Electric flux and Gauss’s law

Electric flux: Electric flux is the rate of flow of the electric field through a given area. If the
electric field is uniform, the electric flux passing through a surface of vector area A is

φ E =⃗
E.⃗
A =EA cos θ

Consider infinitesimal surface element da of surface A as

shown in fig. 1. Let us calculate the electric flux d φ E due to
this element. We can write
d φ E=E cos α da

Where  is the angle between ⃗ E and unit vector n^ drawn

along a normal to the surface. In vector
d φ E= ⃗
E . n^ da=⃗
E . d ⃗a Fig. 1.

The flux due to entire closed surface is obtained by integrating the above equation around the
surface, i.e.
φ E =∮ d φE =∮ ⃗
E . d a⃗
S S

Unit: The unit of flux is Newton-meter2/Coulomb (N-m2/C).

Gaussian surface: A hypothetical closed surface of any shape drawn in an electric field for
the purpose of solving problems concerning electric flux is called Gaussian surface. The
shape of the Gaussian surface is decided on the basis of symmetry of the problem so that the
value of electric flux φ E =∮ E .d ⃗a can be calculated.
⃗
S

Gauss’s law

Statement: The flux of the electric field ⃗ E through any closed surface, i.e. the integral
1
∮⃗ E . d ⃗a over the surface, is equal to
ε0
times the total charge enclosed by the closed surface.

If the surface does not enclose the charge, the flux of⃗ E , i.e.∮ ⃗
E . d ⃗a equals zero.

Thus we can write

q
∮⃗
E . d ⃗a=
ε
, when q isinside the surface∨ε 0∮ ⃗
E . d ⃗a =q
S 0 S

∮⃗
E . d ⃗a=0 , whenq is outside the surface∨∮ ⃗
E . d ⃗a=0
S S

Proof: Suppose a positive charge q is enclosed in a surface of arbitrary shape. The electric
field ⃗
E at every point of the surface is directed radially outward from the charge, and its
magnitude at the point r (Fig. 2.) is

q
E=
4 π ε0 r2
 Electric flux and Gauss’s law

Fig. 2. An imaginary closed surface which encloses a point charge.

Over an infinitesimal area da the magnitude and the direction of the field remains the same.
The component ⃗E along the normal is En =E cos θ, whereθ is the angle between ⃗
E and the
outward normal to the surface.
Hence
q cos θ da
En da=E cos θ da= 2
(1)
4 π ε0 r
da cos θ
=d Ω is the element of solid angle subtended by da at the point where q is located.
r2
Thus
q
En da=E cos θ da= d Ω(2)
4 π ε0

Regardless the shape and the size of the closed surface.

∫ d Ω=4 π steradians
Hence integrating over the entire closed surface equation (2) yields

q q
∮ E n da= 4 π ε ∮ d Ω= ε (3)
S 0 0

Where ∮ means closed surface integral. Equation (3) can be put in a vector notation if we
S

note that the vector element area d ⃗a is along the normal. Hence, En da=⃗
E . d a⃗ . Thus equation
(3) takes the form
q
∮⃗ E . d ⃗a= ( 4)
ε0
S

If the charge q is negative then the direction of ⃗

E would be radially inward. But, since the
direction of d ⃗a (assumed to be positive in the outward direction) remains unchanged,
equation (4) is reproduced again.
 Electric flux and Gauss’s law

Fig. 3. A point charge outside of an imaginary closed surface.

Now consider the charge q lying outside the closed surface as shown in fig. 3. The direction
of the field due to the charge q is inward at r⃗ 1 on area d a1 and outward at r⃗ 2 on area d a2. But
the solid angle subtended by d a1 and d a2 at q are the same. In other words

d a1 cos θ1 d a2 cos θ2
d Ω= 2
= 2
(5)
r 1 r2

−q d a1 cos θ1
But ⃗
E1 . d ⃗a1=−E1 d a 1 cos θ 1=
4 π ε0 r 21

q d a 2 cos θ 2
¿⃗
E2 . d a⃗ 2=E2 d a2 cos θ2= 2
4 π ε0 r2

Thus ⃗
E1 . d a⃗ 1+ ⃗
E 2 . d ⃗a2=
q
4 π ε0 [
d a2 cos θ2 d a 1 cos θ 1
r 22
−
r 21
=0(6)
]
Further, it is evident from fig. 3. that whole closed surface can be divided into pairs of such
elementary areas and the positive and negative contribution on the pair due to a charge lying
outside closed surface will mutually cancel and, therefore the sum total contribution due to it
on the closed surface will be zero. Thus

∮⃗
E . d ⃗a=0(7)
S

if the charge q lies outside the closed surface.

Finally, we may have more than one charges inside the closed surface. In that case we are to
take the surface integrals for individual charges and add them up to get
n
ε 0∮ ⃗
E . d ⃗a=∑ qi (8)
S i=1

Where the summation on the right side of equation (8) is to be carried out over all chares
inside the closed surface. If, on the other hand, the charges lie outside the closed surface we
would get equation (7), since the contribution of each charge would then vanish.
 Electric flux and Gauss’s law

Applications of Gauss’s law

(i) Deduction of Coulomb’s law

Fig. 4
Coulomb’s law can be deduced from Gauss’s law. Let us consider a Gaussian surface with
radius r and the charge q is at the centre (Fig. 4). For symmetry at any point on the Gaussian
surface both ⃗E and d ⃗a are directed radially outward. So that, at any point P on the Gaussian
surface the angle between them is zero and ⃗ E . d ⃗a becomes simply Eda. Thus Gauss’s law
reduces to
q
∮⃗
E . d ⃗a=∮ Eda=
ε
(1)
S S 0

Since E is constant on the surface, it can be taken outside the integral sign, and consequently
from equation (1)
q
∮ Eda=E ∮ da= ε
S S 0

q
¿ E (4 π r )=
2
ε0

q
∴ E= 2
4 πε 0 r
Let us put a second point charge q 0 at the point A where ⃗
E is calculated. The magnitude of
the force that acts on
F=q 0 E

q
F=q 0 2
4 πε 0 r

q q0
∴ F= (2)
4 πε 0 r 2

Equation (2) is the Coulomb’s law in electrostatic force. Thus Coulomb’s law can be deduced
from Gauss’s law.