (4.9 m) wide, and 53 ft (17 m) to
80 ft (24.5 m) long. The wheel path for this vehicle can be easily checked using a WB 20
design vehicle. The vehicle overhangs should be checked to evaluate the location of trees,
signals, poles, signs, shrubs, street appurtenances, etc.
When oversized vehicles encroach beyond the traveled way, the designer may need to
consider:
• Traversable curb.
• Full depth shoulders.
• Wide shoulders.
• Stabilized areas behind curbing.
• Relocation of signals, poles, signs, trees, shrubs, street appurtenances, etc.
• Removable signs and street appurtenances.
As an alternative to a site-specific evaluation of oversized vehicles, the Region may coordinate

with the Office of Safety and Security Services to develop alternative routing that bypasses a
particular site.
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5.7.2 Sight Distance
Sight distance is the length of road ahead visible to the driver. This distance should be long
enough for the driver to see a situation and successfully react to it. There are a number of different
types of sight distances important in highway design. Refer to Section 5.9.5 of this chapter for a
discussion of intersection sight distance.
5.7.2.1 Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping sight distance is the distance necessary for a vehicle traveling at or near the design
speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. There are three types of stopping
sight distance. These are: stopping sight distance for a crest vertical curve, stopping sight
distance for a sag vertical curve (also called "headlight sight distance") and stopping sight
distance for horizontal curves. Each of these types is equally important and only when all
three conditions have been satisfied, can stopping sight distance requirements be considered
satisfied. Stopping sight distance is one of the critical design elements and is discussed in
Chapter 2 and the "Standards for Non-Freeway Resurfacing, Restoration and Rehabilitation
(3R) Projects". The NYSDOT "Vertical Highway Alignment Sight Distance Charts" in
Appendix B of this chapter provide values for stopping sight distance and length of vertical
curve for various algebraic differences in grade.
5.7.2.2 Passing Sight Distance
Passing sight distance is only a concern on two-lane, two-way roadways. On these highways,
provision for passing is an important factor in maintaining the capacity of the highway. For a
vehicle to pass a slower vehicle it has overtaken, it must occupy the lane regularly used by
opposing traffic. To do so, the driver must be able to see far enough ahead to determine that
the road is clear of opposing traffic and there is sufficient distance to complete the passing
maneuver. Values for passing sight distance are found in Chapter 3 of AASHTO's A Policy
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. The NYSDOT "Vertical Highway
Alignment Sight Distance Charts" in Appendix B of this chapter presents values for passing
sight distance as a function of length of crest vertical curve and algebraic difference in grade.
5.7.2.3 Decision Sight Distance
Decision sight distance is the distance required for a driver to recognize a complex situation
and safely react to it. Values for decision sight distance are substantially longer than for
stopping sight distance. The increased sight distance is beneficial whenever the motorist
encounters a condition which may increase the likelihood for error in information reception,
decision-making, or control actions. The increased distance provides a greater margin for
safety and is desirable where these kinds of errors are more likely, such as at interchanges
and intersections, approaches to lane drops, and other locations where competing sources of
information greatly complicate the tasks of driving. Further discussion and values for decision
sight distance are found in Chapter 3 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets, 2018.
5.7.2.4 Horizontal Sight Distance
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Concrete barriers and other similar items have grown in popularity in recent years. The effect
of these barriers must be considered along with other visual obstructions when determining
sight distance. A concrete barrier placed on the inside of a horizontal curve will restrict the
sight distance around that curve. This is a common problem on curvilinear urban freeways
with concrete median barrier. Refer to Chapter 10, Section 10.2.2.5 of this manual for median
barrier options.
The following equation, a graphical method using CADD, or field measurements should be
used to ensure sufficient stopping sight distance is provided along horizontal curves with
obstructions, such as signs, concrete barrier, retaining walls, bridge abutments, etc. ( refer to
Exhibit 5-6). The equation is valid for curves with radii to the center of the inside lane that is
equal or greater than the stopping sight distance. The eye height is 3.5 ft (1080 mm) and the
object height is 2’ (600 mm).
HSO = R (1 - cos (28.65 S/R))
Where: HSO = Horizontal Sightline Offset

R = Curve Radius to Center of Inside Travel Lane
S = Stopping Sight Distance Measured Along the Travel Lane.
The above equation works for both metric and US Customary values. However, the units
must be all in feet or meters.
Exhibit 5-6 Horizontal Sight Distance
5.7.3 Horizontal Curves
The horizontal alignment of a highway consists of a number of straight (tangent) sections

connected by horizontal curves. These curves are sections of a circle or spiral. Curves should
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be designed to minimize vehicles skidding off the traveled way (exce ssive vehicle yaw) or
overturning (excessive vehicle roll). Refer to Chapter 2 of this manual for curve radii, design
speeds, and superelevation rates for various facilities.
5.7.3.1 Horizontal Curve Design to Minimize Vehicle Skidding Crashes
The point at which a vehicle begins to skid is based on a complex interaction of many
variables, including:
• Traveled way superelevation, radius, grade, and coefficient of friction adjusted for
weather, wear, and surface roughness.
• Vehicle mass, center of gravity, suspension, number of tires, velocity, antilock braking
system, stability control system, steering angle, and acceleration/deceleration (i.e.,
accelerating or braking).
• Tire size, compound, tread design, wear, temperature, inflation, and contact patch.
• Motorist.
The following basic horizontal curve equation accounts for most of these variables (Ref.
Equation 3-7 from AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018).
R = V2 .
15 (0.01e + f )
The basic horizontal curve equation can be used to calculate:
• Radius, speed, or superelevation for new and reconstruction of all low-speed urban
streets.
• The minimum radius for the selected design speed and maximum superelevation rate
for new or reconstruction of rural highways and high-speed urban streets. Do NOT
use the basic horizontal curve equation to determine the superelevation for
intermediate curves (i.e., having radii greater than the minimum) on turning roadways,
rural highways, and high-speed urban streets. Refer to Chapter 2 of this manual for
the applicable superelevation table for new and reconstruction of these facilities.
Refer to Chapter 7 for 1R, 2R and 3R projects.
• The recommended speed based on the radius and superelevation rate for all curves,
as discussed in Section 5.2.5.1.B of this chapter. The recommended speed is shown
in Exhibits 5-8 and 5-9.
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Exhibit 5-7 Side Friction Factor

Speed f f
(MPH) for NHS Facilities for non-NHS Facilities
20 0.27 0.30
25 0.23 0.29
30 0.20 0.28
35 0.18 0.27
40 0.16 0.26
45 0.15 0.25
50 0.14 0.24
55 0.13 0.23
60 0.12 0.22
65 0.11 0.21
70 0.10 0.20
75 0.09 0.19
80 0.08 0.18
Where:
R= Radius (ft). The horizontal curve radius to help prevent a vehicle from sliding out of its
travel lane is based on a combination of the vehicle speed, side friction factor, and
superelevation.The radius is measured from the inner edge of the traveled way on
turning roadways and wide (4 or more lanes) undivided facilities. However, for two-
lane undivided facilities, the radius may be measured to the centerline as the
difference in radii is small. Similarly, for high-speed divided highways with separate
horizontal control lines, the radius may be measured to the centerline of each direction
of traffic..
V = Speed (mph). The approach design speed is used to determine the curve design
speed.
f = Side Friction Factor from Exhibit 5-7. The side friction factor is the ratio of the lateral
forces to the normal forces acting on a vehicle traveling around a curve. The friction
factor is used to account for the complex interaction of the vehicle ( mass, center of
gravity, suspension, number of tires, and velocity) and the traveled way (coefficient of
friction adjusted for weather, wear, and surface roughness). Exhibit 5-7 shows the
side friction factor for speeds of 20 mph through 85 mph. The NHS values were used
to create Figures 3-3 and 3-4 of AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets, 2018. For non-NHS facilities, f = 0.34 – 0.002 V
e = Superelevation in percent. The superelevation is the banking of the traveled way cross
slope to counter the centrifugal forces of a vehicle traveling around a curve. The basic
horizontal curve equation minimizes the use of superelevation, which minimizes the
margin of safety since the cornering vehicle must use large amounts of side friction to
avoid sliding off the curve. Refer to the superelevation distribution method 2
discussion in Chapter 3 of AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, 2018.
Exhibits 5-8 and 5-9 show the relationship between speed, superelevation and radius for non-
NHS facilities using the linear side friction factor. It should be used as a lower threshold for
nonstandard features on NHS facilities.
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Note: The superelevation for intermediate curves on rural highways and high -speed urban
streets is based on Superelevation Distribution Method 5, as discussed in Chapter 3 of AASHTO’s
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. Superelevation Distribution
Method 5 uses a number of complex equations to place added superelevation on intermediate
curves. As the radius decreases, the added superelevation allows the side friction demand to
increase gradually, which increases the margin of safety over Superelevation Distribution Method
2. AASHTO’s intent is to provide additional superelevation on curves with large radii to avoid
violating driver expectancy. Motorists negotiating large radius curves are more likely to overdrive
the curve and less likely to anticipate large cornering forces. The additional superelevation also
allows the remaining available side friction to be used for changing roadway conditions, evasive
maneuvers, braking, accelerating, etc.
The minimum radii and maximum percent of superelevation are found in Chapter 2 of this manual
for new construction, reconstruction, and bridge projects with over 400 ADT. For 1R projects and
2R/3R projects, refer to Chapter 7 of this manual for allowable values. For bridge projects with
400 ADT or less, refer to Chapter 4 of this manual. The maximum and minimum values should
not be confused with desirable values. In new construction or reconstruction of high speed
facilities, the largest radius possible is usually the most desirable solution.
When evaluating nonstandard horizontal curves, note that the side friction factor can be reduced
by longitudinal forces from braking, accelerating, and the increased tractive forces needed to
maintain speed on steep inclines. Where these actions are likely, additional superelevation and
other measures should be considered.
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Exhibit 5-8 Recommended Speed on Horizontal Curves to Avoid Skidding (Low Speed)
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Exhibit 5-9 Recommended Speed on Horizontal Curves to Avoid Skidding
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5.7.3.2 Horizontal Curve Design to Avoid Vehicle Rollover Crashes
The typical passenger car will skid long before it rolls over on the pavement, particularly in
wet weather. Trucks, vans, and sport utility vehicles have much higher centers of gravity and
may rollover before skidding, particularly in dry weather and at lower speeds. Vehicle rollover
is generally not a limiting factor that influences horizontal curves meeting current standards.
Vehicle rollover should be considered for nonstandard curves, particularly when they are likely
to violate driver expectancy (such as a nonconforming compound curve), which is discussed
in Section 5.8.3 of this chapter.
The point at which a vehicle begins to rollover is based on a complex interaction of many
variables, including those listed in Section 5.7.3.1 of this chapter. The horizontal curve
equation to determine the point of impending rollover is:
R = V2 .
15 (0.01e + a)
Where:
R= Radius (ft). The horizontal curve radius to help prevent a vehicle from rolling
over is based on a combination of the vehicle speed, superelevation, and the
maximum allowable lateral acceleration for given vehicle. The radius is
measured from the inner edge of the traveled way on turning roadways and
wide (4 or more lanes) undivided facilities. However, for two-lane undivided
facilities, the radius may be measured to the centerline as the difference in radii
is small. Similarly, for high-speed divided highways with separate horizontal
control lines, the radius may be measured to the centerline of each direction of
traffic.
V= Speed (mph). The approach design speed is used to determine the curve
design speed.
e= Superelevation or banking of the traveled way cross slope (%).
a= The approximate rollover threshold.
Studies referenced in NCHRP 774 Superelevation Criteria for Sharp Horizontal Curves on
Steep Grades, 2014, found that the worst case rollover thresholds for trucks are approximately
0.35. A value of 0.30 is used in the tables to approximate 85% of the rollover threshold.
Solutions to an existing truck rollover problem may include:

• Provide additional signing with flashing lights.
• Install a truck rollover warning system (flashing lights are activated by truck approach
speeds).
• Increase the superelevation up to a maximum of 8.0%.
• Increase the lane width. A wider lane width allows maneuvering area for large
vehicles to steer to the outside of the curve for a brief moment to induce a righting
force and to reduce speed.
• Reconstruct the horizontal alignment to current standards.
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Exhibit 5-10 Recommended Speed on Horizontal Curves to Avoid Truck Rollovers

(Low Speed)
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Exhibit 5-11 Recommended Speed on Horizontal Curves to Avoid Truck Rollovers
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5.7.3.3 Superelevation Transitions
The purpose of transitions at the ends of horizontal curves is to change the cross slope from
normal crown to full superelevation and back. The length of these transitions should be chosen
to provide a smooth-riding and pleasant-appearing transition. Superelevation transitions can
be achieved over a tangent-spiral or tangent-circular curve combination. In both cases, the
length of the transition is found in Exhibit 5-15 in this section. Exhibits 5-13 and 5-14 indicate
the methods of attaining superelevation.
Refer to Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5.1 of this manual for the shoulder cross slope along
superelevated sections.
A. Runoff
In a transition, the runoff is the distance used to change the section from the point where
adverse crown is removed (the high side is level) to the point where full sup erelevation is
achieved. The runoff (Lr) is determined from the lane width (w) in feet, number of lanes
(n1), percent superelevation (e d), an adjustment factor for the number of lanes to be rotated
(bw ), and the maximum relative gradient (Δ) from Exhibit 5-12, in percent.
Superelevation Runoff Equation: Lr = w ed n1 bw

Δ
Exhibit 5-12 Maximum Relative Gradient
Design Speed (mph) Maximum Relative Gradient (%)

Vd Δ
15 0.80
20 0.80
25 0.74
30 0.67
35 0.65
40 0.57
45 0.54
50 0.50
55 0.50
60 0.50
65 0.50
70 0.50
75 0.50
80 0.50
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Exhibit 5-13 Method of Attaining Superelevation
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Exhibit 5-14 Method of Attaining Superelevation – Four Lane Divided Highway*
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The length of runoff for 1 lane rotated and 2 lanes rotated should be determined from the
superelevation runoff equation or by Exhibit 5-15, which assumes a 12’ (3.6 m) wide lane.
For other situations, the runoff equals the length of 1 lane rotated multiplied by the factor
(n1bw ) provided below:
Length to Increase Relative to

Number of Lanes Rotated
1 Lane Rotated (n1bw )
1 1
1.5 1.25
2 1.5
2.5 1.75
3 2
3.5 2.25
A spiral is a curve of constantly changing radius. The radius at each end matches the
alignment into which it is going. A spiral curve provides a smooth, natural path for a vehicle
entering or leaving the circular curve. The spiral curve is used to achieve only the runoff
portion of the banking transition. The runout portion is placed on the tangent.
As a general rule, spirals are to be used for new or reconstructed curves. Introducing
spiral transitions in curves that do not have them will shift the center line of the circ ular
curve toward the center of the curve radius.
B. Runout
Runout is the change from a normal crown section to a section with no adverse cross
slope (i.e., e = 0 on the high side of the traveled way). To effect a smooth edge of
pavement profile, the rate of removal should equal the relative gradient used for the
superelevation runoff. For sections with -2% cross slope, the runout length can be
determined using the 2.0% superelevation row in Exhibit 5-15, adjusted as needed for the
number of lanes rotated. For 1.5% or other cross slopes, the runout length should be
determined using the runoff equation provided in Section 5. 7.3.3.A using a percent
superelevation (e d) equal to the cross slope.
To avoid ponding storm water on the traveled way, a minimum grade of 0.5% should be
maintained where the transition has travel lanes superelevated less than the normal cross
slope.
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Exhibit 5-15 Superelevation Runoff L r (ft) for Horizontal Curves

Vd Lanes1 e (%) 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
1 Lr (ft) 23 30 38 45 53 60 68 75 83 90 98 105 113 120
15 mph
2 Lr (ft) 34 45 56 68 79 90 101 113 124 135 146 158 169 180
1 Lr (ft) 23 30 38 45 53 60 68 75 83 90 98 105 113 120
20 mph
2 Lr (ft) 34 45 56 68 79 90 101 113 124 135 146 158 169 180
1 Lr (ft) 24 33 41 49 57 65 73 82 90 98 106 114 122 131
25 mph
2 Lr (ft) 37 49 61 73 86 98 110 122 135 147 159 171 184 196
1 Lr (ft) 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108 117 126 135 144
30 mph
2 Lr (ft) 40 54 67 81 94 108 121 135 148 162 175 189 202 216
1 Lr (ft) 28 37 46 55 64 73 83 92 101 110 119 129 138 147
35 mph
2 Lr (ft) 41 55 69 83 96 110 124 138 152 165 179 193 207 220
1 Lr (ft) 32 42 53 63 74 84 95 105 116 126 137 147 158 168
40 mph
2 Lr (ft) 47 63 79 95 110 126 142 158 173 189 205 221 236 252
1 Lr (ft) 34 45 56 67 78 90 101 112 123 134 146 157 168 179
45 mph
2 Lr (ft) 50 67 84 101 118 134 151 168 185 202 218 235 252 269
1 Lr (ft) 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192
50 mph
2 Lr (ft) 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288
1 Lr (ft) 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192
55 mph
2 Lr (ft) 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288
1 Lr (ft) 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192
60 mph
2 Lr (ft) 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288
1 Lr (ft) 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192
65 mph
2 Lr (ft) 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288
1 Lr (ft) 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192
70 mph
2 Lr (ft) 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288
1 Lr (ft) 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192
75 mph
2 Lr (ft) 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288
1 Lr (ft) 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192
80 mph
2 Lr (ft) 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288
Note:
1. Lanes are the number of lanes rotated. Note that 1 lane rotated is typical for a 2-lane highway, 2 lanes rotated is typical for a 4-
lane highway.
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5.7.3.4 Widening Along Horizontal Curves
Travel lane widening along horizontal curves compensates for vehicle off -tracking, steering
difficulty, and lane infringement. The need for travel lane widening is common along relatively
sharp horizontal alignments. This need is exacerbated by narrow lane widths, narrow
shoulder widths, or the lack of spiral transitions. It applies to both one -way and two-way
facilities. It does not apply to turning roadways at intersections or interchanges, which are to
be designed using Table 2-9 in Chapter 2 of this manual.
A. Benefits of Widening Along Sharp Horizontal Curves
Table 7 in FHWA's Safety Effectiveness of Highway Design Features, Volume II:

Alignment, November, 1992, shows that the crash rate can be reduced by 5% to 21% by
widening the traveled way along horizontal curves. Widening or providing paved shoulders
along a horizontal curve can also result in substantial crash reductions.
B. Design of Widening Along Sharp Horizontal Curves
Refer to Table 3-24a in AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and

Streets, 2018, for the recommended pavement widening along horizontal curves for a WB-
62 design vehicle. Adjustments should be made for different design vehicles using Table
3-25.
Although paved shoulders provide some compensation when travel lanes are not widened
along sharp horizontal curves, the highway should be designed so that vehicles only use
the shoulder in emergency situations. When the right of way is severely constrained and
paved shoulders are provided, a portion of the paved shoulder width may be subtracted
from the above values since drivers can use part of the paved shoulder to increase the
offset between passing vehicles. However, if there is frequent truck traffic (>10%), bicycle
traffic, or a history of side-swipe, run-off-the-road, head-on, fixed-object, or rollover
crashes, the pavement widening values should be used.
When widening the traveled way, the additional paved width should be rounded to the
nearest foot (tenth of a meter) and added:
• Equally to both sides of the curve along spiraled curves, as shown in Exhibit 5-16,
or
• To the inside edge of the curve for curves without spiral transitions, as shown in
Exhibit 5-17.
The pavement structure of the traveled way widening should be designed to meet the
rigors of the additional vehicular traffic. Since the traveled way widening is often directly
over the shoulder, the existing shoulder may require removal and replacement with the
appropriate course(s) where the shoulder is severely deteriorated, unpaved, or
inadequate to handle the projected traffic.
As shown in Exhibits 5-16 and 5-17, the centerline markings should be placed along the
centerline of the final, surfaced roadway. The edge striping should be located so that the
normal shoulder width, from the tangent or un-widened curved sections, are maintained
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along the curve to permit use of the shoulder by bicyclists, pedestrians, and stopped
vehicles.
Exhibit 5-16 Cross Section View of Travel Lane Widening Along Spiral Curves
2018 AASHTO Tables 3-24a and 3-25.
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Exhibit 5-17 Plan View of Travel Lane Widening Along Curves Without Spiral
Transitions
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5.7.3.5 Combinations of Curves
Avoid combinations of circular curves occurring together, whenever possible. There are a
number of special types of these combinations.
A. Compound Curves
A compound curve is two or more curves of different radii but curving in the same direction
and connected together. Larger radius curves followed by lesser radius curves are of
special concern because of inconsistencies with driver expectation.
When this cannot be avoided, the ratio between the successive curve radii should be
limited when the tighter radius curve ≤ 2 times the minimum horizontal curve radius as
follows:
Ramps and Mainline Curves: 1:2 Maximum

Mainline Curves: 1:1.5 Desirable
B. Broken-Back Curve
A broken-back curve is two curves, turning in the same direction, with a short tangent
between them. On new construction or reconstruction, a minimum tangent of 1,500 ft
(450 m) should be provided between curves turning in the same direction.
C. Reverse Curves
A reverse curve is two curves, turning in opposite directions, and connected together. A
tangent section between reverse curves that is of sufficient length to provide for full runoff
and runout for both curves is desirable. If sufficient distance (i.e., more than 325 ft [100
m]) is not available to permit the tangent runout lengths to return to a normal crown section,
a large area can be at the same plane with the edges of pavement and centerline at the
same elevation. This condition results in poor transverse drainage. To prevent drainage
problems, the superelevation runoff lengths should be increased until they abut, thus
providing one instantaneous level section. The pavement is continuously rotated from full
superelevation in one direction to full superelevation in the other. If the minimum
superelevation runoff lengths cannot be obtained for each curve, realignment should be
considered.
5.7.4 Vertical Alignment
5.7.4.1 Grades
Grades affect the operating characteristics of vehicles. Braking distances increas e on

downgrades and decrease on uphill grades. It is difficult for heavy vehicles to maintain their
speed on steep- uphill grades. Consideration should be given to adjusting the required
stopping sight distance to account for the effects of grade. Chapter 3 of AASHTO's A Policy
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on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018, contains a detailed discussion of the
effects of grade.
The maximum allowable grade on a roadway is generally determined by its functional

classification, the design speed, and the terrain. See Chapter 2 of this manual for the
appropriate values and a discussion of terrain and design speed.
The minimum grade will generally be controlled by the design of the drainage system. In cut
sections, it is desirable to have a minimum grade of 0.5% to avoid constructing special ditches.
While flatter grades may be acceptable in some situations, curbed roadways and
superelevation transition sections with less than 1% of cross slope should have a minimum
grade of 0.5%. In fill sections, a level profile may provide adequate drainage.
When evaluating the vertical alignment, the placement of a sag vertical curve on a structure
should be avoided whenever possible due to fabrication problems as well as drainage
problems on curbed structures.
5.7.4.2 Vertical Curves
Vertical curves provide for a gradual change in grade between the approach tangents. Vertical
curves should be designed to provide sufficient sight distance, comfortable operation, efficient
drainage, and a pleasant appearance. Long vertical curves generally have a more pleasing
appearance than short vertical curves. When faced with a choice, designers should use
shorter sag vertical curves in favor of providing longer crest vertical curves.
A. Crest Vertical Curves
The provision of adequate sight distance for the design speed is the primary factor in the
safe operation of crest vertical curves. The minimum stopping sight distance should be
provided in all cases. Wherever economically and physically feasible, additional sight
distance should be provided. AASHTO recommends providing the desirable stopping sight
distance in these instances.
For appearance and comfort, even small changes in grade generally warrant a vertical
curve. The minimum length of crest vertical curves should be the length needed to provide
the minimum stopping sight distance.
Where the change in grade is very slight, a vertical curve may not be practical. Generally,
a vertical curve is not needed if the algebraic change in percent grade (G) is equal to or
less than 1.6 minus 1/50th of the design speed (Vd) in miles per hour.
G ≤ 1.6 – 0.02 x Vd
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B. Sag Vertical Curves
Four criteria are used to establish the minimum length of sag vertical curves. They are
sight distance, drainage, riding comfort, and appearance. Minimum lengths for drainage
and sight distance under vertical obstructions are needed; minimum lengths for ri ding
comfort and appearance are desirable.
Sight Distance
When a vehicle traverses a sag vertical curve at night, high-beams, tail lights of other
vehicles, or street lighting provide sight distance. However, where sight distance is
reduced due to overhead structures, such as an overpass or sign structure, the
required stopping sight distance is needed. Exceptions require a non-standard feature
justification in accordance with Section 2.8 of this manual.
Drainage
In sag vertical curves, the surface drainage of curbed pavements requires special
attention. Flat gradients may result in ponding. The design of the drainage system may
control the minimum vertical curve length on curbed roadways. Generally, providing a
minimum grade of 0.30% within 50 ft. (15 m) of the level point ensures adequate
roadway surface drainage. Refer to Chapter 8, Section 8.7.4.4 of this manual.
Riding Comfort
Riding comfort is the effect of the change in vertical direction. The effects of riding
comfort are greater on sag vertical curves than on crest vertical curves. The
gravitational and centrifugal forces are combining rather than opposing. There is a
detailed discussion of riding comfort in Chapter 3 of AASHTO's A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018
Appearance
The need for a minimum length of vertical curve may be based on appearance. For
this purpose, AASHTO recommends a minimum length of 3 times the design speed
(0.6 times the design speed for metric units)
C. Intersections on Vertical Curves
Vertical and horizontal sight distances are crucial elements in the design of intersections.
At all design speeds, the sight distance needed to perform entering and crossing
maneuvers is considerably longer than the minimum stopping sight distance. For further
discussion, see Section 5.9, Intersections at Grade.
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5.7.5 Climbing Lanes
A climbing lane is an additional lane provided to permit the passing of slow-moving traffic in the
uphill direction. Its purpose is to improve the operational and safety characteristics of the roadway.
It is desirable to provide a climbing lane when the grade, traffic volume, and the heavy vehicle
volume combine to significantly degrade traffic operations. Heavy vehicles are those with a mass
to power ratio of 200 lb/hp (120 kg/kW) or greater.
On two-way, two lane roadways, meeting the following three conditions would justify a climbing
lane. However, other conditions may arise on low-volume highways where sufficient passing
opportunities are not available where it might be advantageous to provide a climbing lane even
though the following warrants are not met.
1. An upgrade traffic flow rate in excess of 200 vph.

2. An upgrade truck flow rate in excess of 20 vph.
3. One of the following conditions exists:
a. A 10 mph (15 km/h) or greater speed reduction is expected for a typical heavy
truck based on Table 3-26a of AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets, 2018.
b. The level of service on the grade is E or F.
c. A reduction of two or more levels of service between the approach and the grade.
On multilane highways and freeways, a climbing lane is justified when both of the following
conditions are met:
1. A 10 mph (15 km/h) or greater speed reduction is expected for a typical heavy truck
based on Table 3-26a of AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, 2018.
2. Either of the following conditions is met:
a. There is a drop of more than one level of service between the desired design level
of service and the level of service on the grade.
b. The level of service on the grade is E or F.
The point of need for the climbing lane is the spot where the truck operating speed is reduced 10
mph (15 km/h). The climbing lane should be developed through an abrupt 150 ft (45 m) taper
starting 250 ft (75 m) before the point of need.
Ideally, the climbing lane should be extended beyond the crest to a point where the truck operating
speed is within 10 mph (15 km/h) of the highway operating speed. Due to the poor acceleration
characteristics of heavy trucks, it may be impractical to obtain the desired length. In these cases,
the climbing lane should be extended as far as practicable. For the minimum passing sight
distance refer to Chapter 3 of AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
2018. For the appropriate taper lengths, refer to Table 6H-4 of the National MUTCD.
5.7.6 Emergency Escape Ramps
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Long, descending grades distinctly increase the potential for heavy vehicles to experience loss of
braking ability. For grades where this is an identified problem, a properly designed emergency
escape ramp at an appropriate location can safely slow and stop out-of-control vehicles away
from the main traffic stream. Sand piles, arrester beds, dragnets, and ascending-grade gravity
ramps, alone or in combination may be used.
Refer to Chapter 3 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018,
and Chapter 10 of this manual for a general discussion of emergency escape ramps. See
Chapters 10 and 16 of this manual and Chapter 8 of AASHTO's Roadside Design Guide for
specific information on arresting devices and attenuation systems.
5.7.7 Travel Lanes and Shoulders
Refer to Chapter 2 of this manual for the minimum and desirable travel lane and shoulder widths.
Refer to Chapter 3 of this manual and the Comprehensive Pavement Design Manual for
information on pavement sections.
5.7.8 Lane Drops
Lane drops are used whenever it becomes necessary to reduce the number of through lanes.
Proper lane balance should be maintained to reduce bottlenecks and reoccurring congestion. A
capacity analysis should be performed to evaluate the consequences of any lane reduction.
On freeways, the lane reduction should be effected between interchanges or at a two -lane exit
ramp. To allow for adequate signing, the lane reduction should be located at least 2,000 ft. (600
m) to 3,000 ft. (900 m) from the previous interchange and beyond any acceleration lane. The
reduction should not be made so far downstream that motorists become accustomed to the
number of lanes and are surprised by the lane reduction. Visibility of the lane reduction is an
important consideration. Desirable locations are on tangents, on approaches to crest vertical
curves, and on the uphill side of sag vertical curves. Lane drops on moderate to sharp horizontal
curves should be avoided.
AASHTO suggests that the lane reduction be on the right side of the roadway. Speeds are
generally lower in the right-hand lane and the merging maneuver is more common than a merge
from the left. Following exit ramps, there is usually less traffic in the right -hand lane.
The lane drop shall be tapered. The minimum taper length should be in accordance with the
merge taper lengths in Table 6H-4 of the National MUTCD.
A three- or four-lane highway transitioning to a two-lane, two-way roadway produces another lane
drop situation. The lane shift can be centered or placed on either side. The appropriate signing
and pavement markings for these situations are shown in the National MUTCD.
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5.7.9 Medians
Medians are desirable for streets with four or more traffic lanes. The primary functions of medians
are to provide the following:
• Pedestrian safety when used and functionally designed as a refuge area

• Storage space for left-turning vehicles
• Separation of opposing traffic streams
• Access control to/from minor access drives and intersection
• Traffic calming
A median is defined as the portion of a divided highway separating the traveled way for traffic
traveling in opposing directions. The median width is expressed as the dimension between the
through-lane edges and includes the left shoulders, if any. Median width is a design consideration
only for interstates, other freeways, and multilane divided rural arterials. An arterial is not normally
considered to be divided unless two travel lanes are provided in each direction of travel and the
median has a width of 4 ft. or more and contains a barrier, turf, raised sections, or lowered sections
to preclude its use by motorists, except in emergencies or where the median is specifically
designed to allow for left turns.
For additional information on medians, refer to Chapter 3, Section 3.2.8 of this manual. Refer to
this chapter, Section 5.9.8.2C for information on Two-Way Left-Turn Lanes. Refer to Chapter 18
for the design of medians for pedestrian refuge.
Exhibit 5-18 Minimum Median Widths

Classification Character Terrain Width
Level or 36 ft. min.
Rural
Interstates & rolling 50-100 ft. desirable
Other Freeways Rural Mountainous 10 ft. min
Urban All 10 ft. min
Without left turn lanes - 4 ft. min.
Arterials
(multilane, divided, Rural All With left turn lanes - 12 ft. min. (10
rural arterials only) ft. left turn lane with 2 ft. median
separation)
5.7.10 Median - Emergency Crossovers
Median crossovers are needed to facilitate maintenance and emergency operations on controlled-
access facilities. Maintenance crossovers may be required at one or both ends of an interchange.
Crossovers may be provided on rural freeways when the interchange spacing exceeds 5 miles (8
km). Generally emergency crossovers are placed every 3 miles to 4 miles (5 km to 6.5 km)
between interchanges. The placement of the crossovers should be coordinated with the Regional
Highway Maintenance Engineer. The appropriate police and emergency services should be
contacted for their input.
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Maintenance and emergency crossovers should not be located within 1,500 ft (450 m) of the end
of a ramp. Crossovers should be situated at locations where decision sight distance is available.
If possible, they should not be located on curves requiring superelevation.
To minimize the effect on an out-of-control vehicle, crossovers should be constructed with seeded
side slopes of 1:10 or flatter. A rounding with a 50 ft (15 m) radius should be provided at the
crossover's toe of slope and at the intersection of the mainline fill and the crossover fill. If drainage
is carried through the median in a pipe with a diameter greater than 1 ft (300 mm) at a location
accessible to an errant vehicle, a slanted grate should be used over the beveled end of the pipe.
The 50 ft (15 m) rounding and the slanted grate may be eliminated when guide railing on the
mainline adequately shields the motorist from the hazard.
The minimum recommended crossover width is 25 ft (7.5 m). On narrow medians, a greater width
of pavement may be necessary to safely accommodate turning vehicles. Crossovers should not
be used in restricted-width medians. The median must be wide enough to store a typical
maintenance vehicle. The surface and shoulders should be designed to support the appropriate
maintenance equipment.
A parallel-type deceleration lane should be provided. See Chapter 10 of AASHTO's A Policy on

Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. Its length should be determined from this
AASHTO policy. It should be designed to accommodate the appropriate maintenance vehicle
and surfaced with the same type of material and have the same cross slope as the mainline
shoulder. A design speed of 60 mph (100 km/h) should be used and a 4 ft (1.2 m) shoulder
provided. The design speed may be decreased on low-speed facilities. An acceleration lane is
normally not provided. However, in special circumstances, an acceleration lane may need to be
evaluated, depending on traffic volume, speed, crash history, etc.
When the crossover is constructed in an area with a median barrier, the median barrier should be
designed to limit the hazard. Opposing end sections should be shielded from oncoming traffic. It
may be necessary to design the barrier to guide vehicles away from the median opening or to use
impact attenuators. See Chapter 10, Section 10.2.5 of this manual for suggested flare rates.
5.7.11 Roadway Clear Zone
A clear unobstructed roadside is highly desirable. The term "clear zone" is used to designate the
width that the Department has committed to maintain as an unobstructed, traversable area
provided beyond the edge of the traveled way for the recovery of errant vehicles.
The desirable width of the clear zone is influenced by the traffic volumes, speed, horizontal
curvature, and embankment slopes. Although AASHTO has established desirable design values
for clear zone widths, actual values may vary for different projects or project segments. Project-
specific values, determined by sound engineering judgment during design, shall be documented
in the Design Approval Document.
Most Department projects require the establishment of design clear zone widths. See Chapter
10 of this manual for specific requirements and guidance.
5.7.12 Vertical and Horizontal Clearances
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Vertical and horizontal clearances are important elements in the design of a highway. Clearances
to be considered are:
• Vertical over and horizontal along a roadway.

• Vertical over and horizontal beside a railroad.
• Vertical over and horizontal beside a waterway.
• Vertical and horizontal between a roadway and an airway.
5.7.12.1 Roadway
The policy for vertical clearance over a roadway is stated in Section 2 of the Department's
Bridge Manual. Vertical clearance is a critical design element and is discussed in Chapter 2
of this manual. Vertical clearance is the minimum vertical clear distance to an obstruction over
any part of a highway's pavement or shoulders.
Horizontal clearance is a segment of the road section lying adjacent to the traveled way,
identified as an operational offset in urban areas and for rural areas identified as a portion of
the “clear zone” (defined in Chapter 10 of this manual as an area for recovery of errant
vehicles). It does not replace the need to select a clear zone (in accordance with Chapter 10
of this manual and AASHTO's Roadside Design Guide) that will generally be substantially
wider than the horizontal clearance criteria in this chapter. A more detailed description of
what features are allowed within these two categories follows.
A. Interstates, Other Freeways, Expressways, Rural Arterials, Rural Collectors, and

Local Rural Roads
Horizontal clearance serves as an extension of the shoulder and provides allowance for
recovery of errant vehicles, disabled vehicles, parking, etc. Curbs, traversable slopes,
breakaway supports, etc., are permitted within the horizontal clearance. Fixed objects,
nontraversable slopes, etc., are not permitted. The width is measured from the edge of
traveled way. It includes shoulders or auxiliary lanes (e.g., speed change lanes, climbing
lanes, turning lanes).
B. Urban Arterials, Urban Collectors, and Local Urban Streets

Horizontal clearance functions as an “operational” offset that minimizes restrictions to
traffic flow and provides space for opening car doors, the lateral cle arance affecting
capacity and vehicle position within a lane, and vehicle overhangs at intersections. The
area within the horizontal clearance is to be an unobstructed, relatively flat area provided
beyond the edge of traveled way. Obstructions include sign posts, lighting posts, poles,
hydrants, trees, bollards, etc. The width is measured from the face of curb.
C. Turning Roadways
Along turning roadways, horizontal clearance functions as a portion of the clear zone that
minimizes restrictions to traffic flow and provides space for the lateral clearance and
vehicle position within a lane, disabled vehicles, and vehicle overhangs during turning
movements. The area within the horizontal clearance is to be an unobstructed, relatively
flat area provided beyond the edge of traveled way. Obstructions include sign posts,
lighting posts, poles, hydrants, trees, bollards, etc. The width is measured from the edge
of traveled way.
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Exhibit 5-19 Horizontal Clearance Road Sections
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Exhibit 5-20 Minimum Horizontal Clearances
Minimum Horizontal Clearance 1

Classification Exceptions
With Barrier Without Barrier
▪ On bridges where NYSDOT

Bridge Manual, Section 2, allows
Interstates Greater of the less than 4 f t.
and Other shoulder width or 15 f t.
Freeways 4 f t. ▪ In depressed sections, where the
minimum is the shoulder width
plus 2 f t.
Greater of the ▪ On bridges where NYSDOT

Rural Arterials shoulder width or 10 f t. Bridge Manual, Section 2, allows
4 f t. less than 4 f t.
Urban Arterials 0 f t. 2 1.5 f t 2 ▪ 3 f t. min. at intersections2
Greater of the ▪ On bridges where NYSDOT

Rural
shoulder width or 10 f t. Bridge Manual, Section 2, allows
Collectors
4 f t. less than 4 f t.
Urban
0 f t. 2 1.5 f t 2 ▪ 3 f t. min. at intersections2
Collectors
6 f t. for low-speed
Greater of (45 mph) segments ▪ On bridges where NYSDOT
Local Rural
Roads shoulder width or 10 f t. f or high-speed Bridge Manual, Section 2, allows
4 f t., (50 mph) segments less than 4 f t.
Local Urban
0 f t. 2 1.5 f t 2 ▪ 3 f t. min. at intersections2
Streets
▪ Where ramps pass under

Turning Right side - greater of shoulder
structures, there should be an
Roadways width or 6 f t.
additional 4 ft. clearance beyond
(Ramps) Lef t side - 3 f t. minimum. the outside of shoulders to
bridge piers or abutments.
Notes
1. Measured from edge of traveled way to obstructions, unless otherwise noted .
2. Measured from face of curb to obstructions.
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5.7.12.2 Railroad Clearances
The minimum vertical clearance over the operating mainline tracks of a railroad is generally
22 ft (6.71 m). Other clearances may be justified on some occasions. Refer to Chapter 23 of
this manual and Section 2 of the Department's Bridge Manual. The Structures Division will
provide guidance.
5.7.12.3 Waterway Clearances
The Department's policy on the minimum vertical clearance over streams and navigable
waterways is contained in Section 2 of the Department's Bridge Manual. The Structures
Division will provide guidance on specific projects.
The United States Coast Guard shall be contacted to determine the required horizontal
clearance along navigable waterways.
5.7.12.4 Airway Clearances
Whenever a project is proposed within 2 miles (3.2 km) of an airport or heliport, the vertical
and horizontal clearance between the highway and the airway must be considered. The
guidelines for these clearances are contained in Part 75 (Approval of Private ly Owned
Airports) of Title 17 of the Official Compilation of Codes, Rules and Regulations of the State
of New York. The Aviation Division in the Main Office and the Regional Aviation Liaison will
provide assistance. The Aviation Division in the Main Office must be notified of any possible
conflicts.
The administrator of the airport or heliport should be contacted to determine the facility's long
range plans. Any planned changes in the operation of the facility should be considered in the
development of the plan and profile of the highway.
A permit from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) may be required for vertical elements
such as signs and light poles. Warning lights may be required. More information on
obstruction evaluation and permitting is available on the FAA website at
https://oeaaa.faa.gov/oeaaa/external/portal.jsp.
5.7.13 Rollover
Rollover is the measure of the difference in cross slope between two adjacent highway lanes or
a highway lane and its adjacent shoulder. Maximum rollover rates are shown in Exhibit 5-21,
below.
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Exhibit 5-21 Maximum Rollover Rates
Classification Between Travel Lanes At Edge of Traveled Way
Interstates & Other

Freeways
8% max.
Rural Arterials
When superelevation rate exceeds
4% max. 6%, a maximum rollover rate of 10%
Rural Collectors at the edge of the traveled way may
be permitted 1
Local Roads & Streets
Turning Roadways
(Ramps)
Urban Arterials
4% max. 8% max.
Urban Collectors
Notes
1. Refer to HDM Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5.1, Shoulder Cross Slopes and Rollover Limitations , for further
guidance.
5.7.14 Bridge Roadway Width
A bridge is a structure, including supports, erected over a depression or an obstruction such as

water, highway, or railway, and having a track or passageway for carrying traffic or other moving
loads, and having an opening measured along the center of the roadway of more than 20’. The
bridge roadway width is the clear distance between inside faces of bridge railing, or the clear
distance between faces of curbs, whichever is less. The bridge roadway width includes travel
lanes, areas flush with the travel lanes (turn lanes, flush medians, shoulders, curb offsets, parking
lanes, and bike lanes), and the Department’s standard 5” wide brush curb introduced at the bridge.
Bike paths, sidewalks, safety walks, and curbing for sidewalks or safety walks are not part of the
bridge roadway width.
Bridge roadway widths should be determined from NYSDOT Bridge Manual, Section 2.
5.7.15 Passive Snow Control
Passive snow control involves the mitigation of blowing and drifting snow conditions on roadways
through the installation of engineered snow fence, planting of shelterbelts, or by design of an
aerodynamic roadway cross section. Use of passive snow control techniques will improve
roadway safety by reducing whiteouts and drifting. Removal of snow by mechanical means is
approximately 100 times more expensive than trapping snow by passive control. Passive snow
control measures should be considered where implementation is feasible and cost -effective.
More detailed information on the design and installation of passive snow control measures can
be found in References 7 and 17 in §5.10 of this chapter.
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5.7.15.1 Snow Fences
Snow fences may be permanent or temporary. Permanent fences erected on private property
will require the acquisition of a permanent easement. Temporary fences may be erected on
private property under Article 3, Section 45 of the Highway Law. Some important factors for
designing snow fences are:
• The most important factor in designing a snow fence is capacity. Fences should be
of adequate height to store the average annual amount of snow that will be
transported (blown) through the problem area.
• To maximize effectiveness, fences should be at least 8 ft (2.4 m) in height, but may
be as short as 6 ft (2 m) in areas of limited snow transport or restricted right of way.
• Fences should be located at least 35 times their effective height (total height minus
ambient snow depth) from the road shoulder.
• A single row of tall fences is preferable to multiple rows of shorter fences.
• Fences should be perpendicular to prevailing wind directions but departures up to
25° are acceptable. They should be placed parallel to the roadway whenever
possible.
• A gap equal to 10% of the total fence height should be left under the fence to reduce
snow deposition near the fence. Deposition at the fence reduces the fence’s
efficiency.
5.7.15.2 Shelterbelts
Also referred to as "living snow fences," shelterbelts are multiple rows of trees, preservation
of agricultural crops, or shrubs planted to provide protection from wind -driven snow. There
are many advantages to shelterbelts as compared to snow fences, including roadside
beautification, wildlife benefits, little or no maintenance after establishment, and long service
life. The Regional Landscape Architect and Maintenance Environmental Coordinator should
be consulted whenever shelterbelts are considered.
Some design tips for planting shelterbelts are:
• Trees should be placed no closer than 3 times their mature height from the edge of
shoulder.
• Generally, trees should be coniferous. Shrubs may be effective in areas of limited
blowing and drifting snow.
• Two or more staggered rows should be planted to provide full coverage and to prevent
gaps caused by plant loss or damage.
• Trees should be spaced so that crown closure will be achieved within ten years.
• Shrubs may be used where cost or space limitations do not allow for the planting of
trees.
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• An effective shelterbelt can be achieved by requesting farmers to leave six to eight

rows of corn stalks standing through the winter. The minimum setback from the road
shoulder should be 35 times the effective stalk height (height minus ambient snow
depth).
5.7.15.3 Drift-Free Roads
Providing an aerodynamic roadway cross section will allow the roadway to be swept clear by
the wind. It should be recognized that this is generally not a good solution where whiteouts
are a problem. However, there may be some instances where the existing cross section may
be contributing to the visibility problem and roadway redesign will be a viable alternative to
mitigate the problem.
In some areas, it may be possible to reduce drifting by altering the cross section to provide for
additional snow storage upwind from the road. Minor grading on private property may be
accomplished with a property release from the owner.
The following guidelines, implemented individually or in combination, as appropriate, will

improve drift-prone areas:
• Backslopes and foreslopes should be flattened to a 1:6 slope or flatter.

• Ditches should be widened as much as possible.
• The profile of the road should be raised to 2 ft (0.6 m) above the ambient snow cover.
• Provide a ditch that is adequate for storing the snow plowed off the road
• Widen cuts to allow for increased snow storage.
• Eliminate the need for guide rail.
• If existing W-beam guide rail appears to be contributing to a drifting problem,
consideration should be given to replacing the W-beam with cable or box beam guide
rail.
5.7.16 Parking
5.7.16.1 On-Street Parking
On-street parking spaces in village and urban settings complete for usable streetscaping and
pedestrian space. Early contact with local officials and business owners is important to
identify acceptable locations for parking spaces.
On-street parking adds an element of traffic calming whereby drivers are inclined to lower their
speeds when confronted with slow-moving drivers looking for a parking space, or drivers of
parked vehicles opening their doors. However, care must be taken in introducing any new on-
street parking. Since high-speed traffic is not compatible with slow-moving vehicles and limited
sight distances, on-street parking is not to be added to facilities with
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design speeds of 50 mph (80 km/h) or more. When adding on-street parking to low-speed
facilities, the designer should consider:
• The impact on the highway’s safety and capacity.

• Snow storage and removal.
• Pedestrian visibility and access to sidewalks and crosswalks. Midblock crossings and
curb bulb-outs to help motorists anticipate and see pedestrians among the parked
vehicles. See Chapter 18 of this manual for additional guidance and recommendations
to maintain visibility and reduce conflicts.
• Parked vehicles can block emergency vehicles, such as fire trucks, from direct access
to buildings.
• Bicycle facility presence and use. See Chapter 17 of this manual for additional
guidance and recommendations to minimize conflicts.
To provide for adequate sight distance, vehicle turning paths, and emergency vehicles,
parking is to be restricted near an intersection, fire house, commercial driveway, railroad
crossing, fire hydrant, safety zone, pedestrian crosswalk, etc. As an exception, parking may
be permissible opposite a minor T-intersections along a low speed highway. Refer to §1202
of the NYS Vehicle & Traffic Law for additional guidance (Note that §1621 of the NYS Vehicle
& Traffic Law allows the Department to establish other distances).
A. Parallel Parking
On local roads and streets, collector roads and streets, and arterials, parallel parking is a
design consideration due to land-use patterns and a lack of off -street parking facilities.
Chapter 2 of this manual presents minimum parking lane widths for functional
classifications of highways. Parking stalls should be 22 ft (6.6 m) to 25 ft (7.8 m) long.
Parking lanes normally are not carried across bridges unless the bridge is less than 50 ft
(15 m) in length, in which case it may be considered.
B. Diagonal (Angled) Parking
Front-in diagonal parking is to be avoided due to restricted driver visibility while backing
out of the parking space into traffic, including cyclists and motor cyclists. Where this type
of parking exists, it should generally be eliminated by providing parallel parking or back-in
diagonal parking in low-speed areas, and off -street facilities in high-speed areas.
Back-in diagonal parking allows motorists to back into parking stalls, similar to backing
into parallel spaces, while retaining the greater parking density of diagonal spaces.
Backing into the space is no more disruptive to traffic than parallel parking. Compared to
front-in diagonal parking, back-in diagonal parking places the motorist in a much better
position to view motor vehicle and bicycle traffic when pulling out of the parking stall. It
also makes it safer to load groceries and other items into the rear of the vehicle. Back-in
diagonal parking has been successful in Canada, Washington State, and other areas.
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In instances where other parking measures are not feasible and no related crash
experience exists, front-in diagonal parking may be retained on local streets design
speeds are 30 mph (50 km/h) or less and traffic volumes are low.
Diagonal parking stalls should be 8 ft to 9 ft (2.5 m to 2.7 m) wide and 17 ft to 18 ft (5.2 m

to 5.5 m) long. Although wheel stops are desirable to prevent parked vehicles from
encroaching into the sidewalk area, they should not be installed since they will interfere
with snow removal operations. A snow storage area may be used to prevent parked
vehicles from encroaching into the sidewalk area.
C. On-Street Parking Requirements for Persons with Disabilities
Parking requirements for persons with disabilities requires special consideration, and
some requirements that are mandatory. Refer to Chapter 18 of this manual, for the
standards for accessible parking in accordance with the "Proposed Guidelines for
Pedestrian Facilities in the Public Right-of-Way " (PROWAG), the Vehicle and Traffic Law,
and the State Building Code.
In general, accessible on-street parking should be located close to key destinations, and
where the street has the least crown and grade, The sidewalk adjacent to accessible on -
street parking spaces should be free of obstructions that may prevent the deployment of
a van side-lift or ramp, or may prevent a vehicle occupant from transferring to a wheelchair.
The Regional Landscape Architect can provide additional advice regarding th e location
and design of accessible on-street parking spaces.
5.7.16.2 Off-Street Parking
When on-street parking spaces are eliminated to improve traffic operation and safety,
replacement off-street parking should be considered in accordance with Section 10-40 of the
Highway Law. The off -street lots should be located as close as possible to the eliminated on-
street spaces to provide adequate access to properties formerly served by the on -street
spaces. The number of off -street spaces provided should approximate the numbers of
eliminated on-street spaces unless a parking utilization study indicates otherwise.
A. Off-Street Parking for Persons Who Are Not Disabled
• Stall widths of 9.5 ft or 10 ft (2.9 m or 3.0 m) should be provided for lots with short-
duration, high-turnover parking and for lots serving customers with packages.
• Stall widths of 8.5 ft or 9 ft (2.6 m or 2.7 m) should be used for lots with longer
duration, low-turnover parking.
B. Off-Street Accessible Parking
All off-street accessible parking spaces must also comply with the provisions of the NYS
Uniform Fire Protection and Building Code and as required by the NYS Vehicle and Traffic
Law. Additionally, off -street accessible parking spaces must conform to the requirements
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of the "Proposed Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities in the Public Right -of-Way "
(PROWAG), Chapter 18 of this manual, and Standard Sheet 608-02.
The Regional Landscape Architect can provide additional advice regarding the location
and design of accessible on-street parking spaces.
The Regional Landscape Architect and Regional Transportation Systems Operations

Engineer should be contacted for further information on design of off-street parking lots
including stall depths, aisle widths, and other layout dimensions and features such as
provisions for persons with disabilities, landscaping, and lighting ( refer to Chapter 12 of
this manual).
5.7.17 Access Control
Access control is the regulation of public access to and from properties and roads abutting
highway facilities to preserve safety and capacity. These regulations are categorized as full
control of access, partial control of access, and driveway or intersection approach regulations.
Full control of access gives preference to through traffic by providing access connections only
with selected public roads utilizing interchanges. Criteria for interstate highways and other
freeways are presented in Chapter 2 of this manual. Interchange access control principles are
presented in Chapter 6 of this manual.
Partial control of access gives preference to through traffic to a degree that, in addition to access
connections with selected public roads utilizing interchanges, there may be some at -grade
intersections and/or driveway connections.
Driveway and intersection approach regulations allow access to and from all abutting prop erties
and streets in a controlled manner.
Access control should be included in the design of all highways, especially where the likelihood
of commercial development exists. The extent of control should be coordinated with the local
land- use plan to ensure that the desired degree of control can be maintained through local zoning
ordinances. Access management will enhance highway safety and minimize vehicle delays.
5.7.17.1 Interstates and Other Freeways
Access to the interstate system shall be fully controlled. Access is to be achieved by

interchanges at selected public highways. Access control shall extend the full length of ramps
and terminals on the crossroad. Such control shall either be acquired outright prior to
construction or by the construction of frontage roads or by a combination of both.
Control for connections to the crossroad should be provided beyond the ramp terminals by
purchasing access rights or providing frontage roads. Such control should extend beyond
the ramp terminal at least 100 ft. in urban areas and 300 ft. in rural areas (refer to Chapter 6
of this manual for more specific details).
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The interstate highway shall be grade separated at all railroad crossings and selected public
crossroads. All at-grade intersections of public highways shall be eliminated. To accomplish
this, the connecting roads are to be terminated, rerouted, or intercepted by frontage roads.
Refer to Exhibit 5-22 for a key to highway access issues.
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Exhibit 5-22 Highway Access Issues
Department Requirements, Guidance, and

Access Issues Law, Regulations, and Policy
Procedures
• Best Practices on Arterial Management, AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of

General Access 1997 Highways and Streets, adopted as
Management
• HDM Ch 3, § 3.2.8 - Medians standards by FHWA for the NHS
• HDM Ch 5, § 5.5.6 - Types of ROW and

Access
• 23 CFR 620B “Relinquishment of
• Real Estate Manual/Directives - Highway Facilities”
ROW Acquisition
Nonmotor vehicle access (e.g., locked
and Management
gate access to billbo ards) and • 23 CFR 713C “Disposal of Rights-of-
relinquishment of ROW Way.”
• Highway Work Permit Process 1
• 17 NYCRR Part 131 “Accommodation of

Utilities within State Highway Right-of-
Way.”
• AASHTO’s Utility Guide(s)
• 23 CFR 645 B - Accommodation of
Utilities
• Accommodation Plan for Longitudinal
Accommodation of • HDM Ch 13 - Utilities Use of Freeway Right of Way by
Utilities • Highway Work Permit Process 1 Utilities, 1995
• Requirements for the Design and
Construction of Underground Utility
Installations Within the State Highway
Right of Way
• Section 52 of the NYS Highway Law
“Permits for work within State highway
right of way.”
• HDM Ch 2, § 2.7 - Standards • AASHTO’s A Policy on Design
• HDM Ch 5, § 5.7.17 - Access Control Standards - Interstate System
Access Control • HDM Ch 6, § 6.2 - Control of Access • AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric
Limits Design of Highways and Streets,
• HDM Ch 3, § 3.2.9.3.C - Access Control
adopted as standards by FHWA for the
• Highway Work Permit Process 1 Interstate and NHS, respectively
• HDM Ch 5, § 5.7.18 – Driveways
• Section 52 of the NYS Highway Law
• HDM Ch 5, Appendix A, NYSDOT’s
“Permits for work within State highway
“Policy and Standards for Design of
Driveways right of way.”
Entrances to State Highways” (a.k.a.
Driveway Design Policy) • 17 NYCRR Part 125 “Entrances to State
Highways.”
• PDM Appendix 8 - Freeway Access

Freeway Breaks in Modification Procedures FHWA Policy on Access to the Interstate
Access System, May 22, 2017
Note:
1. The Highway Work Permit Process is for work not progressed by Department projects or maintenance forces.
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5.7.18 Driveways
Where driveways are allowed for access to and from the highway, they are to be designed in
conformance with the latest edition of the Department's "Policy and Standards for Design of
Entrances to State Highways" included as Appendix A of this chapter. Whe n curb is used for
driveway control, it shall be consistent with the guidance and requirements of Chapters 3 and 10
of this manual.
To obtain adequate geometrics for driveway entrances, it may be necessary to extend the limit of
work beyond the existing highway boundary. Section 5.5.6.6 discusses releases for
“Reestablishment of Approaches to Private Lands” to be used for this work.
5.7.19 Frontage Roads - Service Roads
Frontage roads are partially or uncontrolled access highways parallel to controlled access
highways. Frontage roads:
• Provide access to the adjoining property and local traffic circulation.

• Segregate lower speed local traffic from higher speed through traffic.
• Help preserve the safety and capacity of the controlled access highway by reducing or
eliminating access points to the through highway.
The design criteria of the frontage road should be based upon its functional classification. See
Chapter 2, Section 2.7.5.7, of this manual. Frontage roads are generally local roads or streets.
In most cases, they should be turned over to the local unit of government for maintenance.
For further discussion of frontage roads, see Chapter 4 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets, 2018.
5.7.20 High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lanes
HOV lanes are travel lanes along freeways and other multilane highways which are designated
solely for use by carpools, vanpools, buses, and other vehicles carrying a specified minimum
number of people. When operated at a suitable level of service, an HOV lane is more efficient
than a conventional-use lane because more people are moved per hour. An HOV lane can be
constructed with the capability of being reversed to serve the peak hour direction. HOV lane(s)
may provide an alternative solution to existing or projected congestion problems when
environmental, fiscal, or policy decisions preclude construction of additional or adequate numbers
of conventional lanes.
Drivers may be encouraged to use HOV lanes through incentives such as reduced, reliable travel
times compared to adjacent conventional use lanes, special access ramps, reduced tolls, special
toll booths, and preferred and/or cheaper parking at the job site. More detailed information
including design guidelines for HOV facilities can be found in Chapter 24 of this manual.
5.7.21 Complete Streets
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5.7.21.1 Transit Bus Stops
Bus stops are generally located where there is concentrated commercial, residential, office,
or industrial development or at intersections of arterial or major collector streets. Bus stops
can be provided at the far side or the near side of an intersectio n or at midblock. Whenever
possible, bus stops should be located at the far side of intersections to facilitate bus and traffic
operations. The transit operator should be consulted for all bus stop placements. Pedestrian
design treatments such as placing bus stops at signalized intersections, and providing
adequate sight distance for pedestrians should be considered when pedestrians will be
required to cross the road.
The curb adjacent to the bus stop should be painted and signs posted to clearly ident ify the
area as no parking or stopping except for buses. Pedestrian facilities should be provided
(e.g., sidewalks and wheelchair access ramps). A marked pedestrian crosswalk should be
considered if one is not in the immediate vicinity and there are pedestrian generators (e.g.,
school, commercial areas, residential areas, a sidewalk, a park) on the other side of the street.
Refer to Chapter 18 for a discussion of marked crosswalks.
Ideally, bus passenger shelters should be provided at every bus stop. Transit providers should
be consulted on shelter design. Design standards must comply with the requirements of the
Proposed Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities in the Public Right-of-Way (PROWAG) and
Chapter 18 of this manual. Chapter 24, Section 24.3.5, of this manual provides additional
information on bus stops.
5.7.21.2 Transit Bus Turnouts
A bus turnout is a bus stop (refer to Section 5.7.21.1) located in a recessed area adjacent to
lanes of moving traffic. A turnout should be considered wheneve r potential for auto/bus
conflicts warrants separation of transit and general-purpose vehicles, but especially where a
bus stopping in a travel lane may be unsafe or impede traffic flow.
Turnouts must be designed to safely accommodate bus ingress and eg ress movements and
passenger loading and unloading activity. Conflicts with driveways should be avoided for the
length of the turnout. The transit operator should be contacted to ensure the turnout will be
used by the bus drivers. Refer to Section 5.9.9 of this chapter, Chapter 24, Section 24.3.6, of
this manual, and Chapter 4 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and
Streets, 2018.
5.7.21.3 Transit Bus Turnarounds
Bus turnarounds are facilities that expedite a bus's return to the service route. Turnarounds
can be used at the termini of routes to turn transit vehicles or they can be incorporated into a
land-use development design.
Turnarounds should be designed to allow a bus to turn in a counter -clockwise direction to

improve the driver's visual capabilities. The design should allow adequate space for a bus to
pass a standing vehicle. A jug-handle bus turnaround design may be used at midblock bus
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terminal locations. "Cul de sac" and loop designs are acceptable for developments that do
not have internal roadway networks to return a bus efficiently to the arterial roadway. They
should be used only at the end of a bus route. The transit operator should be consulted for
all turnaround placements and designs. Chapter 24, Section 24.3.7, of this manual provides
additional information on bus turnarounds.
5.7.21.4 Pedestrians
The needs of pedestrians, especially disabled pedestrians, are an important part of the
roadway environment in rural as well as in urban areas. Evaluating and meeting the needs
for pedestrian accommodations and safety are important considerations during scoping and
design. Chapter 18 of this manual provides information on the design of pedestrian facilities.
Coordinate with the Regional Bicycle/Pedestrian Coordinator when assessing the need for
pedestrian facilities, and the Regional Landscape Architect and Regional ADA Specialist for
assistance in designing appropriate, accessible facilities.
5.7.21.5 Bicyclists
The accommodation of bicyclists is important as more and more cyclists are utilizing the
transportation system recreationally, for commuting, and the delivery of goods and services.
The benefits derived from relieving congestion, reducing air pollution, lowering energy costs,
promoting healthy lifestyles, and contributing to quality communities should not be
underestimated. Project developers should coordinate with the Regional Pedestrian/Bicycle
Coordinator in assessing the need for bicycle facilities and the Regional Landscape Architect
for assistance in designing appropriate facilities.
A discussion on necessary provisions for bicyclists and specific design standards is included
in Chapter 17 of this manual.
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5.8 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
5.8.1 Driver Expectancy
Drivers expect and anticipate certain geometric and operational characteristics along a roadway.
Roadway features that violate driver expectancy have a direct influence on safety. Drivers,
particularly those unfamiliar with or inattentive to their surroundings, can be lulled into
complacency and may react inappropriately when confronted with unexpected changes. To
reduce potential collisions, designers should maintain consistency throughout a highway segment
and gradually transition from one segment to another. Gradual transitions notify and prepare the
driver for upcoming changes. When gradual transitions are not practical, warning sig ns, lighting,
flashing warning lights, and additional sight distance should be considered.
Some typical features to avoid are:
• Sharp horizontal curves (i.e., those curves requiring a design speed drop of 10 mph [15
km/h] or more following long tangents).
• Upgrading alignment without corresponding cross section improvements. (This can cause
an erroneous and possibly a false illusion of improved safety, which may encourage
operating speeds that are excessive for the pavement width and clear zone.)
• Compound curves – Refer to Section 5.7.3.5.A
• Broken back curves – Refer to Section 5.7.3.5.B
5.8.2 Geometric Considerations
5.8.2.1 Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
Horizontal and vertical alignments should not be designed independently. They complement
each other and their interrelationship can have a significant effect on the operational and
safety characteristics of a section of roadway. Proper combinations of ho rizontal alignment
and profile should be determined by engineering study and consideration of the general
controls listed in Section 3.5 of AASHTO’s, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, 2018.
5.8.2.2 Right of Way Impacts
The effects of land acquisition must be considered in every stage of a project's development.
Although it is of primary importance to meet appropriate standards for the selected highway,
designers must not be so concerned with traffic data and standards that they negle ct entirely
the value of local culture and the natural beauty of the land traversed. Much controversy can
be avoided by knowing what features are considered important by the people who live in the
project area and by designing to minimize a project's impact on those features without
compromising safety.
Some principles to keep in mind when designing projects are:
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• In rural areas, shallow fill sections generally require less right of way than cut sections
because they reduce the amount of roadside ditching. (Shallow fill sections are also
less susceptible to blowing and drifting snow problems than cut sections.)
• Although right of way impacts cannot always be avoided, many times they can be
reduced through creative design efforts, particularly in sensitive areas. The use of
centerline shifts, special ditches, lawn pipes, tip-up shoulders, field inlets, and gabions
are just a few of the techniques which could be considered when investigating
alternative designs.
• The cost of right of way is an important factor to consider when investigating project
alternates. Right of way cost should be balanced against construction and future
maintenance costs.
5.8.2.3 Balancing Cuts and Fills
When developing a roadway profile, it is generally cost-effective to provide a balance between

cut and fill sections. However, the need to minimize impacts to adjacent properties often
overrides the benefit of a highway with balanced cuts and fills.
5.8.3 Joint Use of the Highway Corridor
The joint use of transportation corridors is a legitimate and necessary utilization of right of way.
The accommodation of pedestrians, bicyclists, and utilities, along with transit, commercial, and
private motor vehicles, provides a more comprehensive transportation system resulting in
significant cost, mobility, and environmental benefits. The designer must recognize the positive
implications of this sharing of the transportation corridor and consider not only the safe, efficient
movement of vehicles, but also, the movement of people, the distributio n of goods, and the
provision of essential services.
5.8.4 Social, Economic, and Environmental Considerations
Throughout the project development process, consideration must be given to mitigation for areas
impacted by Department projects. Mitigation is defined by the Council on Environmental Quality
as avoiding, minimizing, rectifying, reducing/eliminating, and compensating for impacts. Detailed
information is provided in NYSDOT’s Project Development Manual and Environmental Manual.
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5.8.5 Utilities
Utility facilities occupy State highway right of way either by law or by permission of the
Department. Utility occupation is subordinate and subject to the use of the right of way by the
Department for highway or other purposes authorized by law. It is in the public interest for utilities
to be accommodated within the highway right of way.
Utilities must be considered when scoping and designing a project. Early coordination between
the Department and utilities is vital to a successful design. With early and reliable utility as -built
information, many costly relocations can often be reduced or eliminated through minor design
changes. While it may be necessary for designers to make adjustments for utility
accommodations, acceptable safety standards must always be maintained.
Some types of utility relocations are eligible for reimbursement by the Department, but the
Department does not subsidize utility accommodations. For additional information refer to Part
131 (Accommodation of Utilities Within State Highway Right-of-Way) of Title 17 of the "Official
Compilation of Codes, Rules, and Regulations of the State of New York" and Chapters 10 and 13
of this manual.
5.8.6 Increasing Capacity Without Adding Lanes
As congestion increases and there is less opportunity to provide additional lanes, there are a
number of options that can and should be considered when designing a project to relieve
congestion. The following subsections briefly describe some of the measures that may be used.
Mobility measures are described in more detail in Chapter 24 of this manual. The design effort
for these measures should be coordinated with the Regional Planning and Program Manager and
the Regional Transportation Systems Operations Group.
5.8.6.1 Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)
Applying the technologies of advanced communications, information processing, sensing

systems, and computer control systems to control vehicles operating on the highway and
transportation network is known as ITS. Employing ITS strategies can improve the o peration
of the existing transportation system by redirecting traffic to avoid congestion, providing
assistance to drivers and other travelers on planning and following optimal routes, increasing
the reliability of and access to information on public transportation routes and schedules, and
refocusing safety efforts on crash avoidance rather than just minimizing the consequences of
crashes. It will include such strategies as rapid response to road crashes to restore traffic
flow, changeable message signs to inform drivers of current road conditions, better
information on ridesharing opportunities, control of traffic movement, route guidance systems,
and electronic toll collection, to name a few.
5.8.6.2 Ramp Metering
Ramp meters are considered to be a very cost-effective technique for improving traffic flow
on freeways, protecting mainline capacities and improving overall operational efficiencies
during peak flow periods. A ramp meter is a modified traffic signal which is located on a ramp
and which operates at a controlled rate to regulate the flow of traffic from the ramp to the
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freeway. The rate at which vehicles are released into the freeway lane is based on the freeway
traffic volume. When congestion on the freeway is heavy, the release rate is less frequent.
During off-peak periods, the signal may revert to pretimed intervals or may be taken out of
service until the next period of congestion. Further information can be found in Chapter 24,
Section 24.5.1, of this manual.
5.8.6.3 Reversible-Flow Traffic Lanes
When the peak travel demand on a multiple lane facility is significantly greater in one direction
than in the other and that demand is reversed between the morning and ev ening periods,
reversible-flow operation may be justified. It can be applied to mixed-use traffic on undivided
or divided urban arterials and to express buses or other HOVs on arterials or freeways.
Reversible-flow lanes are usually located in the center or median lane(s). During off -peak
periods the operation on arterials can revert back to the normal traffic pattern. It is generally
desirable to separate reversible-flow traffic lanes from the mixed-use traffic by physical
barriers. In addition, the lanes to be reversed and the direction of traffic flow can be
designated by specific traffic signals suspended over each lane and by permanent signs
advising motorists of changes in traffic regulations and the hours they are in effect. Further
information on reversible-flow lanes may be found in Chapter 24, Section 24.2.4, of this
manual.
5.8.6.4 Shoulders as Travel Lanes on Freeways
On a freeway that requires increased capacity due to congestion, converting the existing
shoulder to a travel lane may be the most expedient and economical method of adding
capacity when compared to the alternative of purchasing additional right of way and adding a
new lane. It may be done, for example, when queues develop at freeway-to-freeway
interchanges, or when congestion occurs at bottlenecks or merge points, or when peak
periods exceed 3 hours in duration. Care should be taken to ensure that the resultant loss of
the shoulder(s) does not produce more congestion-related problems and crashes than it
eliminates. Driving on the shoulders of state-controlled access highways is prohibited and
must be authorized by the Department. Further discussion of the use of freeway shoulders
as peak-hour travel lanes is found in Chapter 24, Section 24.5.4, of this manual.
5.8.6.5 Priority Treatment for HOVs on Arterials
Providing priority treatments for buses at traffic signals on arterial streets has the potential for
reducing delays, in effect, increasing capacity. For example, turn restrictions are often used
to increase capacity where limited space prevents the addition of a lane or lanes. The turn
restrictions may disrupt bus routes and schedules by forcing them to travel greater distances.
By exempting buses from the turning restrictions, distances and travel time can be reduced,
reducing delays to the greater number of bus passengers. Passive systems for granting
priority to HOVs involve signal timing adjustments to favor the direction of flow with the greater
number of HOVs, or providing special HOV phases on facilities with reserved lanes or streets.
Active systems include special equipment for buses which allow preemption of normal traffic
signal cycles. Further information on priority treatment systems can be found in Chapter 24,
Section 24.5.8, of this manual.
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5.8.6.6 Upgrading the Signal System from Pretimed to Actuated Control
Actuated signal systems adjust the signal timing based on vehicle detection systems.
Vehicle detection systems are described in Chapter 11, Section 11.3.2, of this manual.
5.8.6.7 Coordinated Signal System
Coordinated signal systems are two or more synchronized signals that allow vehicles to travel
through each signal without stopping. Coordinated signal systems are described in Chapter
11, Section 11.3.3.5F, of this manual.
5.8.6.8 Elimination of On-Street Parking
Elimination of on street parking can reduce the delay caused by traffic slowing while vehicles
enter and exit the parking lane. The parking lane can help provide space for turn lanes and/or
a median to prevent mid-block left turns. Refer to Section 5.7.16 for a discussion of off-street
parking areas.
5.8.6.9 Eliminating Mid-Block Left Turns
The installation of raised medians can improve capacity and safety on uncontrolled access
facilities by eliminating mid-block left turn maneuvers. Roundabouts, U-turns, jug handles, or
indirect lefts can help provide access for those who would otherwise make a left turn. Refer
to Section 5.9.1 for a discussion of these intersection configurations.
5.8.6.10 Converting a 2 or 4 Lane Section with Shoulders to a 3 or 5 Lane Section
Where ROW is severely constrained, a two-way left-turn lane (TWLTL) may provide more
overall benefit to safety and capacity than wide shoulders depending on the travel speeds,
traffic volume, turning volumes, frequency of commercial driveways, and crash history. Refer
to Section 5.9.8.2.C for a discussion of TWLTLs.
5.8.7 Traffic Calming
Traffic calming recognizes the significance of sharing the transportation corridor by employing
techniques to reduce vehicle speeds and volumes. Traffic calming measures can help support
the livability and vitality of a residential or commercial area through an improvement in non -
motorist safety, mobility, and comfort. Examples of measures include slow points, street closures,
and narrow and short streets. Further information on traffic calming can be found i n Chapter 25
of this manual.
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5.8.8 Aesthetics
The visual quality of travel corridors should be considered along with the safe, efficient movement
of people and goods. The lands adjacent to highways are the most visible to the traveling public,
often defining the image and character of the locale and region.
The creation or preservation of an attractive landscape can contribute to safety, environmental,

and economic benefits. The careful blending of the highway with the natural and cultural
landscape, the careful grading of cut and fill slopes, and the selective preservation of vegetation,
supplemented with new plantings where appropriate, help to:
• Define the highway for the motorist.

• Reduce the potential for erosion.
• Reduce the need for precautionary signing and guide rail.
• Reduce construction costs.
• Integrate the project into the surrounding area.
To minimize the visual impact from adjacent sensitive viewing locations, particularly along high-
volume roadways, the feasibility of screening the highway should be investigated during design.
Project developers should coordinate with the Regional Landscape Architect in assessing the
project needs and in designing appropriate measures.
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5.9 INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE
Highway crossings may be grade separated or at-grade (signalized and unsignalized). Grade-
separated crossings do not provide access between the crossing highways unless an interchange
is constructed. Interchanges consist of special purpose roadways (ramps) which provide either
partial or complete access between the highways. The decision whether to provide an at -grade
or a grade-separated highway crossing is a trade-off between providing optimal service to through
traffic on one or both highways and providing access to surrounding land uses and should be
based on the highway functional classification and operational and safety considerations. The
type of crossing selected should meet capacity, safety, and mobility needs and be consistent with
Regional land use plans. Chapter 10 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets, 2018, provides guidance on the selection of a type of crossing.
Intersections influence and, in some cases, are a prime determinant of operating conditions on
each intersecting highway and consequently merit special consideration in design. In urban or
suburban areas, crashes and capacity constraints are often concentrated at intersections.
Intersections should provide access between highway approaches at a level of service consistent
with driver expectations for the highway, incorporate cost effective mitigation of crash patterns on
existing facilities and address safety issues on new facilities.
Design of intersections should be consistent with the design considerations and

recommendations contained in Chapter 18 of this manual and Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018.
5.9.1 Types of Intersections
The basic at grade intersection types are the circular, angular, and nontraditional intersections.
Circular intersections include the traffic circle, rotary, and roundabout. Angular intersections
include three-leg, such as T- or Y- intersections, four-leg, and the multileg. Nontraditional
intersections include the Super-Street Median Crossover and Continuous Flow Intersection.
Operational considerations for selecting an intersection layout include design-hour volumes and
predominant movements, types and mix of vehicles, pedestrians, bicyclists, approach speeds,
number of approaches, and safety needs. Local conditions and right of way costs often influence
the intersection that is feasible and the associated design elements. The alignment and grade of
intersecting highways combined with crash patterns may require channelizing the intersection
regardless of the traffic volumes (refer to Section 5.9.4 of this Chapter).
General objectives for intersection design are:
• To provide adequate sight distances.

• To minimize points of conflict.
• To simplify conflict areas.
• To limit conflict frequency.
• To minimize severity of conflicts.
• To minimize delay.
• To provide acceptable capacity for the design year.
Roundabouts are frequently able to address the above objectives better than other intersection
types in both urban and rural environments and on high- and low-speed highways. Thus, when
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BASIC DESIGN 5-93
a project includes reconstructing or constructing new intersections, a roundabout alternative is to

be analyzed to determine if it is a feasible solution based on site constraints, including ROW,
environmental factors, and other design constraints. Exceptions to this requirement are where
the intersection:
• Has no current or anticipated safety, capacity, or other operational problems.

• Is within a well working coordinated signal system posted at under 45 mph with acceptable
crash histories.
• Is where signals will be installed solely for emergency vehicle preemption.
• Has steep terrain that makes providing an area, graded at 4% or less for the circulating
roadways, infeasible.
When the analysis shows that a single lane roundabout is a reasonable alternative, it should be
considered the Department’s preferred alternative due to the proven substantial safety benefits
and other operational benefits. Guidance on roundabouts can be found in Chapter 26 of this
manual.
Note: A reasonable alternative is a feasible solution that meets the objectives in a cost-effective
and environmentally sound manner. The preferred alternative is the reasonable alternative that
the Department is leaning toward recommending for design approval. The preferred alternative
can change if a new reasonable alternative is identified and as the reasonable alternatives are
evaluated during preliminary design.
5.9.1.1 Circular Intersections
Traffic circles and rotaries, popular during the first half of the 20 th century, typically have
serious operational and safety problems, which include the tendency to lock -up at higher
volumes. These intersection types are not to be constructed and should be evaluated for
reconstruction when included in a multicourse resurfacing ( i.e., 2R/3R project) or
reconstruction project.
Roundabouts offer unique solutions to traffic operations and safety problems at intersections.
Generally, for the same traffic volume, delays are less at roundabouts as compared to other
controlled intersections (typical delay reductions are 30-70%). Roundabouts will
accommodate large volumes of left turn movements with less delay than signalized
intersections. If left turns are minimal, or most of the traffic is making similar moves (i.e., there
is a significantly dominant direction of traffic), then a conventional controlled intersection may
offer less vehicular delay. With regard to safety, roundabouts reduce vehicle speeds and result
in significantly fewer crashes. A study by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety found
that construction of roundabouts resulted in a 39% overall reduction in crashes; a 76%
reduction in injury crashes and an 89% reduction in fatal or incapacitating crashes. No other
intersection type has been found to provide that magnitude of safety improvement. Refer to
Exhibit 5-23 for examples of a one-lane roundabout, a two-lane roundabout, and a roundabout
corridor.
Designers should refer to the roundabout pages on the Department’s Internet and IntraDOT
sites for the latest requirements, guidance, and public involvement materials for roundabouts.
Additionally, designers should contact their Regional expert or the Intersection Design Squads
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BASIC DESIGN 5-94
in the Design Bureau for guidance and assistance throughout the development of the
roundabout design.
The initial layout, preliminary plans, and advance detail plans for the roundabout should be
reviewed by designers with considerable roundabout design experience. For multi-lane
roundabouts, roundabouts with more than 4 legs, and roundabouts with unusual geometry,
the Intersection Design Squads should be included in the review by e-mailing the ProjectWise
location to roundabouts@dot.ny.gov.
5.9.1.2 Angular Intersections
A. 3 Legged (T Intersections)
T-intersections are one of the most commonly used intersection types. Refer to Sections
5.9.2 through 5.9.8 of this chapter for guidance and requirements applicable to these
intersections.
B. Closely Spaced T Intersections
Closely spaced opposing T intersections are offset ("dog leg") intersections, where either
the main street or side street approach legs are not aligned with each other. Offset
intersections can result in operational problems, depending on the offset distance, traffic
control, and the amount of traffic going from one offset leg to the other. Consult with the
Regional Transportation Systems Operations Engineer to determine the appropriateness
of aligning offset intersection legs.
At offset intersections and divided highway crossings, where the distance between the
nearest edges of the two intersecting roadways is 30 ft (9.14 m) or more, two separate
intersections exist and must be independently controlled with appropriate intersection
control. The Vehicle and Traffic Law definition of roadway is "That portion of a highway
improved, designed, marked, or ordinarily used for vehicular travel, exclusive of the
shoulder or slope." Refer to Exhibit 5-24.
Note: Title I, Article 1, Section 120(b) of the NYS Vehicle and Traffic Law states when
two roadways intersect a highway 30 ft (9.14 m) or more apart, each crossing shall be
regarded as a separate intersection.
Offset intersection approaches or roadways within 30 ft (9.14 m) of each other may be

considered one intersection for the purpose of traffic control. Consult with the Regional
Transportation Systems Operations Engineer to determine appropriate traffic control at
offset intersections. Coordination of geometric design and traffic control is especially
critical at these intersections.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-95
C. 3 Legged (Y-Intersections)
Y-intersections experience widespread operational and safety problems and should be

avoided. If a crash problem is identified, existing Y-intersections should be realigned to T-
intersections, replaced by a roundabout, or their retention discussed in the Design
Approval Document. The rationale for retention should be based on the lack of a related
crash pattern, excessive grade, or unreasonable reconstruction costs and/or impacts.
When the angle is 60º or more from a right angle, additional signing may be needed to
clearly mark the through route, particularly for 3-legged intersections.
Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018,

and NCHRP 279 Intersection Channelization Design Guide provide more detailed
information on Y-type intersections.
D. Four-Leg
Four-leg intersections are one of the most common intersection types. There are
numerous variations involving channelization, traffic control, skew, and number of through
and turning lanes. Refer to Sections 5.9.2 through 5.9.8 of this chapter for guidance and
requirements applicable to these intersections.
E. Multileg
Multileg intersections are those with 5 or more intersection legs and should be avoided
whenever practical. Refer to Sections 5.9.2 through 5.9.8 of this chapter for guidance and
requirements applicable to these intersections
5.9.1.3 Nontraditional Intersections
Nontraditional intersections require special consideration and treatment, and they should be
developed in consultation with the Regional Transportation Systems Operations Engineer.
Additional information, including the layout, applicability, design features, safety performance,
and operational performance of the following intersections discussed below are covered in
FHWA’s Signalized Intersections: Informational Guide.
A. Jughandle (Indirect Left Turns)
Where operational or safety concerns preclude left turns from the median lane, indirect
left turns or jughandles can, if adequate advance signing is provided, provide safe and
efficient left-turn access by diverting left turns to separate turning roadways which cross
the mainline or intersect the cross street at a different location. Refer to Exhibit 5-25.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-96
B. Quadrant Roadway Intersection
A quadrant roadway intersection includes an extra roadway between two legs of the
intersection. The roadway is bidirectional, forces left turning traffic to travel a greater
distance, and creates two T intersections that can operate with a three phased signal. The
design removes all left turns from the major intersection, which can be signalized with a 2
phase signal, greatly increasing the green time for the through movements. A key element
of this design is to locate the quadrant roadway a sufficient distance back from the major
intersection to eliminate the potential of queue spillback.
C. Others
Several other nontraditional intersection types have been developed. They include:
• Median U-Turn Crossover

• Continuous Flow Intersection
• Super-Street Median Crossover
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BASIC DESIGN 5-97
Exhibit 5-23 Roundabout Intersections
A: Example Single Lane Roundabout
C: Example of Roundabout Corridor
B: Example Multi-lane Roundabout
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Exhibit 5-24 Divided Highway Crossings and Offset Intersections
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BASIC DESIGN 5-99
Exhibit 5-25 Jughandles and Indirect Left Turns
T-Intersection with
Jughandle
Indirect Left Turns
C C
D D
A A B
B
C C
D D
B B A
A
Advanced turn when movement from Delayed turn when movement

A to B and from B to C is restricted. from D to A is restricted.
C
D
A B
C
D
B A
Delayed turn when movement from C to D is restricted.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-100
5.9.2 Intersection Capacity and Level-of-Service Analysis
5.9.2.1 Motorized Traffic
The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) quantifies the quality of traffic flow in terms of levels of
service (LOS). As indicated in Section 5.2.3.4, there are six levels of service with LOS A
representing very low levels of delays and F representing high levels of delays associated
with congestion. Level of service should be a consideration for every project except preventive
maintenance projects. The intersection design elements and traffic control techniques
selected should meet the level of service objective.
Levels of service and capacity for signalized intersections are calculated for each lane group
(a lane group may be one or more movements), each intersection approach, and the
intersection as a whole. The intersection level of service is merely a weighted average of the
individual approaches and may not be considered a valid measure of the quality or
acceptability of an intersection design since it can conceal poor operating conditions on
individual approaches. It is a common error to consider an average intersection LOS C as
acceptable while one or more lane groups are at LOS F. Correct intersection design practice
strives to provide design-year LOS D or better on each lane group in urban areas and LOS C
in rural areas.
In some cases, it may be necessary to accept LOS E or F on individual lane groups due to
unreasonable costs or impacts associated with improving the level of service. In such cases,
acceptance of LOS E or F should be agreed to in the scoping/design process and explained
in the Design Approval Document. Note that seconds of delay should be used in design
approval documents as it may be easier for the public and decision makers to understand.
Level of service for signalized and unsignalized intersections is based on control delay, as
shown in Exhibit 5-26. Control delay is defined as the average vehicle delay in seconds
caused by the traffic control device compared to the uncontrolled condition. This includes the
delay due to deceleration from the free-flow speed to the back of queue (if any), queue move-
up (as needed), stopping/yielding, and accelerating to the free-flow speed.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-101
Exhibit 5-26 Control Delay and Level of Service (LOS)
(Ref . Exhibit 419-1 and 18-4 of the Highway Capacity Manual, 2010.)
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Levels of service at unsignalized intersections are only calculated for minor movements since
the through movement on the major street is not affected by intersection traffic control. The
level of service for signalized intersections and unsignalized intersections can be compared.
When a traffic signal is installed, the introduction of delay to the main street usually increases
overall intersection delay.
Refer to Section 5.2 of this chapter for a discussion of the traffic analysis software to be used
for signalized, roundabout, and other unsignalized intersection capacity analysis. Refer to the
roundabout pages on the Department’s Internet and IntraDOT sites for requirements and
guidance when performing roundabout capacity analysis. Refer to the procedures in the HCM
for requirements and guidance when performing capacity analysis for other types of
intersections (i.e., the HCM procedure is not to be used for roundabouts). Capacity analysis
must be reviewed by someone with expertise in capacity analysis and signal operations to
ensure proper modeling of the intersection configuration and the signal operation.
Intersection turning counts for AM, PM, and other peak periods, peak-hour factors (PHF), and
the percentage of heavy vehicles are foremost among the data required for the capacity
analysis. The PHF, as defined in the HCM, is critical to the analysis, and site -specific data,
rather than default values, should be used. Data on the number of pedestrians, l ocation and
frequency of bus stops and parking are required for signalized intersection analysis. Section
5.2 of this chapter elaborates on required traffic volume data.
Refer to Chapter 11 of this manual for the detailed design of traffic control devices (i.e., signs,
signals, pavement markings, etc.).
5.9.2.2 Non-automobile Level of Service
For high density main streets and central business/walking districts with very high peak
pedestrian traffic and/or bicycle volumes, it may be necessary to determine non-automobile
delay and LOS. The Highway Capacity Manual provides guidelines to determine delay and
LOS for both pedestrians and cyclists.
At intersections with high volumes of automobiles and pedestrians and long cycle lengths, it
may be useful to calculate pedestrian delay to determine if a pedestrian overpass or a better
balance of pedestrian and motor vehicle delay is needed to improve safety. When pedestrians
(p) experience more than 30 seconds (s) of delay, they become impatient, and may take
greater risks and cross at inappropriate times. At intersections with high conflicting vehicle
volumes, pedestrians have little choice but to wait for the walk signal, and observed
noncompliance is less (refer to the Highway Capacity Manual for more guidance).
5.9.2.3 Balancing Level of Service
Where it is not feasible to simultaneously improve LOS for all traffic modes through design
and operational modifications, tradeoffs are necessary. The Highway Capacity Manual should
be referenced to establish an optimum LOS for each mode that appropriately balances the
competing needs of motorists and pedestrians.
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5.9.3 Intersection Geometrics
When establishing the intersection geometry, designers should recognize the following driver
expectations so as to make the navigation and decision making process simpler for the driver:
• The number of through-lanes approaching and leaving an intersection will be the same
• The most important route will be the most direct.
• Left turns from an arterial street will be made from the left-hand-lane, while right turns
are made from the right lane and
• What appears to be a through-lane will not be dropped at an exclusive turning lane.
The following discussion applies to traditional intersection designs. Refer to Chapter 18 of this
manual for bicycle and pedestrian considerations and refer to the roundabout pages on the
Department’s Internet and IntraDOT sites for requirements and guidance on roundabouts.
5.9.3.1 Intersection Approaches
Avoid using short radius curves or unnatural travel paths near the intersection (i.e., a hooked
intersection), only for the sake of reducing intersection skew. Turning vehicles often follow
smoother, more natural travel paths rather than conforming to abrupt alignment changes.
Abrupt approach alignment can lead to encroachments into opposing lanes, unwanted
detector actuation, prematurely worn pavement markings, crashes, and poor visibility. If poor
approach visibility cannot be avoided, provide SIGNAL AHEAD (W2-17) or STOP AHEAD
(W2-15) signs on the appropriate approach(es).
The intersection approach curves, where traffic is not always required to stop, must be
consistent with the design speed established for each approaching roadway in accordance
with the requirements of Chapter 2 of this manual.
Certain intersection types with sharp radius curves or stop conditions require motorists to
reduce their speed below the anticipated operating speed. Strict application of the design
speed (measured along the open highway) for the intersection approaches may not be needed
or appropriate. Therefore, intersection approach curves may be designed with a design speed
of 15 mph (20 km/h) below the design speed of the approach highway where all of the
following are met:
• The design speed of the approach highway was established in accordance with
Section 5.2.5 of this manual.
• The curve will be within 1,000 ft (300 m) of an intersection.
• The curve is on a leg of a roundabout or the minor leg of a T intersection (that is stop
controlled or yield/signal controlled with an acute angle of 60 degrees or more).
• The intersection does not violate driver expectancy and adequate sight distance
and/or advance warning devices will be used.
• The curvature will not obscure the back of queue during the design hour (i.e., the
horizontal sight distance and stopping sight distance are adequate).
• The curve is not using a ramp design speed, which is already less than the highway
main line speed.
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Note: Studies have shown that limiting the change in the design speed to 15 mph (20 km/h)
can reduce the crash rate. Additionally, a study specific to roundabouts showed that
successive reverse curves prior to a roundabout can also reduce crash rates.
Speed reductions of more than 15 mph (20 km/h) along the approach to an intersection require
a nonstandard feature justification since a vehicle’s ability to decelerate is diminished when
negotiating sharp radius curves. Two and four way stop controlled intersections may use a
reduced speed only if justified as a nonstandard feature since these intersection types often
lend themselves to future signalization and much higher operating speeds.
5.9.3.2 Highway Alignment Through an Intersection
Abrupt alignment changes within the intersection can lead to encroachments into opposing
lanes, unwanted detector actuation, prematurely worn pavement markings, crashes, and poor
visibility. The vertical alignment should not place low points within the intersection.
Horizontal alignment shifts are permitted, but not desirable, for traffic entering the intersection
from an approach with design speeds of 35 mph (60 km/h) or less. When approach traffic
may enter the intersection at speeds over 35 mph (60 km/h), a smooth alignment using
tangents or horizontal curves, based on the design speed of the approach, is needed. This
accommodates off-peak periods when traffic may move through signalized intersections at
the approach design speed.
5.9.3.3 Intersection Angle
A right-angle intersection provides the shortest pedestrian crossing distance and minimizes
the duration of exposure to conflicting vehicles. A right-angle intersection also provides the
optimal sight line for drivers to judge the relative position and speed of other vehicles
(including bicycles) in or approaching the intersection and to view pedestrians approaching or
in the crosswalks. However, intersection angles skewed no more than 30 ⁰ from a right angle
typically do not significantly increase crossing distances or decrease visibility and can be a
safe, adequate design.
When intersection angles are skewed more than 30⁰ from a right angle, consideration should
be given to realigning one or more approaches especially if operational or safety problems
can be attributed to the skew. Methods for realigning the approaches are detailed in Chapter
9 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. Also, refer to
Section 5.9.3.1.
5.9.3.4 Pavement Width
Table 2-9 in Chapter 2 of this manual and Chapter 3 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets, 2018, guide the selection of pavement widths for turning
roadways at channelized intersections. The pavement width is dependent upon the size of the
design vehicle, the curvature of the roadway, and the number of lanes. At unchannelized
intersections where there is minimal space available, the turning path of the design vehicle
governs.
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5.9.3.5 Superelevation of At-Grade Intersection Turning Roadways
Sharp curvature and short lengths of intersection turning roadways often preclude the
development of full superelevation at a desirable rate. The use of compound curves and/or
spirals with gradually changing curvature can assist in developing a desirable superelevation
rate. Chapter 2 of this manual lists superelevation rates for intersection curves in relation to
design speeds. Superelevation runoff and rollover should also conform to Section 5.7 of this
chapter.
5.9.3.6 Intersection Cross Slopes
The cross slope at intersecting roadways affects drainage flow patterns, adjacent sidewalks,
pedestrian crossings, travel speeds, and safety. Cross sections and contour plans are often
needed, especially at major intersections, to ensure a smooth transition to and from the
intersection pavement and to ensure they are constructed to drain properly.
A. Traveled-Way Cross Slopes at Intersections
When both facilities are at normal cross slopes, the approach traveled -way cross slope
should be treated as follows (Refer to Exhibit 5-27). Note, the cross slope should be
designed for design year conditions. For example, the cross slopes of existing stop
controlled intersections that will likely become signalized before the design year should be
designed as signalized intersections.
• If the off-peak 85th percentile vehicle from the minor approach(es) will stop or travel
less than 40 mph (70 km/h) through the intersection, normal cross slope should
generally be retained on the major highway. The edge of traveled way along the
minor approach(es) should be adjusted, using the maximum relative gradient from
Section 5.7.3.3 of this chapter, to achieve a cross section that matches the edge
of traveled way along the major highway. Vertical curves are to be used to adjust
the vertical alignment. A 4% maximum algebraic difference in grade may be used
for the minor road crossing at the shoulder breaks and crown-line.
• If the off-peak 85th percentile vehicle from the minor approach(es) will travel 40
mph (70 km/h) or more through the intersection, the intersection is to be flattened.
A minimum grade of 0.5% should be used to prevent storm water from ponding
within the intersection. The edge of traveled way along each approach should be
adjusted using the maximum relative gradient from Section 5.7.3.3 of this chapter
to achieve an approach cross section that matches the edge of traveled way along
the intersecting highway. Vertical curves are to be used to adjust the vertical
alignment.
When superelevation is needed through the intersection, an additional 2.0% of

superelevation, up to a maximum of 8.0%, may be used to achieve a compatible
intersection design. The approach cross slopes for the traveled way should be treated as
follows (Refer to Exhibit 5-27):
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• If a highway requires superelevation through the intersection, it is to be provided

by adjusting vertical alignments and the cross section of the intersect ing
highway. The edge of traveled way should be adjusted using the maximum
relative gradient from Section 5.7.3.3 of this chapter to match the edge of
traveled way along the superelevated highway. Vertical curves are to be used to
adjust the vertical alignment.
• If two intersecting roadways require superelevation, one of the curves should be
relocated. In extreme cases, a broken back curve may be needed.
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Exhibit 5-27 Cross Slopes for Intersecting Highways
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B. Shoulder Cross Slopes at Intersections
Shoulder cross slope rates may be increased or flattened to minimize impacts to adjacent
sidewalk and drainage facilities. The maximum rollover rate between the traveled way
and shoulder is 8.0%. Desirably, the edge of the shoulder should be adjusted using the
maximum relative gradient from Section 5.7.3.3 of this chapter. However, more rapid rates
of change may be used to meet site specific constraints.
C. Slopes of Pedestrian Crossings at Intersections
Grades and cross slopes of pedestrian crossings at intersections are subject to the current
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) guidelines for accessibility. Refer to Chapter 18 of
this manual and the “Critical Elements for the Design, Layout and Acceptance of
Pedestrian Facilities” table for the maximum allowable slopes.
5.9.3.7 Intersection Turning Radii
Intersection radii should accommodate the design vehicle turning path. Refer to Section 5.7.1
for a discussion of the appropriate design vehicle. The minimum designs for the inner edge of
pavement for turning paths should conform to Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. Any combination of radii, offsets, and tapers which
will approximate the results of the AASHTO designs may be used. The design sh ould consider
both the need to keep the intersection area to a minimum and the types of vehicles turning.
If curbs are used, flatter curves provide more room to maneuver. Depending on the
intersection angle and design vehicle, asymmetric three centered compound curves will
generally reduce the area of the intersection over simple curves with or without tapers. Refer
to Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018, for
layouts of three-centered compound curves.
The effect of curb radii on design vehicle turning paths and crosswalk length is shown in
Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. For
larger vehicles turning through more than 90°, three-centered curves or offset-simple curves
with tapers or spirals are the preferred design since they fit vehicle paths better and require
less pavement area than simple curves do.
Radii design on urban and suburban streets must consider the needs of all users including
pedestrians, buses, and trucks. An increase in curb radii may result in an increase in the space
needed to accommodate pedestrian facilities for persons with disabilities, an increase in
crosswalk distances, and an increase in required right of way or corner setbacks. It may be
necessary to provide a raised or curbed island for pedestrian refuge, or to offset the crosswalk
to reduce crossing distance.
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5.9.4 Principles of Channelization
Intersections which are skewed and have enlarged corner radii tend to have enlarged paved are as
which can result in uncontrolled movements, long pedestrian crossings and unused pavement.
Channelization in the form of properly placed flush or raised islands can control traffic movements
by reducing the pavement area available. Examples of channelized skew intersections are shown
in Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018 and
NCHRP 279 Intersection Channelization Design Guide.
Properly designed channelization increases operational efficiency and safety by sep arating or
eliminating conflict points and delineating travel paths for turning movements. People -moving
capacity can be enhanced by channelizing exclusive paths for high occupancy vehicles and
transit. The following principles should be applied to intersection channelization:
• Areas of Conflict - Points of conflict should be separated whenever possible and

desirable vehicle paths should be clearly defined.
• Raised/Curbed Refuge Islands - Provide safe refuge for pedestrians and other non-
motorized vehicle users.
• Prohibited Movements - Undesirable or wrong way movements should be physically
discouraged or prohibited.
• Preference to Major Movements or Designated Vehicles - High priority traffic movements
should be facilitated.
• Effective Traffic Control - Desired traffic control schemes should be facilitated and
desirable or safe vehicle speeds should be encouraged.
• Turning Roadway Alignment and Terminals - Traffic streams should cross at right angles
and merge at flat angles and decelerating, stopped or slow vehicles should be removed
from the through traffic stream.
• Size of Islands.
• Curbing of Islands.
• Island Offsets.
• Surface Treatment for Raised Islands.
5.9.4.1 Areas of Conflict
Wide paved intersection areas are generally undesirable. The problems inherent in conflicting
movements become magnified due to insufficient guidance and the inability of drivers to
anticipate movements of other vehicles within these areas. Desirable vehicle paths should
be clearly defined. Channelization reduces areas of conflict by using pavement markings or
islands to separate and/or regulate traffic movements into defined travel paths.
Large intersection conflict areas are typical of skewed intersection approach legs.
Channelization can reduce conflict area by reducing the angle at which specific flows intersect.
Indirect left-turn roadways and jughandles (refer to Exhibit 5-25) can enhance safety and
capacity by separating left-turn conflicts from the rest of the intersection. Refer to Chapter 9
of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018, for more
guidance and example configurations.
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Where large design vehicles must be accommodated by a wide pavement area, it is common
practice to stripe the pavement area for the turning path of a car and allow the larger vehicle
to drive over the striping. This practice helps discourage erratic maneuvers by cars or any
tendency for cars to form more than one travel lane.
5.9.4.2 Prohibited Movements
Specific movements which are, depending on traffic volume, speed, and other conditions,
undesirable from a safety or operational perspective should be prevented or discouraged by
channelization. Examples of such movements may include, but are not limited to, left turns
out of driveways or side streets, and wrong-way turns. Raised islands or judicious design of
curb radii are particularly effective in discouraging prohibited movements.
5.9.4.3 Preference to Major Movements or Designated Vehicles
Directing free flowing alignment to favor major movements should be considered. Major right-
turn movements are often given such priority by channelizing them away from the intersection
proper and providing separate traffic control as shown in Exhibit 5-28 and discussed in Section
5.9.4.6.
The channelized path should conform to natural paths of the movement, should be introduced
gradually to eliminate any surprise or abrupt movements, and should provide adequate turning
width and radii for the design vehicle. Exclusive through lanes, turning lanes, and turning
roadways (i.e., by-passes) can be channelized, as a component of a comprehensive plan, to
give priority to designated vehicles such as buses, high-occupancy vehicles, taxis, carpool
vehicles, and bicycles.
Turning roadway elements (e.g., width, radii, and superelevation) are to be designed in
accordance with Chapter 2, Section 2.7.5 of this manual and Section 5.9.4.6 of this chapter.
5.9.4.4 Refuge Islands
Raised or curbed traffic islands can enhance pedestrian safety by providing a refuge area.
Refuge areas can permit two-stage crossings which can improve traffic signal efficiency by
allowing the time allocated for pedestrian movements to be reduced. The width for an island
serving as a pedestrian refuge should be a minimum of 6 ft (1.8 m) from the face of curb to
face of curb. Curbed islands should be delineated to enhance nighttime visibility. Approach
end treatment (e.g., offset, flare, height transition, ramping) should confo rm to Chapter 9 of
AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. All islands in
pedestrian paths, whether curbed or uncurbed, must be accessible to persons with disabilities.
Refer to Chapter 18 of this manual for design guidance on pedestrian refuge islands.
The decision to use a curbed island should consider the following:
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BASIC DESIGN 5-111
▪ Anticipated number and frequency of pedestrians using the island, and vehicular
volumes
▪ Pedestrian crossing distance (a refuge should be considered for crossing distances
exceeding 60 feet, as discussed in the AASHTO Guide for the Planning, Design and
Operation of Pedestrian Facilities, 2004).
▪ Pedestrian exposure to continuous vehicle turning movements during peak/holiday
periods
▪ Potential hazard that curbing may pose to errant vehicles.
▪ Potential traffic calming benefits to both pedestrian and vehicle traffic.
Exhibit 5-27a Curb and Barrier Treatments for Pedestrian Refuge Islands 1
Design
Curb Barrier
Speed
< 40 mph 6” vertical face (non- Consider low deflection barrier for both
mountable) curb curbed and uncurbed refuges for design
speeds >35 mph. Barrier should be preferably
placed within 1 f t. of the face of curb, but
vaulting risk is low.
45 mph -50 mph 4-6” sloping (mountable) Consider low deflection barrier for both
curb preferred, 6” vertical curbed and uncurbed refuges. Due to vaulting
f ace curb allowed concerns, barrier should be placed within 1 f t.
of the face of curb.
> 50 mph 4”, 1:3 traversable curb or See Note 2. Low-deflection barrier system.
uncurbed (flush- Impact attenuating end treatments are
delineated, raised, or pref erred if barrier is used without curb. Due
depressed island) to vaulting concerns, barrier should be placed
within 1 f t. of the face of curb.
Notes:1. In all cases, shoulders or curb offsets from the traveled way should be provided to satisfy the requirements
given in Chapter 2 of this manual and Section 5.9.4.8 of this chapter .
2. When design speeds are 50 mph (80 km/h) or greater (high -speed traffic), the frequency and need for
pedestrian use must be weighed against the number of motorists and the potential hazard that a barrier system
would present to them.
Refer to Chapter 3, Section 3.2, of this manual for a discussion of various curb types and their
uses. When barriers and curbing will be used, refer to Chapter 10, Section 10.2.2.4 of this manual
for special considerations and requirements.
5.9.4.5 Effective Traffic Control
Proper channelization enhances the effectiveness of actuated traffic signal control at

intersections with complex or high volume turning movements by isolating traffic flows which
move through the intersection during separate signal phases. Exclusive turning lanes permit
efficient use of protected signal phasing.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-112
Exclusive right-turning roadways can, under certain traffic conditions, expedite a heavy right-
turn movement by forming a separate yield-controlled intersection with the cross street 30 ft
(9.14 m) or more downstream (measured along the travel way edge of the cross street) of the
near edge of the intersection of the through lanes. Refer to Exhibit 5-24. The 30 ft (9.14 m)
(or greater) separation is measured between the edges of the adjacent roadways as defined
by one of the following.
• Pavement marking defining the edges of the travel lanes.

• In lieu of markings, whatever serves as the edges of the travel lanes. The measurement
is not dependent upon the type of material existing within the channelizin g island area.
The island could be flush or raised, paved or unpaved, traversable or nontraversable.
• If the separation between the adjacent roadways is less than 30 ft (9.14 m), the
intersection approach and right-turning roadway must be controlled as one intersection,
which may negate the benefits of the turning roadway. Consult with the Regional
Transportation Systems Operations Engineer to determine the appropriate traffic
control.
The Regional Transportation Systems Operations Engineer should also determine if the cross
street through movement is light enough to provide sufficient gaps for right -turning traffic
during the cross street through movement phase. A heavy, conflicting cross street through
movement (volume-to-capacity ratio in excess of 0.85) is not likely to provide additional gaps
for right turns other than those provided by the signal. The limited availability of gaps may also
result in an unacceptable number of rear end crashes on the turning roadway. Right-turn
efficiency and safety can be improved by adding either a through lane or an acceleration lane
on the receiving roadway to eliminate the merge or increase the efficiency of merging traffic.
To avoid degrading traffic operations and safety, the acceleration lane should be built to
standard length per Chapter 10 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, 2018.
Channelization may require the installation of additional traffic control devices such as yield
signs and turn or directional assemblies. At more complex locations, wrong-way signing may
be needed but should not be substituted for a design that discourages or prevents wrong-way
movements. Provide adequate advance signing for indirect left turns and jug handles.
Advance signing is especially important if the indirect left turn is to be executed from the right
lane.
Proper channelization can encourage desirable or safe vehicle speeds. Large turning radii
and speed change lanes can help reduce the speed differential between turning and through
traffic. Small turning radii, stop signs, and oblique entrance angles can reduce vehicle speeds
in areas with high pedestrian volumes.
5.9.4.6 Turning Roadway Alignment and Terminals
Channelized right-turning roadways are sometimes called right-turn slip lanes or right-turn
bypass lanes. There are two types of channelized right-turning roadways for at-grade
intersections: right-turning roadways with corner islands and free-flowing right-turning
roadways.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-113
A. Right-Turning Roadways with Corner Islands
Right-turning roadways with corner islands are either yield, stop, or signal controlled at the
entrance to the intersecting roadway. They do not include acceleration lanes, as shown
in the upper left corner of Exhibit 5-28.
The alignment of the edge of traveled way where the turning roadway either diverges from
or merges with the through highway should be designed with spirals and/or compound
curves. The spirals or compound curves should be long enough to avoid sudden
deceleration by drivers while still on the through highway, to provide a natural turning path
and to develop superelevation in advance of the maximum curvature. Desirable types of
alignments and maximum lengths of spiral for intersection curves and circular arcs for
compound intersection curves are shown in Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. When turning from a high-speed
highway, a deceleration lane is desirable. Deceleration lanes should be designed in
accordance with Chapter 10 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, 2018.
A 90⁰ to 60⁰ angle between the turning roadway and intersecting roadway provides the
optimal sight line for drivers entering the highway from the turning roadway to judge the
relative position and speed of approaching vehicles. Turning roadways that enter the
highway at angles of less than 60⁰ without an acceleration lane require the entering
motorist to look over their shoulder to view approaching vehicles and are undesirable.
B. Free-Flow, Right-Turning Roadways
Right-turning roadways with acceleration lanes are called free-flow, right-turning

roadways. They function as ramps for an at-grade intersection.
The alignment of the edge of traveled way where the free-flow, right-turning roadway
diverges from the through highway should be designed with spirals and/or compound
curves. The spirals or compound curves should be long enough to avoid sudden
deceleration by drivers while still on the through highway, to provide a natural turning path
and to develop superelevation in advance of the maximum curvature. For high -speed
highways, deceleration lanes are desirable.
Free-flow, right-turning roadways should be designed with a near-tangent approach to the

highway to encourage use of the acceleration lane, as shown in the lower left corner of
Exhibit 5-28. Taper- or parallel-type acceleration lanes are required to allow motorists to
use their mirrors to merge into traffic. Acceleration and deceleration lanes should be
designed in accordance with Section 5.9.8.3 of this chapter.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-114
Exhibit 5-28 High-Capacity Signalized Intersection with Double Left-Turn Lanes and
Right-Turning Roadways
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BASIC DESIGN 5-115
5.9.4.7 Size of Islands
Islands should be large enough to effectively channelize traffic flows in advance of the
intersection. Small raised islands can lead to maintenance problems and may be difficult for
motorists to see and react to. Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets, 2018, specifies the smallest size curbed islands which normally should
be considered. Smaller islands should be flush and color contrasted with the remainder of the
pavement. Contrasting surface texture may also be appropriate. The painted area of a wide
turning roadway (as described in Section 5.9.4.1) can be included in the legal ly required
minimum 30 ft (9.14 m) separation mentioned in Section 5.9.4.6 and the minimum island area.
Islands need to be large enough to accommodate all of the following as appropriate: signs,
delineators, pedestrian storage, barriers, landscaping, etc.
Both Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018,
and NCHRP Report 279 Intersection Channelization Design Guide recommend specific
dimensions for islands as a function of their use.
5.9.4.7 Curbing of Islands
Refer to Section 5.9.4.4 for a discussion of curbing issues related to refuge islands and islands
in general. When it is decided to curb raised islands that are not intended as pedestrian
refuges, mountable curbing should be used to allow errant drivers to maintain control of their
vehicle. The decision to use a curbed island should consider the potential hazard that curbing
may pose to medium and high-speed traffic (> 45 mph [70 km/h]). Raised islands bordering
high-speed through lanes should be located outside the shoulder area and should use only
the 4 in (100 mm) mountable or traversable curbs. Refer to Chapters 3 and 10 of this manual.
5.9.4.8 Island Offsets
Curbed islands should be offset from the travel lane in accordance with Chapter 9 of
AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. Offsets are also
recommended for uncurbed islands, but they are not essential. Islands with mountable curbing
should be offset from through travel lanes but do not need to be offset from turning roadways
unless there is a need to minimize exposure to traffic.
When approach shoulders are used, the shoulders should be continued past the island and
the offset between the island and the travel lane should be the shoulder itself except where a
deceleration or turning lane is provided. No additional offset from the shoulder edge is
necessary, but some may be advantageous at higher operating speeds.
5.9.4.9 Surface Treatment for Raised Islands
Small islands (<200 SF (<18 m2)) at intersections should be paved. Easily maintained paving
material that cannot be scattered by traffic should be used.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-116
Large islands ≥200 SF (18 m2) may be paved or turfed. Large islands in residential areas
may be landscaped provided that the plantings do not interfere with sight distance or grow
larger than 4 in (100 mm) in trunk diameter. Islands should not be landscaped without the
concurrence of the Regional Transportation Maintenance Group or other maintenance entity
if the island is to be maintained by others. Although usually not needed for small islands,
large islands should have inlets in the center or along the curbed edges to prevent drainage
from adversely impacting adjacent roadways.
5.9.5 Intersection Sight Distance
Each intersection has the potential for several different types of vehicular conflict. Providing sight
distance at intersections allows drivers to perceive potentially conflicting vehicles. Intersection
sight distance should allow drivers sufficient time to stop or adjust their spee d, as needed, to avoid
a collision in the intersection. The driver of a vehicle approaching an intersection should have an
unobstructed view of the entire intersection, including traffic control devices, and sufficient lengths
along the intersecting highway to permit the driver to anticipate and avoid potential collisions.
Sight distance also allows the drivers of stopped vehicles a sufficient view of the intersecting
highway to decide when to enter the intersecting highway or cross it. Sufficient sight distance for
motor vehicles also provides sight distances for bicyclists and pedestrians.
Note: If the Intersection Sight Distance cannot be met, consideration should be given to adding
warning signs or signaling.
5.9.5.1 Sight Triangles
Each quadrant of an intersection should contain a triangular area free of obstructions that
might block an approaching driver’s view of potentially conflicting vehicles and the presence
of pedestrians. These areas are known as clear sight triangles. The intersection sight
distance is measured along the “a” and “b” legs of the sight triangle, not the hypotenuse.
The dimensions of the legs of the sight triangles depend on the design speeds of the
intersecting roadways and the type of traffic control used at the intersectio n. Two types of
clear sight triangles are considered in intersection design, approach sight triangles and
departure sight triangles. The length of the legs of this triangular area, along both intersecting
roadways, should be such that the drivers can see any potentially conflicting vehicles in
sufficient time to slow or stop before colliding within the intersection. Exhibit 5-29 depicts
typical approach and departure sight triangles.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-117
Exhibit 5-29 Approach and Departure Sight Triangles

A - Approach Sight Triagles
Minor Road Minor Road
b b
Major Road Major Road
a
a
CLEAR SIGHT TRIANGLE CLEAR SIGHT TRIANGLE
Decision Point Decision Point
Clear Sight Triangle for Viewing Traffic Clear Sight Triangle for Viewing Traffic
Approaching from the Left Approaching from the Right
B - Departure Sight Triangles
Minor Road Minor Road
b
b
Major Road
Major Road
a
a CLEAR SIGHT TRIANGLE
CLEAR SIGHT TRIANGLE Decision Point Decision Point
Clear Sight Triangle for Viewing Traffic Clear Sight Triangle for Viewing Traffic
Approaching from the Left Approaching from the Right
NOTE: Refer to Exhibit 5-27 and Appenix 5C of

this chapter for the dimensions of ‘a’ and ‘b’.
NOTE: Refer to Exhibit 5-30 and Appendix 5C of this chapter for the dimensions of ‘a’ and ‘b’.
Approach Sight Triangle - The vertex of the sight triangle on a minor-road approach (or an
uncontrolled approach) represents the decision point for a minor -road driver. The decision point
is the location at which the minor-road driver should begin to brake and stop if another vehicle is
present on an intersecting approach. Although desirable at high -volume intersections, approach
sight triangles like those shown in Exhibit 5-29-A are not needed for intersection approaches
controlled by stop signs or traffic signals.
Departure Sight Triangle - A second type of clear sight triangle provides sight distance sufficient
for a stopped driver on a minor-road approach to depart from the intersection and enter or cross
the major road. Departure sight triangles shown in Exhibit 5-29-B should be provided for stop-
controlled and some signalized intersection approaches as discussed in Case D - Intersections
with Traffic Signal Control.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-118
The profiles of the intersecting roadways should be designed to provide recommended sight
distances for drivers on the intersection approaches. Within a sight triangle, any object that
would obstruct the driver’s view should be removed or lowered, if practical. Particular attention
should be given to the evaluation of clear sight triangles at interchang e ramps/crossroad
intersections where features such as bridge railings, piers, and abutments are potential sight
obstructions. The determination of whether an object constitutes a sight obstruction should
consider both the horizontal and vertical alignment of both intersecting roadways, the motorist
eye height, and the object height, as shown below:
Vehicle Type Eye Height Object Height

Passenger Car 3.5 f t (1080 mm) 3.5 f t (1080 mm)
Single Unit or Combination Truck 7.6 f t (2330 mm) 1.5 f
t
5.9.5.2 Intersection Movements
The recommended dimensions of the sight triangles vary with the type of traffic control used
at an intersection. Exhibit 5-30 provides a quick reference to the procedures for intersection
sight distance. Detailed procedures for determining intersection sight distance follow.
5.9.5.3 Intersection Sight Distance Design Guidance
Intersection skew is more of a concern at unsignalized intersections than signalized ones. A

traffic signal should not, however, be installed to compensate for intersection skew unless the
Regional Transportation Systems Operations Engineer determines that it is warranted (refer
to Section 5.9.7). Sight lines between the intersecting highways, even at signalized
intersections, are a concern because of right-turn-on-red, flashing signal operation, and power
failure.
The intersection sight distance values may be adjusted for intersections skewed at an angle
of less than 60 degrees. This adjustment can be made by assuming a greater n umber of
lanes being crossed.
The sight distance of intersections adjacent to bridges can be obstructed or severely limited
by bridge railing or approach guide railing. In such cases, sight distance may be improved by
relocating the intersection, offsetting the railing by providing a wider shoulder on the bridge
and approach or, if practicable, changing to an alternative railing design which optimizes sight
distance. Ramp terminal intersections should be designed in the same manner as any other
at-grade intersection with the corresponding traffic control.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-119
Exhibit 5-30 Intersection Sight Distance Quick Reference

Traffic
Appendix
Traffic Control & Maneuver Control & How to Use Tables in Appendix 5C of this Chapter
5C Tables
Maneuver
Use table distances for “a” dimension on minor approach
Class A - Intersection with no legs and “b” dimension on major approaches. Adjust for
approach A& G
control grade on all approaches using Table G. There are no
correction factors for vehicle type.
Use table to determine “b” dimension along major road. The

Case B1-
“a” dimension is half the receiving travel lane width, plus any
Left turn from departure* B1 median, plus the lane widths being crossed, plus a minimum
the minor
of 14.5’ (4.4 m) for the distance between the driver’s eye and
road edge of traveled way. No adjustment for grade.
Class B -
Intersection Case B2 -
“a” dimension is half the receiving travel lane width plus a
with stop Right turn
departure B23 minimum of 14.5’ (4.4 m) for the distance between the
control on the from the
driver’s eye and edge of traveled way. No adjustment for
minor road minor road
grade.
Case B3 - “a” dimension is the distance from the middle of the furthest
Crossing
lane crossed to the outside edge of the traveled way nearest
maneuver departure* B23
the stopped vehicle plus a minimum of 14.5’ (4.4 m) for the
from the
distance between the driver’s eye and edge of traveled way.
minor road
No adjustment for grade.
Case C1 - Use table to determine the “a” dimension along the minor
Crossing road and the “b” dimension along undivided major roads.
maneuver approach* C1 & G Use Table G to adjust for grade. For divided roadways, the
from the “b” dimension is based on case B3 for wide medians and B1
Case C - minor road for narrow medians.
Intersections Use table to determine “b” dimension along major road. Use
with yield 80’ (25 m) for the “a” dimension on the minor road assuming
control on the
Case C2 - the vehicle enters the intersection at a turning speed of 10
minor road Left or right mph (16 km/h) and for left turns, the major road is only 2
approach* C2
turn from the lanes wide. (Note that if a stop is occurs, the distance “b”
minor road based on cases B1, B2, or B3 result in lower values and,
therefore, do not need to be checked.) No adjustment for
grade.
First vehicle stopped on one approach should be viewable
8’ (2.4 m) by first vehicle stopped on all others. Permissive left turners
Case D - Intersections with from the stop Normally should have sufficient sight distance to select gaps. For
traffic signal control bar on all none flashing yellow, use cases B1 and B2 for the minor road
approaches approaches. For approaches with right-turn-on-red, use
case B2.
8’ (2.4 m)
Case E - Intersections with all- from the stop Normally First vehicle stopped on one approach should be viewable
way stop control bar on all none by first vehicle stopped on all others.
approaches
Applies to intersections and left turns into driveways. Check

at three-legged intersections and driveways on horizontal
curves or crest vertical curves. The “b” dimension is along
Case F - Left turns from the the major roadway travel lanes being crossed. The “a”
departure F
major road dimension is from the eye of the turning motorist to the
middle of the furthest travel lane being crossed. Use case
B3 when the median width can store the design vehicle
length plus 6’ (2 m).
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BASIC DESIGN 5-120
5.9.6 Access Control on Uncontrolled Access Facilities
When projected volumes approach capacity (v/c of 0.90 or greater), intersection radii including
exclusive turn lanes and jug handles should, if practicable, be protected by acquiring right of way
without access. Greater length of access control should be considered if the cost would not
increase appreciably.
5.9.7 Signalization
The decision to install or modify a traffic signal rests with the Regional Transportation Systems
Operations Engineer. Both the National MUTCD and NYS Supplement contain warrants for
installing traffic signals at previously unsignalized or new intersections. Traffic signals should
normally only be installed if one or more of the warrants in Part 4 Highway Traffic Signals, Chapter
4C Traffic Control Signal Needs Studies in the National MUTCD are met and a traffic engineering
study indicates that a signal may be justified. A traffic signal is not justified merely because one
or more of the warrants are met. The NYS Supplement warrants are based on vehicular and
pedestrian volumes, crashes, progressive signal system needs, school crossings, the need for an
interruption of continuous traffic on the major road, peak-hour volume, peak-hour delay, four-hour
volumes, and systems (to establish traffic flow networks).
Before deciding to build a new signalized intersection or make major improvements to an existing
signalized intersection (e.g., reconfigure the intersection, major widening on more than one
approach), the alternative of using a roundabout is to be analyzed per Section 5.9.1 of this
chapter.
Refer to Chapter 11, Section 11.3 of this manual for requirements and guidance on traffic signals.
5.9.8 Intersection Widening
Intersection widening increases intersection capacity and enhances safety by adding auxiliary
lanes to serve heavier traffic maneuvers through the intersection. There may, however, be
substantial impact to pedestrian traffic as a result of longer pedestrian crossing distances and
more complex traffic signal phasing, especially where pedestrian volumes are hig h. The most
common types of intersection widening include addition of exclusive left -turn lanes, exclusive
right-turn lanes, and right-turn acceleration lanes. Capacity of the through movement can be
increased by adding through lanes upstream of and through the intersection with a downstream
taper back to the normal roadway width. Right-turn lanes and acceleration lanes pose special
difficulties for bicyclists by requiring them to weave across or merge with higher -speed traffic.
Chapter 17 of this manual illustrates a design treatment for right-turn lanes.
5.9.5.3 Additional Through Lanes
Capacity analysis may indicate the need for additional through lanes on the approach to a
signalized intersection. The additional through lane(s) must then be carried through the
intersection and downstream for sufficient distance to provide a safe merge back into the
continuous through lanes as shown in Exhibit 5-31. Since added lanes are generally utilized
less than the continuous through lanes, a lane utilization factor should be used. The merge
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BASIC DESIGN 5-121
taper on the departure side of the intersection should conform to the length “L” as shown in
Table 6H-4 of MUTCD Section 6H.01. The shift taper on the approach side of the intersection
should conform to one half “L” as shown in Table 6H-4. A capacity analysis (e.g., using
Synchro and Sim Traffic) should be used to determine the storage length for through and
turning vehicles. Both the additional through lane and any exclusive left - or right-turn lane on
that approach should be long enough to prevent queues in the through lane from blocking the
turn lane entrance and vice versa.
5.9.5.4 Turning Lanes
Exclusive left and right turning lanes increase capacity and enhance safety by removing
turning vehicles from the through lanes. This reduces the interference to through traffic
associated with vehicles decelerating and queuing in preparation for their turning movement.
Exclusive left-turn lanes on multilane highways should always be considered since their
absence requires left-turning vehicles to decelerate and/or stop in the high-speed lane.
Exclusive left-turn lanes on two-lane highways allow the left-turning vehicle to decelerate and
stop without obstructing through traffic.
Turning lane width should be in accordance with Chapter 2 of this manual. Alignment and
sight distance criteria should not be compromised for the channelized movement.
To improve operations and sight distance at intersections where the median width is 1 6 ft (5
m) to 26 ft (8 m), provide a flush divider to the right of the left-turn lane to direct the left-turning
vehicle to be within 4' (1.2 m) to 6' (1.8 m) of the opposing travel lane thereby reducing the
potential for opposing left-turning vehicles to obstruct each other's view of opposing through
traffic. To improve operations and sight distance at intersections where the median width is 6
ft (2 m) to 16 ft (5 m), consider providing a flush divider to the right of the left-turn lane to direct
the left-turning vehicle to within 4' (1.2 m) to 6' (1.8 m)' of the opposing through lane to reduce
the potential for opposing left-turning vehicles to obstruct each other's view of opposing
through traffic. Refer to Exhibit 5-35.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-122
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BASIC DESIGN 5-123
Exhibit 5-31 Intersection Widening for Heavy Through Traffic
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BASIC DESIGN 5-124
A. Left-Turn Lanes
The decision to construct left-turn lanes should consider:
• The volume of left-turning traffic and the volume of opposing traffic. In some cases,
capacity analysis may clearly indicate a need for left-turn lanes. Chapter 9 of
AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018, includes
traffic volume criteria to be considered in determining the need for left turn lanes
along two-lane highways.
• The crash history. A crash pattern of rear-end crashes involving queued left turners
or vehicles turning left in front of opposing traffic is often mitigated by exclusive left-
turn lanes. NYSDOT crash reduction factors show an average reduction of around
30% when a left-turn lane is installed and is an appropriate alternative to mitigate a
left-turn crash problem.
• The crash potential and the anticipated operating speeds (i.e., the possible severity
of a crash).
• Sight distance on the mainline affecting the ability to see a vehicle waiting to turn.
• The construction costs.
• The right of way impacts.
B. Double Left-Turn Lanes
Double left-turn lanes should be considered at signalized intersections with high left -turn
demands or where a reduction in green time allocated to that left-turn movement can
significantly benefit the intersection operation. While capacity analysis identifies the need
for and impact of double left-turn lanes, left-turn demands over 300 vph and/or storage
needs should trigger consideration of them. Fully protected signal phasing shall be
provided for double left turns.
Provide adequate throat width on the approach receiving the double left turns to
compensate for off-tracking characteristics of turning vehicles and the relative difficulty of
side-by-side left turns. Exhibit 5-28 shows a method of expanding the throat width to
facilitate the double left turns. A car and the design vehicle should be able to comfortably
turn side-by-side. A 36 ft (11 m) wide throat is desirable for double left turns with turning
angles greater than 90⁰. Narrower throats can be provided for more favorable turning
angles. A 30 ft (9 m) throat width may be adequate for 90⁰ turns. In constrained situations
with favorable turning angles less than 90⁰, 25 ft (8 m) throat widths may be acceptable.
However, throat widths less than 30 ft (9 m) should normally be avoided since they can
restrict turning traffic flow and reduce the operational benefit of double left -turn lanes. On
the other hand, excessive pavement width, which can mislead drivers and increase
pedestrian crossing times, should also be avoided.
If practicable, the intersection should be designed to allow the double left turn to be
executed concurrently with the opposing left turn. This allows the flexibility in the signal
phasing to serve the double left-turn movement concurrently with either the opposing left
turns or the adjacent through movement. If the turning paths of the double left and the
opposing left-turn overlap, the left turns cannot be served concurrently.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-125
Dotted lines, in accordance NYSDOT Standard Sheet 685-01 and the National MUTCD
Part 3, Markings, are the appropriate pavement markings used to separate the two-
abreast turning lanes and especially opposing turning lanes. The dotted lines should
reflect turning paths and have a gap of between 4 ft (1.2 m) and 6 ft (2.0 m).
The design should prevent through traffic from entering and becoming trapped in the
double left-turn lanes. The turning lanes should be fully shadowed wherever possible.
C. Two-Way Left-Turn Lanes (TWLTLs)
Two-way left-turn lanes (TWLTLs) are flush medians that may be used for left turns by
traffic from either direction on the street. The TWLTL is appropriate where there is a high
demand for mid-block left turns, such as areas with (or expected to experience) moderate
or intense strip development. Used appropriately, the TWLTL design has improved the
safety and operational characteristics of streets as demonstrated through reduced travel
times and crash rates. The TWLTL design also offers added flexibility since, during spot
maintenance activities, a travel lane may be barricaded with through traffic temporarily
using the median lane.
TWLTLs can reduce delays to through traffic, reduce rear-end crashes, and provide
separation between opposing lanes of traffic. However, they do not provide a safe refuge
for pedestrians, can create problems with closely spaced access points, and can
encourage strip development with closely spaced access points. Consider other
alternatives, before using TWLTLs, such as prohibiting midblock left-turns and providing
for U-turns.
TWLTLs should generally be limited to streets with no more than two through lanes in
each direction. Seven-lane cross sections will likely cause pedestrian crossings to become
too long and left turns very difficult in heavy traffic since oncoming vehicles may limit
visibility and left turn opportunities. For six lane sections, a raised median design with a
pedestrian refuge area should be considered.
Consider installation of TWLTLs where:
• A crash study indicates that a TWLTL will reduce crashes.

• There are unacceptable through traffic delays or capacity reductions because of left
turning vehicles.
• There are closely spaced access points or minor street intersections. A general rule
is side road plus driveway density of 20 or more entrances per mile (1.6 km).
When one of the above conditions are met, the site may be considered suitable for the
use of a TWLTL. Design guidance and requirements include:
• The desirable length of a TWLTL is at least 260 ft (80 m).

• Consider street lighting in accordance with Chapter 12 of this manual.
• Pavement markings, signs, and other traffic control devices must be in accordance
with the NYSDOT 645 and 685 Standard Sheets and the National MUTCD.
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.9

BASIC DESIGN 5-126
• Provide clear channelization when changing from TWLTL to one-way left-turn lanes
at intersections.
• Desirable and minimum widths for the TWLTL design are provided in Chapter 2 of
this manual.
D. Right-Turn Lanes
The decision to install exclusive right-turn lanes should be based on a comparison, using
capacity analysis, of intersection operations with and without the turn lanes. At signalized
intersections, exclusive right-turn lanes optimize benefits of right-turns-on-red and
protected right-turn movements served concurrently (overlapped) with a crossroad
protected left-turn phase. Exclusive right-turn lanes may also be used on high-speed
roadways to provide deceleration for right-turning vehicles clear of the through lanes.
Right turn lanes may be effective at reducing:
• Rear-end collisions.
• Side swipe and head on collisions with opposing vehicles caused by motorists
passing the turning vehicle.
Refer to Section 5.9.4.6 for guidance on channelized right-turning roadways.
E. Tapers for Turn Lanes
The length of the widened pavement should provide for turning -lane length and bay taper
plus, in the case of left-turn lanes, the approach and departure tapers.
• Approach tapers gradually divert through traffic to the right around the left-turn
lane. Approach tapers may be straight-line tapers, may include curves on both
ends, or may include a reverse curve. The approach should desirably conform to
merge taper requirements in Table 6H-4 of the National MUTCD Section 6H.01.
As a minimum, they should be one half the length “L” determined from Table 6H-
4.
• Departure tapers guide through traffic, downstream of the intersection, to the left,
back to the normal alignment where the through lane is adjacent to and parallel to
the center line. Departure tapers may be straight-line tapers, may include curves
on both ends, or may include a reverse curve. The departure taper should
desirably conform to merge taper requirements in Table 6H-4 of the National
MUTCD, Section 6H.01.
• Bay tapers guide turning traffic from through lanes into the turn lane. Bay tapers
should be short enough to enable motorists to identify the widening as a turn lane
rather than another through lane. Bay tapers can be straight line tapers, with or
without short curves at either end, or they can include a reverse curve as shown
in Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
2018. A straight-line bay taper length of 50 ft (15 m) to 100 ft (30 m) is desirable.
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.9

BASIC DESIGN 5-127
Bay taper lengths should not exceed one-half the taper requirements in Table 6H-
4 of the National MUTCD Section 6H.01.
Figure 5-32 shows how the approach taper and the bay taper can be designed to "shadow"
or protect the left-turn lane from encroachments by through traffic. In rural and open urban
areas, a fully shadowed turn lane permits the complete lateral shift of through traffic
upstream of the bay taper. In constrained urban areas, the approach taper and the bay
taper can be combined to partially shadow the turn lane by positioning through traffic to
continue and complete its shift to the right while the left-turn lane is developing.
While the total turn lane and bay taper length desirably consists of the sum of the required
lengths for storage and deceleration, constraints may necessitate assuming some
deceleration within the through lanes prior to entering the taper. Deceleration lane length
and tapers in rural and suburban areas should conform to Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018. Deceleration lengths in constrained
areas (e.g., urban) should conform to Section 5.9.8.2 G. Exhibit 5-32 shows a typical left-
turn lane.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-128
Exhibit 5-32 Shadowing Left-Turn Lanes
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.9

BASIC DESIGN 5-129
F. Queue Storage
To function as designed, exclusive turning lanes must be long enough to prevent queued
through traffic from blocking the entrance to the turn lane as well as queued turning traffic
from blocking the through lane.
The needs of the individual components of the turn-lane length and their relationship to
the total length can vary by time of day. Storage lengths, particularly for left turns, are
considerably more complex and depend on the rate of arrivals, rate of departures, and in
the case of signalized intersections, cycle length, phasing, and system progression, if any.
The desirable design storage length at signalized intersections is twice the length required
for the average signal cycle. A minimum of one and one-half the length required by the
average cycle should be provided to accommodate surges in traffic which could otherwise
cause operational problems which affect subsequent signal cycles.
Double left-turn lanes should be considered for left turn volumes over 300 vph. The
storage length for double left turn lanes may be reduced to approximately one half of that
needed for a single lane operation unless downstream conditions encourage unbalanced
use (e.g., a heavy left or right turn move within 1,000 ft (300 m) of the intersections with
the double left-turn.
A capacity analysis (e.g., using Vissim or Snychro and Sim Traffic) should be used to
determine both left- and right-turn storage requirements. Since storage requirements are
dependent on the traffic signal operation, the Regional Transportation Systems
Operations Group should be involved in the design or, as a minimum, the review of the
storage lengths. A high percentage of trucks warrants additional storage length.
At unsignalized intersections, desirable storage length should be adequate to store the

number of turning vehicles expected to arrive in an average 2 minute period within the
peak hour (i.e., 1/30 th of the peak hour turn movement). All turning lanes should be able
to store at least two passenger cars or a car and one truck if there are over 10% trucks in
the stream. Assume 74 ft (22.5 m) truck lengths, 18 ft (5.5 m) vehicle lengths, and vehicle
spacing of 6 ft (2 m).
• Minimum length for <10% trucks is 42 ft (13 m) = 2 x 18 ft (5.5 m) passenger

car + 6 ft (2 m) space.
• Minimum length for >10% trucks is 98 ft (30 m) = 74 ft (22.5 m) truck + 6 ft (2

m) space + 18 ft (5.5 m) passenger car.
G. Turn Lane Lengths Based on Deceleration Distance for Constrained Areas
In urban and other constrained locations where desirable left-turn lane lengths may result
in unacceptable costs or impacts, an alternative design method uses Exhibit 5-33 to
determine the deceleration distance for braking at a comfortable rate of 5.8 ft/s2 (1.8 m/s2)
from the average running speed. To use Exhibit 5-33, enter the table from the left with the
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.9

BASIC DESIGN 5-130
design speed and go the horizontally to the column for the appropriate speed (usually
zero) decelerated to.
For an intersection approach having a design-hour, left-turn volume of 120 vph, 5% trucks,
and an 85th% approach speed of 50 mph (80 km/h), the storage distance would be:
120 vph x 1/30 = 4 vehicles every 2 minutes

4 vehicles require 18’ (5.5 m) x 4 veh + 6’ (2 m) space x 3 = 90 ft (28 m)
The deceleration distance from Exhibit 5-30 would be 359 ft (109 m)
The total left-turn lane length (exclusive of tapers) would be 449 ft (137 m)
If constraints preclude this length, the turn lane length should be explained as a
nonconforming feature.
Exhibit 5-33 Deceleration Distances (ft) for Passenger Cars Approaching Intersections
(Braking at a Comfortable Rate of 5.8 ft/s2 (1.8 m/s2)
Design Speed Reached (Va)
Running
Speed
Speed
(Vd) MPH 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
MPH MPH ft/s 0 7 15 22 29 37 44 51 59 66 73 81 88 95

85 67 98 832 828 814 791 758 717 666 605 536 457 369 271 165 49
80 64 94 760 755 741 718 685 644 593 532 463 384 296 199 92 -
75 61 89 690 685 671 648 616 574 523 463 393 314 226 129 22 -
70 58 85 624 619 605 582 550 508 457 397 327 248 160 63 -
65 55 81 561 556 542 519 487 445 394 334 264 185 97 -
60 52 76 501 497 483 460 427 386 335 274 205 126 38 -
55 48 70 427 423 409 386 353 311 260 200 131 52 -
50 44 65 359 354 340 317 285 243 192 132 62 -

45 40 59 297 292 278 255 223 181 130 70 -
40 36 53 240 236 222 199 166 124 73 13 -
35 32 47 190 185 171 148 116 74 23 -
30 28 41 145 141 127 104 71 29 -

25 24 35 107 102 88 65 33 -
20 20 29 74 70 56 32 -
15 15 22 42 37 23 -
5.9.8.3 Speed Change Lanes for At-Grade Intersections
Speed change lanes minimize the disruption to through traffic from turning vehicles.
A. Suitability
The decision of whether or not to provide acceleration lanes should be based on the
volume of both through and entering traffic, the intersection geometry, and the 85th
percentile speed of through traffic. Generally, right-turn acceleration lanes are not
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.9

BASIC DESIGN 5-131
necessary when right-turning volumes are low and the traffic flow being entered has an
85th percentile speed equal to or less than 35 mph (60 km/h). Acceleration lanes should
be provided when both through and entering traffic volumes are high and the 85th
percentile speed of through traffic is over 50 mph (80 km/h). An acceleration lane may be
necessary when right-turn volumes are high regardless of speeds on the intersected
highway or the turning roadway intersects the highway at less than 60⁰ as shown in Exhibit
5-28. Acceleration lanes are not usually needed at signalized intersections unless the
turning movement is not controlled by the signal.
B. Speed Change Lane Geometry
Merging and diverging is most efficient when the angle is small (10⁰ - 15⁰) and speed
differentials are at a minimum. Acceleration or merging lanes should be long enough for
merging traffic to attain the average speed of through traffic. Short or nonexistent merging
distance can increase the potential for rear-end and other merging crashes. Substandard
acceleration lane lengths may be worse than no acceleration lane due to the possibility of
violating driver expectancies. AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, 2018, should be used to determine the speed change lane lengths. The turning
roadway speed should be used to determine the initial speed and the off-peak 85th
percentile speed of the highway that the traffic is entering should be used to determine
desirable lane lengths. In urban areas or low speed rural areas, the minimum speed
change lane lengths should be based on a speed on 15 mph (20 km/h) below the highway
design speed.
C. Tapers for Speed Change Lanes
For speed change lanes, the deceleration taper should conform the bay taper as described
in Section 5.9.8.2 E. Where high speeds are anticipated, the taper should conform to
Chapter 10 of AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018.
5.9.5.3 Safety Widening at Rural Intersections
The potential for rear-end crashes at intersections on high-speed (≥ 50 mph (80 km/h), two-
lane rural roads can be reduced by providing a left-turn slot to separate slowing or stopped
turning traffic from high-speed through traffic. Safety widening should be considered where:
• The available stopping sight distance is less than the decision sight distance specified in
Chapter 3 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018, for
a stop on a rural road (avoidance maneuver A).
• There is a crash pattern correctable by separating left-turning traffic from through traffic
• Higher traffic volumes increase the time a left-turning vehicle must sit in the travel lane
waiting for gaps in traffic; increasing the potential for rear-end collisions.
Since safety widening addresses a speed differential rather than a capacity need, it should, if
practicable, provide f ull deceleration distance from the 85th percentile speed in the total length
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.9

BASIC DESIGN 5-132
of the bay taper plus the full-width turn lane. Chapter 10 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets, 2018, or in more constrained conditions, Exhibit 5-33 can
be used to determine the deceleration distance required. In addition to the deceleration
distance, provide storage for at least one design vehicle. The widening should conform to
Exhibit 5-34. If constraints preclude standard taper and deceleration lengths, provide the
optimal practical design and document the nonconforming left-turn lane in the Design
Approval Document.
The use of a shoulder by-pass lane (i.e., a widened and/or "beefed-up" shoulder that is striped
for use by through traffic to go around left turning vehicles) is currently not an acceptable
practice and should not be used in lieu of safety widening. This should not be confused with
the practice of beefing-up shoulders that remain striped as shoulders (refer to Chapter 3,
Section 3.2.5.2).
5.9.9 Bus Stops/Turnouts
Bus stops and turnouts should, if practicable, be located at the far side of intersections to facilitate
bus and traffic operations. Bus turnouts at intersections with a free right turn should be located 50
ft (15 m) downstream of the end of the right-turn acceleration lane merge taper. Bus turnouts
should be provided if the bus stop is on the receiving side of a double left- or right-turn movement
and there are only two lanes serving traffic departing the intersection. Refer to Exhibit 5-28 and
Section 5.7.21.
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.9

BASIC DESIGN 5-133
Exhibit 5-34 Safety Widening at T-Intersection on Rural Two-Lane Road
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.9

BASIC DESIGN 5-134
5.9.10 Divided Highway Median Openings in Urban Areas
Refer to Chapter 3, Section 3.2.8.2 for guidance on choosing between raised or flush medians.
The median at an intersection leg should be the same type as on the highway approach. If left-
turn volumes require substantial storage for queued left-turning vehicles on an intersection
approach which has a continuous two-way, left-turn lane, consider striping the median as a one-
direction, left-turn lane far enough upstream of the intersection to provide the storage length
required for the left-turning volume.
Raised median openings with left-turn lanes should be provided only at major cross streets and
to serve large traffic generators or emergency vehicles. Pedestrian and bicycle travel patterns
are to be considered. The designer should, if practicable, avoid opening the median for low -
volume (one-way, design-hour volume of 100 vph or less) intersecting streets and left-turn
movements from the arterial. U-turn movements should be accommodated at major intersections.
The availability of alternate travel paths (e.g., frontage roads) should be considered and may
permit elimination of median openings for cross streets with one-way, design-hour volumes over
100 vph. Consider providing roundabouts or indirect, left-turning roadways or jug handles for left
turn access if ROW costs and impacts are not excessive. Refer to Exhibit 5-25.
If the median is not wide enough to provide refuge for side-street vehicles crossing one direction
of mainline traffic at a time, consider leaving the median unopened if signal warrants are not met.
Mainline speeds, traffic volumes, and sight distance are among the factors to be considered in
this determination.
Design of median openings should consider the need for traffic to access properties on the other
side of the raised median between median openings. Chapter 9 of AASHTO's A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018, describes design considerations and
alternatives for "direct" (from the median left-turn lane at the intersection) and "indirect" U-turns
(other than from the median left-turn lane at the intersection). If direct U-turns are to be
encouraged, the left-turn lane should be long enough to store both left turn and U-turn traffic.
Refer to Chapter 3 of this manual and Chapters 4 and 9 of AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets", 2018, for further design guidance including length of median
opening, turning path radii, and median end shape.
A simple median opening of minimum design which accommodates the design vehicle may be
sufficient at minor intersections on a low-speed divided highway with low to moderate traffic
volumes. Higher speeds, mainline through volumes, turning demand, and cross street flow require
median design adequate to accommodate turning movements with little or no interference
between traffic movements.
To improve operations and sight distance at intersections where the median width is 16 ft (5 m)
to 24 ft (8 m), provide a flush divider to the right of the left-turn lane to direct the left-turning vehicle
as far to the left as possible thereby reducing the potential for opposing left-turning vehicles to
obstruct each other's view of opposing through traffic. Refer to Exhibit 5-35.
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BASIC DESIGN 5-135
Special attention must be given to all aspects of traffic operations and safety in all medians over
24 ft (8 m) wide. Refer to Exhibit 5-36. Signalized divided intersections where opposing left-turn
lanes or the left edges of traveled way are separated by more than 30 ft (9.14 m) should be treated
as two intersections with separate traffic signals and/or stop or yield signs. If the median is not
wide enough to allow storage of arriving vehicles between the two signals, special signal phasing
(double clearances) must be provided to clear turning and cross-street traffic from the median
area between the two signals. The design shown in Exhibit 5-36 eliminates the need for two
separate signals by locating the opposing left-turn lanes within 30 ft (9.14 m) of each other. This
design also provides the flexibility to provide signal phasing which serves both left tu rns
concurrently.
The design of unsignalized divided highway crossings should consider the possibility of eventual
signalization or other improvements to the crossing. Safety concerns can result in signalization or
reconstruction of high-speed, divided highway crossings long before traffic volumes do.
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.9

BASIC DESIGN 5-136
Exhibit 5-35 Left-Turn Slot with Divider on Right
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.9

BASIC DESIGN 5-137
Exhibit 5-36 Design of Median Lanes for Medians Over 25 ft (8 m) Wide
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.10

REFERENCES
BASIC DESIGN 5-138
5.10 REFERENCES
1. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2018, American Association of

State Highway and Transportation Officials, Suite 225, 444 North Capitol Street , N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20001.
2. A Policy on Design Standards – Interstate System, 2016, American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials, Suite 225, 444 North Capitol Street, N.W.,
3. A Toolbox for Alleviating Traffic Congestion, 1989, Institute of Transportation Engineers,

525 School St., S.W., Suite 410, Washington, D.C., 20024.
4. Proposed Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities in the Public Right-of-Way, United States
Access Board, 1331 F Street NW, Suite 1000, Washington DC 20004-1111.
5. Bridge Manual, Structures Design and Construction Division, New York State Department
of Transportation, 50 Wolf Road, Albany, NY 12232.
6. Comprehensive Pavement Design Manual, Materials Bureau, New York State Department
of Transportation, 50 Wolf Road, Albany, NY 12232.
7. Design Guidelines for the Control of Blowing and Drifting Snow, SHRP-H-381, 1994,
Strategic Highway Research Program, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Ave.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418.
8. Project Development Manual, Design Quality Assurance Bureau, New York State
Department of Transportation, 50 Wolf Road, Albany, NY 12232.
9. Federal-Aid Policy Guide, Part 772, Procedures for Abatement of Highway Traffic Noise and
Construction Noise, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
10. Freeway Modifications to Increase Traffic Flow, FHWA Technology Sharing Report FHWA-
TS-80-203, 1980, McCasland, W.R., et al., U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 20590.
11. Guidelines for the Adirondack Park, 1996, New York State Department of Transportation,
50 Wolf Road, Albany, NY 12232.
12. Guidelines for Selection of Ramp Control Systems, NCHRP Report 232, 1981, Blumentritt,
C.W., et al., Transportation Research Board, 2101 Constitution Ave., N.W., Washington,
D.C., 20418.
13. Guidebook on Methods to Estimate Non-Motorized Travel: Overview of Methods, 1999,

FHWA-RD-98-165, Federal Highway Administration, Research, Development, and
Technology, Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center, 6300 Georgetown Pike, McLean,
V.A., 22101-2296.
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.10

REFERENCES
BASIC DESIGN 5-139
14. Guidebook on Methods to Estimate Non-Motorized Travel: Supporting Documentation,

1999, FHWA-RD-98-166, Federal Highway Administration, Research, Development, and
Technology, Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center, 6300 Georgetown Pike, McLean,
V.A., 22101-2296.
15. Highway Capacity Manual, 2010, Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C., 20418.
16. Intersection Channelization Design Guide, NCHRP Report 279, Nov. 1985, Transportation
Research Board, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C., 20418.
17. Living Snow Fences: Protection That Just Keeps Growing, 1989, D.L. Shaw, Colorado
Interagency Living Snow Fence Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.
18. Manual of Administrative Procedures, Code 7.8-5-1 Disposal of Surplus Real Estate,
June 5, 1992, New York State Department of Transportation, 50 Wolf Road, Albany, NY
12232.
19. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, 2009, U.S. Department of Transportation,
Federal Highway Administration, for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402.
20. Official Compilation of Codes, Rules, and Regulations of the State of New York, Part 75
(Approval of Privately Owned Airports) of Title 17, Aviation Division, New York State
21. Official Compilation of Codes, Rules and Regulations of the State of New York, Part 131
(Accommodation of Utilities Within State Highway Right-of-Way) of Title 17, Design Quality
Assurance Bureau, New York State Department of Transportation, 50 Wolf Road, Albany,
NY 12232.
22. Official Compilation of Codes, Rules and Regulations of the State of New York Title 17
Transportation (B) Chapter V, 2001, West Group, 610 Opperman Drive, Eagan, MN 55123.
23. Instruction A02-5-29 Program Procedure EN-RE-504, October 20, 1994, Real Estate
Division, New York State Department of Transportation, 50 Wolf Road, Albany, NY. 12232.
24. Real-Time Human Perceptions: Toward a Bicycle Level of Service, 1997, B. W. Landis, V.
R. Vattikuti, M. T. Brannick, Transportation Research Record 1578, Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Washington,
D.C., 20418.
25. Right of Way Mapping Procedure Manual, Design Services Bureau, New York State
26. Roadside Design Guide, 2011, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Suite 225, 444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20001.
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.10

REFERENCES
BASIC DESIGN 5-140
27. Roundabouts: An Informational Guide, FHWA-RD-00-067, Federal Highway Administration,

Research, Development, and Technology, Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center,
6300 Georgetown Pike, McLean, V.A., 22101.
28. Shoulder Geometrics and Use Guidelines, NCHRP Report 254, 1982, Downs, W.,
Transportation Research Board, 2101 Constitution Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C., 20418.
29. Sketch-Plan Method for Estimating Pedestrian Traffic for Central Business Districts and
Suburban Growth Corridors, 1997, J. M. Ercolano, J.S. Olson, D. M. Spring, Transportation
Research Record 1578, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 2101
Constitution Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C., 20418.
30. Signalized Intersections: Informational Guide, FHWA-HRT-04-091, Federal Highway

Administration, Research, Development, and Technology, Turner -Fairbank Highway
Research Center, 6300 Georgetown Pike, McLean, V.A., 22101.
31. Surveying Standards and Procedures Manual, Design Services Bureau, New York State
32. The Effectiveness of Truck Rollover Warning Systems, August, 2000, D. Baker, R.
Bushman, C. Berthelot, Paper No 01-2646, University of Saskatchewan, Department of Civil
Engineering, 57 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5A9.
33. Traffic Engineering Handbook 4th Edition, 1992, Institute of T ransportation Engineers, 525
School St., S.W., Suite 410, Washington, D.C., 20024-2797.
34. Traffic Engineering Handbook 5th Edition, 1999, Institute of Transportation Engineers, 525
School St., S.W., Suite 410, Washington, D.C., 20024-2797.
35. Vehicle and Traffic Law, 2016, New York State Department of Motor Vehicles, Empire State
Plaza, Albany, NY 12228.
36. Superelevation Criteria for Sharp Horizontal Curves on Steep Grades, NCHRP Report 774,
2014, Torbic, D, et al., Transportation Research Board, 2101 Constitution Ave., N.W.,
Washington, D.C., 20418.
EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.10

REFERENCES

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HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL

November 04, 2022

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023

5.8 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................................... 86

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023

5.1.1 Project Development & Public Involvement

5.1.2 Nonconforming Features

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.1

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.1

5.2 SPEED STUDIES, HIGHWAY CAPACITY, AND LEVEL OF SERVICE

5.2.1.2 Data Acquisition

A. Data for Simplified Capacity Analysis

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.2

Exhibit 5-1a Example Design Hourly Volume as Function of AADT

Highway Capacity Manual, 6th Edition, TRB, p. 3-12, Exhibit 3-11.

B. Pedestrian and Bicycle Traffic

• Sketch-Plan Method for Estimating Pedestrian Traffic for Central Business

C. Data Requirements for Projects with Potential Capacity Measures

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.2

• Percentage of trucks, buses, and RVs

Traffic volumes are to be generated from:

Note: A major intersection, for traffic count purposes, is a signalized intersection, an

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.2

E. Submissions of Collected Traffic Data to Highway Data Services Bureau

The following naming convention is to be used for files:

County_Mile Marker_Direction or Cross Road_Collection Date (YYYYMMDD)

5.2.2 Traffic Flow Diagrams, Growth Rates and Diversion Analysis

5.2.2.1 Diversion Analysis

A diversion analysis may be required when a significant change in a traffic network is

Significant changes may include:

• Design changes to a facility that have a significant effect on capacity or LOS

Diversions may result in an increase or a decrease in volumes on a facility. For example,

5.2.2.2 Origin Destination Studies

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.2

5.2.2.3 Design Year Projections for Future Traffic

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.2

PROJECT WORK TYPE3,4 DESIGN YEAR

Culvert Replacements and Culvert Rehabilitations

HIGHWAY 3R - Resurf acing, Restoration, and Rehabilitation

Reconstruction and New Construction ETC+20

Element Specific Cyclical Bridge Work 1,4 Not Usually Required2

Element Specific Bridge Work1,4 Not Usually Required2

New and Replacement Bridges4,6 ETC+20

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.2

5.2.2.4 Proposed Signal Installations

5.2.2.5 Traffic Flow Diagrams

Screen captures from traffic simulation software may be used, if legible.

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.2

5.2.3.1 Capacity Analysis Requirements

5.2.3.2 Capacity Analysis Methodology

• At least 10 runs with different random seeds.

EB 22-057 D.A. 01/01/2023 §5.2

5.2.3.4 Measures of Effectiveness

A. Level of Service (LOS)

Level of service is a qualitative measure describing operational conditions within a traffic