Machine

Introduction to Electrical Machines
CH APTER FOUR
DC M ACH I N CES
4.1. I N TRODUCTI ON
Th e dc m achin es ar e ver sat ile and ex t en sively used in indust ry. A wide variet y of
volt - am p er e or t orqu e- speed ch aract erist ics can b e obt ain ed from variou s
conn ect ions of t he fiel d windin g. Dc m achi nes can work as g en er at ors, m ot ors &
brakes. I n t he gener at or m ode t he m achin e is driven by a prim e m over ( such as a
st eam t u rbin e or a diesel engine) wit h t h e m ech ani cal power convert ed int o
el ect rical power. I n t h e m ot or m ode, t he m achin e drives a m echani cal load wit h the
el ect rical power su pplied con vert ed int o m ech anical power. I n t he brake m ode, t he
m achin e decelerat es on accou nt of t he power su pplied or dissi pat ed b y i t and,
t herefore, produces a m ech anical braki ng act ion.
Th ere is alm ost n o m odern use of dc m achin es as g en er at ors al t hough in t he earlier
st ag es of el ect rical power generat or an d dist ribution. D.C. generat ors wer e t he
prin cipl e m eans of suppl yin g elect ri cal power t o indust rial and dom est ic con su m ers.
Present l y, all t he land based elect rical power n et works are a. c sy st em s of
gener at ion, t ransm ission an d dist ribu tion.
Th e alm ost uni versal u se of ac syst em s is on accou nt of t hei r lower gener at ion and
t ran sm ission cost s, higher effi ci en cy ( large bul k of ac power can be t ran sm it t ed and
di st ribut ed over wide ar eas and long di st ance at m uch higher volt ages t h at ar e
im possible in dc syst em ) , great er reliabilit y on account of int erconnect ion and
cont rol.
No doubt , appli cat ion like aerocr aft s, ships and road m ou nt ed vehicles which are
isol at ed from l an d based ac n et works em pl oy dc sou rces inclu din g dc generat ors and
secon dary bat t eri es for power suppl y but t he m odern t ren d is to u se ac gen erat ors
with t he dc supply bei ng obt ai ned by rect ificat ion with t he h elp of st at ic power
rect ifi ers. D.C. gen erat ors are st ill being used t o produce power in sm all back- up
an d st and- by g ener at i ng pl an t s dri ven by win dm ill and m oun t ai n st ream s
( m inih ydro- elect ric plan t s) t o provide unint errupt ed power supply.
Apart from dc g en er at ors, t h e dc m ot ors ar e findin g in creasing applicat ion s,
especially wh ere large m agnit u de and preci sely cont rolled t orque is required. Such
m ot ors are used in rolling mills, in overhead cr anes and for t ract i on purpose like in
forklif t t ru cks, elect ric v eh icles, and elect ric t r ai ns. They ar e al so used in port able
m achin e t ools supplied from bat t eri es, in au t om otive v ehi cl es as st art er m ot ors,
bl ower m ot ors and in m any con t rol appli cat ions as act u at ors an d as speed and
position sensing device ( t achogenerat ors for speed sensin g and servom ot ors for
positionin g and t racin g) .
4.2. CON STRUCTI ON OF DC M ACH I N ES

Th e dc m ach ines used for indust rial applicat ion s h av e essent i ally t hree m aj or part s:
a) Fi eld syst em ( st at or) ; b) Arm at u re ( Rot or) and c) com m ut at or
All t he com ponent s of t he dc m achin e are illu st rat ed in cut - aw ay view of Fi gure 4. 1.
1
Figure 4 .1 cut - away view of DC m ach ines

1.sh aft ; 2. end- bearin gs; 3 . Com m ut at or; 4 . brush es; 5 . arm at u re; 6. m ain -
pole; 7.m ain- pole field winding; 8.fram e; 9 .en d- shield; 10 .vent ilat or;
11 .basem ent ; 12.bearin gs
4 .2 . 1 . Fie ld Sy st e m
Th e fi eld syst em is locat ed on t h e st at i on ary part of t he m ach ine call ed st at or. The
necessar y ex ci t at ion f or operat ion of m achin e. Fi gure 4. 2 shows t hat t he m ain flux 
field syst em i s designat ed f or producin g m agnet ic flux an d, t h er efore, provides t h e
t he arm at u re core. Th ere, it di vides in to t wo equal ( 2) halves, each half ent er t he
pat hs whi ch st art s f rom a Nort h pole, crosses t h e air gap and t h en t rav els down t o
nearb y Sout h Pole so as t o com pl et e t h e flu x. Each flux lin e crosses t h e air - gap
t wice. Som e flux lines m ay not ent er t he ar m at ure; t hi s f lux, call ed t he leak age flux,
is not shown in Figu re 4 .2.
Figure 4 .1 Flu x pat h s in a 6- pole dc m ach ines

Th e st at or of dc m achines com prises of

1 . Mai n poles: These poles ar e design ed t o produce t he m ain m agnet ic flu x
2 . Fr am e: These provide support for the m achine. I n m any m achi nes t he
fram e is also a part of t h e m agnet ic circuit .
3 . I nt erpoles: These poles are desi gned t o i m prove com m u t at i on con dition s
t o ensure sparkles operat ion of m achin e.
Figu re 4 .3 Main- pol e

M a in- pole
Poles are m ad e of sheet st eel lam inat ions of 1 .0 t o 1.2 m m t hi ckness ( nowad ays t he
t hi ckness b ecom es 0 .4- 0.5 m m ) . Th e pol e shoes support t h e fiel d coils placed on t he
pole body and al so spread t h e t ot al flux over a great er area, t her eby r edu ce t h e ai r
gap r eluct ance and gi vin g t h e desired flux dist ribution t o limit sat urat ion in t he t eet h
of th e arm at ure. ( 
A
l
) .The poles are secu red t o t he yoke by m eans of bolt s. I n
sm all m achin es t he pole are bu ilt of st eel forgin gs, bolt ed di rect ly t o t he yoke. I n
case of m achin es havi ng com pen sat in g windin gs, t he pole face is sl ot t ed t o
accom m odat e t he windings.
Yok e ( Fra m e )
Th e st at or of a dc m achines con si st s of a fram e or yoke, and poles which support
t he fiel d windings. The Fram e or Yoke in addit ion t o being a part of a m agnet ic
circuit serves as m echan ical su pport for en tire assem bly.
Earlier, cast iron was used for t h e con st ru ct i on of yoke bu t it has been r eplaced by
cast st eel. This is because cast iron has sat urat ion den sit y of 0.8 Wb/ m 2 while
sat u rat ion occurs i n cast st eel at densit y of approxim at ely 1 .5 Wb/ m 2 . Th us, t he
cross sect i on of t he cast st eel fram e or yoke is half t h at of iron cast an d h ence cast
st eel is used in case it is desi red t o reduce t h e weigh t of m achine. Fabricat ed st eel
yokes ar e com m only u sed, as t hey ar e econ om ical and have consist ent m agnet i c &
m echanical propert ies. For v ery sm all si zed m achines it m ay st ill be adv ant ag eous t o
use cost iron fram es but for m edium an d l arge sizes rolled st eel is used.
I nt e rlope s
I n addition t o the m ain poles, m odern direct current m achines are also provided wit h
in t erlopes wit h wi ndings on t hem in order t o im prove com m ut at ion u nder loaded
conditions. Th ey are arran ged m i dway bet ween t he m ain s poles and are bolt ed t o
t he yolk. Lam i nat ed int erlopes are used in m achin e wit h sev er com m u t at ion
problem s. For sm all and m ediu m size m achin es t hey could be solid.
4 .2 .2 . Arm a t ure
Th e arm at ure is t he rot at ing part ( rot or) of t he dc m achin e where t he process of
el ect rom ech ani cal energy conver sion t akes p ace. The arm at ure is a cylindrical body,
which rot at es bet w een t h e m agnet ic poles. An isom et ric vi ew of a sm all size
arm at u re st ruct ure i s shown in Figure 4 .4 ( a) . Th e arm at ure and t h e field syst em
ar e sep ar at ed from each ot her by an air gap. The ar m at u re con si st s of:
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1. Arm at ure core wi th slot s and

2. Arm at ure winding accom m odat ed in slot s
Th e pu rpose of t he ar m at ure is t o rot at e t he con du ct ors in t he u niform m agnet ic
field an d t o induce an alt ernat ing e. m .f i n it s winding. Th e arm at ure core i s n orm ally
m ade from high perm eabilit y silicon - st eel l am inat ions of 0.4 to 0 .5m m t hickness,
which are insulat ed from one an ot h er by varnish or ceram ic insul ation. The u se of
hi gh grade st eel is t o keep h yst eresis l oss low, which is due t o cyclic change of
m agn et i zat ion cau sed b y rot at i on of t h e core in t he m agn et i c fi eld and t o reduce t he
eddy current i n t he core which are i nduced by t h e rot at ion of t h e core i n t he
m agn et i c fiel d.
I n order t o dissipat e t h e heat produ ced by h yst er esi s and eddy current losses et c,
vent ilat ing du ct s are provi ded. By t h e fanning act ion of t he arm at ure, air i s drawn in
t hrough t hese duct s, t hus producin g efficien t vent il at ion. I n t he arm at u re core of
sm all diam et er s, ci rcular holes ar e pun ched in t h e cent er of t he lam in at ions for t he
shaft ( Figure 4.4 ( b)) .
( a) ( b)
Figure 4.4 ( a) I som et ric view of arm at u re; ( b) arm at ure lam inat ion
4 .2 .3 . Com m ut a t or
I t is m ount ed on t he rotor of a dc m achine and it perform s wit h help of bru shes a
m echanical rect ifi cat ion of power: from ac t o dc in case of generat ors and dc t o ac in
case of m ot ors. The en ds of arm at ure coils are con nect ed t o t he com m u t at or, which
t oget h er wit h t he brushes rect ifies t he alt ernat ing e.m .f induced i n t he arm at ure
coil s and helps in the collect ion of current . I t is cylin drically sh aped an d is placed at
on e end of t he arm at ure. Th e con st ru ct ion of the com m ut at or is quit e com plicat ed
becau se i t in volves t he com bi nation of copper, iron and insul at ing m at erial s. The
conn ect ion of arm at u re conduct ors t o t he com m u t at or is m ade wit h t h e help of
risers. The ri sers conn ect in g t he segm ent s t o t he arm at ure coil s are m ad e of copper
st rips for large m ach ines. The out er end of t he riser is shaped so as t o form clip into
which th e arm at u re conduct ors are soldered. The com m ut at or bars are bu ilt of a
sm all wedge shaped segm en t s of hi gh con duct ivit y h ard drawn copper in sulat ed
from each ot h er by mi ce or m icani t e of about 0 .8m m t hickn ess. The com m u t at or
segm ent s are assem bled over a st eel cylin der. V- sh aped grov e i s provi ded at each
en d of t he segm ent s t o prev ent t hem from flying away under t h e act ion of
cent rifugal force. Th readed st eel rings are u sed t o ti ght en t h e various com pon en t s
t oget h er ( see Fi gu re 4. 5) . Th e com m ut at or assem bly is force and press fi t t ed on t he
shaft . Sat isfact ory perf orm ance of dc m achines is depen dent under good
m echanically st abilit y of the com m ut at or un der all con di tion s of speed and
t em perat u re wit hin t he operat ing range. A m echanically unst able com m u t at or
m ani fest s it self in a pool com m ut at ion perform ance an d resul t s in u nsat isfact ory
bu sh life.
4
( a) ( b)
Fi gure 4. 5 ( a) cut -aw ay view of com m ut at or; ( b) com m u t at or seg m ent
4 .2 .4 . Brushe s a nd Bru sh H olde r
Brush es are n eeded t o collect t h e current from t he rot at ing com m ut at or or t o lead
t he cu rrent t o it . Norm ally brushes are m ade up of carbon and graphit e, so t hat
while in cont act wit h t he com m ut at or, t he com m ut at or surface is not spoiled. The
bru sh is accom m odat ed in t h e bru sh holder wh ere a spring presses it ag ainst t he
com m u t at or wit h pressure of 1.5 t o 2 .0 Ncm 2 ( see Figure 4 .6) . A t wist ed flexible
copper con du ct or called pi gt ail securely fi xed in t o t he brush is used t o m ake t he
conn ect ion bet w een t he brush and it s brush h older. Norm all y brush holders used in
dc m ach in es ar e of box t ype. Th e nu m b ers of brush holders usually equal t o t he
nu m ber of m ain poles in dc m ach ines.
Figure 4.6 Brush and bru sh holder
4.3. PRI N CI PLE OPERATI ON OF DC GEN ERATOR

An elect rical gen erat or is a m ach ine, whi ch convert s m ech anical en ergy int o
el ect rical en ergy. The en ergy con ver si on is based on principle of dyn am ically
in duced em f, wh enev er a con du ct or cu t s m agnet ic flu x, dyn am ically indu ced em f is
produ ced in it ( Far aday’s law) . This em f cau ses a cu rrent t o flow if t he con duct or is
closed. The basi c essent i al part s of an elect rical gener at or are:
 A m agn et i c Field an d
 A condu ct or or conduct ors, which can so m ov e as t o cut t h e
flux.
Fi gure 4 .7 shows t he schem at ic di agram of a sim ple m achin e consist s of a coil ABCD
rot at ing in the m agn et ic field of a st rong perm an en t m agnet or powerful
el ect rom agnet . Th e m agnet ic lin es in t he space bet w een N an d S poles ar e direct ed
from t he Nort h Pole N t o t he Sou t h Pole S as shown in Fi gure 4.7 . Th e ends of t he
coil ABCD are connect ed t o t wo copper ri ngs R1 an d R2 , fixed on t he sh aft . Two
bru sh es B1 and B2 conn ect ed t o t he ext ernal l oad circuit m ake con t act wi t h t he
copper ri ngs R1 an d R2 respect i vely.
5
( a) ( b)
Figure 4.7 ( a) and ( b) Schem at ic diagram of a sim pl e dc generat or
Let t h e coil be rot at ed in an ACW, wit h const an t surface sp eed v[ m s] in relat ion t o
t he m agnet ic fiel d . Accordin g t o Far aday’s laws of el ect rom agnet ic induction , an
em f will be indu ced in t h e rot at ing coil an d is given by
e  Blv volts
As l and v are const an t for part icular case,
e  cons tan t  B volts
Hence un der t h e given conditions, t he change in t h e m agn itude of indu ced e.m .f
with ti m e d ep en ds upon t he m agn et ic flu x densit y dist ribution under t he poles. I t
m ay be assum ed n eglect i ng harm onics it is a sine wav e dist ribu tion. The direct ion of
t he induced em f in t his case can be det erm ined by Fl em ing’s ri gh t h and rule as
shown in Figure below. Hence t h e con duct or AB of t h e coil ABCD m oves down ward
an d CD m oves u pward, t h e direct ion of t he in duced em f in t h e coil is alon g DCBA as
shown in Figu re 4 .7( a) . Th e cu rr ent in t h e ex t ern al rem ain s t he sam e h al f a
revolution of t he coil st art i ng from it s vert ical position.

ν
S N
Motion
Flux
e
EMF
Figure 4 .8 Righ t - hand rule t o det er m i ne t he direct ion of in duced em f.
6
Sim il arly, in t he n ext h alf of t he revolu tion , t he dir ect ion of the in du ced em f is
rev er sed and hence t he current flows f rom bru sh B2 t o B1 as shown in Figure
4.7 ( b) .Th e m agnit ude of current in t he ext ernal circuit also vari es wit h ti m e as per
sine law; i.e. it s m agnit u de is not const ant wit h t im e.
I f t he m ach ine has P poles and t he arm at ure rot at es at N r evolu tions per m inu t e,
t hen t h e frequ en cy of t he in duced em f in t h e arm at ure is,
f 
PN
, Hz
120
Th e above di scussion clearly in dicat es t hat t he e.m .f induced in t he arm at u re of a d c
gener at or i s of alt ernat ing nat u re, alt ern at i ng wit h frequency of f h ert z dependi ng
upon the nu m ber of poles in t h e m achine an d t he sp eed of t he arm at ure.
However, t h e out put volt age or t he cu rren t of dc generat or m ust be u ni direct ion al
an d t hat t oo of a con st ant v alu e. Thu s t o com pel t h e abov e alt ern at ing current t o
flow in one st ipul at ed di rect ion through t he ext ern al load circuit , th e dc m achine is
furnished wit h a special device called t h e com m ut at or.
Fi gure 4.9 shows t h at t he coil ABCD conn ect ed t o a rin g com m ut at or split in t wo
halves R1 and R2 well in sulat ed from each ot her. The rin gs of t he com m ut at or are so
arr anged t h at during h al f t he revolu tion of t he coil, each h al f ring rem ai n in cont act
with a part icul ar bru sh . Figu re 4 .9( a) wil e during t h e n ext hal f revol ution, wh en t he
curren t is reversed, t h e sam e half rin g is in con t act wit h ot her brush as shown in
Fi gure 4 .9 ( b) .
( a) ( b)
Figure 4 .9 coil ABCD connect ed t o a ring com m u t at or
As a r esu lt , cu rren t in the ext ern al load circuit rem ains in t h e sam e direct ion. The
nat ure of t h e vari at i on of current in t he ext ernal load cu rren t wit h t he rot at ion of t he
coil , i .e. wit h tim e, has b een shown in Figu re 4.1 0. Su ch unidirect ion al current or
em f which fluct uat es bet w een m axi m u m and zero v al ues is quit e inconvenient for
pract i cal purposes.
7
Figure 4.10 Unidi rect ional curren t wav e sh ap e

To overcom e t h e above difficult y of t h e nat ure of a m ove sh ap e, con sider t wo coil s
whose plan es ar e in clin ed t o each ot h er at an an gle of 90 0 an d divided t he
com m u t at or ring m ount ed on t he sam e sh aft int o four part s. The leads of each coil
ar e conn ect ed t o t h e t wo diam et rically opposit e part s of t he ring. I n such case, t h e
e. m .f or curren t wav e sh ap e due t o eit her coil will be of t he sam e t ype bu t 90 0 ou t of
ph ase, i.e. when t h e current in one reach es m ax im um value, t h e current in t he other
coil h as zero valu e as shown in Figure 4. 11. The result ant current in th e ext ern al
circuit due t o t he rot at ion of t he t wo coils si m ult an eously at t h e sam e speed can be
obt ained by superim posi ng t he t wo current waves. Hence, t h e result ant cu rren t
wav e shape is less fluct u at ing. Sim ilarly, i f a large nu m ber of coils are provided on
t he rot at in g arm at ure of t he m achin e wit h dou ble t h e num ber of com m u t at or
segm ent s, t h e w ave sh ape of t h e r esult an t current or t he em f will pract i cally be
par allel to t h e t im e axis and hence const an t with respect t o t im e.
Figure 4.1 1 Result ant cu rrent wav e sh ape
4.4. TYPES OF DC GEN ERATORS

Th e fi el d win ding and the arm at ure winding can be in t ercon nect ed in various ways t o
provide a wide v ariet y of perform an ce char act eri st i cs. This can be t aken as
ou t st andin g advant ages of a dc m ach ines. A dc m achin e can work as an
el ect rom ech ani cal energy conv ert er only wh en it s field winding is ex cit ed wit h direct
curren t , ex cept for sm all dc m achi nes em ploying perm an ent m agnet s. Accordin g t o
t he m et hod of t heir field excit at ion dc gen er at ors ar e classifi ed int o t he following
group:
a) separat el y exci t ed an d
b) self excit ed
DC m achin es m ay h av e one or m ore fi eld windin gs an d t heir m et hod of exci t at i on,
det erm in es t he perform ance char act eri sti cs of the dc m ach ine.
4 .4 .1 . Se pa ra t e ly Ex cite d
I t s field winding consist s of sever al hun dreds t urn s of fine wire an d is connect ed t o a
separ at e or ext ern al dc sou rce i.e. field winding are energized from an in dependent
ex t ern al sources of dc curren t . Th e vol t age of t he ext ern al dc source h as n o rel ati on
8
with t h e arm at ure vol t age, i. e. t h e field winding en ergi zed from a separ at e su pply,
can be desi gned for any convenient volt age.
+ IL
I m porta nt
i. I a  I L
Ia re la t ionships
E g  V L  I a Ra
Shunt L
Winding o
Eg VL ii.
Pdev  E g  I a
_ a
+ Vdc
d iii.
iv. Pdel  V L  I L
_
Figure 4.1 2 sep arat el y excit ed dc m achin es

4 .4 .2 . Se lf Ex cit a tion
Wh en t he field winding is exci t ed by it s own arm at ure, t he m ach in es is said t o be a
self excit ed dc m achine. I n t hese m ach ines, t h e field poles m ust have a r esidu al
m agn et i sm , so t hat wh en t h e arm at ure rot at es, a r esidu al volt age appears across
t he brush es. This residu al volt age should est abli sh a current in t he fiel d win ding so
as t o reinforce t he residual flu x. According t he connect ion of t h e field winding wit h
t he ar m at u re winding, a self- excit ed dc m ach ine can be subdivided as follows:
Se rie s Ex cit a t ion
Th e fi eld win din g consist s of a few t urns of t hick wire and is con nect ed i n seri es wit h
t he arm at ure. I n ot her words, t h e series field curren t dep en ds on t he arm at ure
curren t an d i n view of this; a series fi eld m ay be call ed a cur re nt ope ra t e d fie ld.
I a  I se  I L
I m port a n t re la t ion ships
E g  VL  I a Ra  Rse 
i.
ii.
iii.Pdev  E g  I a
iv. Pdel  V L  I L
Figure 4.13 Series excit ed dc m achin e

Shun t Ex cit a t ion
Th e fi eld win din g consist s of a large num ber of t urns of fin e wire and i s connect ed in
par allel (or in shunt ) wit h t he arm at u re. Th eref ore t he volt age across t h e arm at ure
t er m in als and t h e shu nt field is t he sam e an d it i s for this reason t hat a shun t field
m ay be called v olt a ge ope ra t e d fie ld.
9
I m port a nt re la t ionships
I sh  sh
V
i.
Rsh L
ii. I a  I sh  I L
iii. E g  V L  I a Ra
i v. Pdev  E g  I a
v. Pdel  V L  I L
Figure 4 .14 Shunt exci t ed dc m achin e

Rem em ber t hat series field and sh unt fi eld windings are ch aract eri zed by low and
hi gh resi st ance resp ect ivel y. I n som e applicat ion , a sh un t excit ed win ding m ay be
replaced by a sep arat ely excit ed win ding.
10
Com poun d Ex cit a t ion

A com pou nd excit at ion invol ves bot h series-exi t ed winding and th e sh un t -excit ed
windin g. From t he view point of connect i ons, a dc com pou nd m achine m ay have
short - shunt conn ect ion or a lon g shun t connect ion . I n short shunt conn ect ion of
Fi gure 4.1 5 ( a) t he sh unt fi eld or volt age excit ed win din g is conn ect ed across t he
arm at u re t erm i nals. I n lon g- shun t connect i on, t he sh un t field is conn ect ed across
 t he series connect ion of t he arm at u re and series winding or
 t he m achin e or lin e t erm inals as shown in Figure 4 .15 ( b) .
However t h ere i s appr eci able di fference in t he oper at ing ch ar act erist ics of short -
shun t and lon g shun t . The ch oice bet w een t h e t wo t ypes depends on m ech an ical
considerat ions of conn ect ions or rever sing swit ch es.
i. I se  I L
E g  I a Ra VL  I se Rse
ii. I sh  
Rsh Rsh
iii. I a  I sh  I L
iv.E g  VL  I a Ra  I L Rse
v. Pdev  E g  I a
vi. Pdel  V L  I L
( a)
i. I a  I se
I m port a nt re la tionships
E g  I a Ra  Rse  VL
ii. I sh  
Rsh Rsh
iii. I a  I sh  I L
iv. E g  VL  I a Ra  Rse 
v. Pdev  E g  I a
vi. Pdel  VL  I L
( b)
Figu re 4 .15 DC com poun d m ach ine con nect ions for a) sh ort - shun t an d b) long
sh unt
I n a com pound m achine, t he m agnet ic flu x produ ced by t he shun t field is st ron ger
t han t h e series field. When seri es field aids t h e sh unt fi el d, so t h at t h e resu lt an t ai r
gap f lux per pole is increases, t h en t h e m achine is said t o be cum ula t iv e ly
com pounde d. I n Figure 4.16 ( a) t he direct ion of arrows correspon ds t o t he
di rect ion m agnet ic flux produced by shun t and seri es fi eld windings. As t he t wo
arrows are i n t he sam e direct ion in Figure 4 .16 ( a) , t his Figure i s for a cum ulat i vely
com pounded dc m achi ne.
11
( a) ( b)
Fi gure 4.1 6 com pou nd exci t ed dc m achin e ( a) cum ulat ive and b) different ial
On t h e ot her hand if seri es field opposes t h e sh unt fiel d so t h at t he result ant air gap
flu x per pole is decreased, t he m ach ine is called a diffe re n tia lly com poun de d dc
m achin e as sh own in Figure 4.1 6( b).
I n Figu re 4.15( a) , each pol e of com poun d m achine i s shown t o possess sh unt and
series fiel d win dings. Figu re 4 .17 (a) illust rat ed h ow t hese win dings are arranged on
on e pole of a dc m achin e. I n Figure 4 .17 shunt field coil is placed n ear yok e and
series field coil n ear t he pole shoe j u st f or sak e of clarit y.
( a) ( b)
Figure 4.1 7 Series and shun t field windin gs on one pole of dc com pound m ach ine
Act ually ph ysical arran gem ent of t hese coils is shown in Figure 4 .17 (b) . I t is seen
t hat first sh unt fi el d coil is woun d aroun d t he pole body and over it is t hen wou nd
t he series field coil. The reason s for pl acin g t h e series fi eld coil ou t side ar e:
i) conveni en ce in t he const ru ct ion and
ii) for it s bet t er cooling
4.5. EM F EQUATI ON OF DC GEN ERATOR

Let  = flu x per pol e in Weber
Z = t ot al nu m ber of arm at ure conduct ors
= Num ber of slot s  Nu m ber of con du ct ors per slot
P = Num ber of pol es
a = nu m ber of parallel pat hs in arm at u re
N= arm at ure rot at ion in revol utions per m inu t e ( rpm )
E = em f in du ced in any parall el pat h in arm at ure
Gen er at ed em f, Eg= em f generat ed in on e of t he par allel pat h
12
d
Aver age em f gener at ed / condu ct or  , volt
Now, flux cut / condu ct or in on e revolu tion , d  P ,Wb
dt
Num ber of revolu tion / second 

N
, sec ond
60
d PN
Hence accordin g to Far ad ay’s law of elect rom ag net ic induct ion
em f gen erat ed / conduct or   , volt

dt 60
For w a v e w inding
Num ber of parall el pat h a = 2
Num ber of conduct ors (in series) in one pat h 

Z
PN Z ZPN
2
 em f gen erat ed / pat h   
60 2 2  60
volt
For la p w inding
Num ber of parall el pat h a = P
Num ber of conduct ors (in series) in one pat h 

Z
PN Z ZN
P
 em f gen erat ed / pat h    volt
60 P 60
ZN  P 
I n gen eral, t h e Gener at ed em f
Eg     volt
60  a 
Wh ere, a = 2 for wav e winding
Eg  K a  N
a= P for lap winding
where, K a 
ZP
60  a
is m achi ne const an t .
feeder s of resist an ce 0.1 . Th e resist ance of arm at ure and sh unt fi el d windin gs is
Ex a m ple 4 .1 A dc sh unt gener at or suppli es a load of 1 0 kW at 22 0 V t h rough
0.0 5  and 10 0  respect i vely. Cal culat e, ( i) t erm inal volt age, ( ii ) shun t field cu rrent
an d (iii) generat ed em f.
Solu t ion
i) Load supplied , Pdel = 10 kW
= 1 0  10 3 W
Volt age at t h e l oad t erm in al s = 220 V
Thus load curren t ,
Pdel 10  10 3
IL  
 45.5 A
V 220
Resi st ance of t h e feeders = 0 .1 

Volt age drop in t he feeder s = I L  0.1
13
= 4 5.5  0.1 = 4.55 V

Term i nal volt age across t he arm at ure t erm inals, V = 220 + 4.55
= 224.55 V
ii) Shu nt fiel d current ,
I sh  
V' 224.55
 2.25A
R sh 100
iii) Gen er at ed em f,
Eg  V '  I a R a
 224.55  45.5  0.05
 226.82 V
load of 10 0 A at 2 00 V. Th e ar m at u re r esist ance is 0.1  and t h e sh unt field

Ex a m ple 4 .2 A 4 -pol e dc sh un t gen erat or wit h l ap-connect ed ar m at ure su pplies a
resist ance is 80 . Find (i) t ot al arm at u re cu rren t , ( ii) cu rrent per arm at u re pat h,
an d ( iii) em f gen erat ed. Assum e a bru sh cont act drop of 2V.
Solu t ion
i) Term i nal volt age across t he arm at ure t erm inals, V = 200 V
Shunt field resist an ce, Rsh = 80 
Shunt field current ,
I sh  
V 200
 2.5A
R sh 80
Load current , I L = 100 A

Arm at u re current , I a = I L + I sh
= 10 0 + 2 .5
= 10 2.5 A
ii) Shu nt generat or is lap- woun d, as such t h e nu m ber of parallel circuit s in t he
arm at u re winding is equal to t he nu m ber of poles.
Thus nu m ber of parallel circuit s a = 4
Tot al arm at u re current , I a = 102 .5 A
Thus t he current per arm at ure pat h,

102.5
 25.625A
4
iii) Em f generat ed,
E g  V  I a R a  Vbd
 200  102.5  0.05  2
 212.25 V
14
Ex a m ple 4 .3 A short sh un t com pound gen erat or su pplies 200 A at 10 0 V. The
. Find t he em f gen er at ed.

resist ance of arm at u re, series fi eld an d shunt fiel d is respect ivel y, 0 .04 , 0.03 and 60
Solu t ion
Term i nal volt age across t he load, VL = 10 0 V
Load current , I L = 2 00 A
Resi st ance of seri es field win din g Rse = 0.03 
Volt age drop in series field winding = I L Rse
= 20 0 0.0 3
= 6 V
Term i nal volt age across t he arm at ure, V = VL + I L Rse
= 1 00 + 6
= 1 06 V
I sh  
V 106
 1.77A
R sh 60
= 20 0 + 1 .77
= 20 1.7 7 A
Gen er at ed em f,
E g  VL  I L R se  I a R a
 100  6  201.77  0.04
 114.07 V
Ex a m ple 4 .4 The arm at u re of a fou r pole, wave wou nd shunt gen erat or has
resist ance is 0 .05  an d t he shu nt fiel d resist an ce 50 . Fin d the speed of t he

120 slot s wit h 4 con du ct ors per slot . The flux per pole i s 0 .05 Wb. Th e ar m at ure
m achin e wh en supplying 450 A at a t erm in al volt age of 250 V.

Solu t ion
Term i nal volt age, V L = 250 V
Load current , I L = 450 A
Shunt field resist an ce, Rsh = 5 0 
I sh  
VL 250
 5.0A
R sh 50 I
= 45 0 + 5
= 45 5 A
Arm at u re resi st ance, Ra = 0. 05 
Gen er at ed em f,
15
E g  VL  I a R a
 250  455  0.05
 272.75 V
Gen er at ed em f,
PNZ
Eg 
60  a
V
Num ber of pol es, P = = 4; Fl ux per pole,  = 0 . 05 Wb; Nu m ber of slot s on arm at ure
= 120; Conduct ors per slot = 4
Thus t ot al n um ber of conduct ors on arm at ure = 120 4 = 480
As t he arm at ure is wav e wound, num ber of parallel pat h s, a= 2
4  0.05  N  480
Substit ut ing t hese in t he above equat ion ,
272.75 
60  2
Speed of rot at ion,
272.75  60  2
N
4  0.05  480
 341 rpm
t hrough a pair of feeders of t ot al resist an ce 0.0 4 . The load consist s of five m ot ors,
Ex a m ple 4 .5 A long-shunt com pound gen erat or su pplies a load at 110 V
resist ance is 0. 03 , series field resist ance 0.0 4  and sh unt fiel d resi st ance, 55 .
each t aking 3 0 A and a lightin g load of 150 bulbs each of 60 W. The arm at ure
Fi nd, (i) load curren t , (ii) t erm inal volt age, and (iii) em f generat ed.
Solu t ion
i) Curren t drawn by each m ot or = 3 0 A
Thus curren t drawn by five m ot ors = 30  5
= 1 50 A
Tot al lighting load = 1 50  60
= 90 00 W
 82 A
9000
Current t ak en by t he lightin g load =
110
Hence, t ot al load cu rren t = 150 + 82
= 232 A
ii) Volt age at t he t erm inals of t he load = 11 0 V
Tot al resi st ance of t h e f eeders = 0 .04 
Current t h rough t he feeders = 232 A
Vol t age drop in feeder s = 232  0.0 4
= 9.28 V
Term i nal volt age across t he g ener at or t erm in als,
V = VL + drop in f eeders
= 110 + 9.28
= 119 .28 V
16
iii) Resist an ce of shun t field, Rsh = 5 5 

Current in shun t field windin g,
I sh    2 .2 A
V 119.28
R sh 55
Current in th e arm at ure win din g, I a = I L + I sh
= 232 + 2 .2 = 234 .2 A
Current in th e series fi eld win ding, I se = I a = 234.2 A
Tot al resist an ce of arm at u re and series field winding = Ra + Rse
= 0. 03 + 0.04 = 0 .07 
E g  V  I a R a  R se 
Gen er at ed em f ,
 119.28  234.2  0.07

 135.67 A
4.6. ARM ATURE REACTI ON

By arm at ure react ion i s m eant t he effect of m agn et ic field. Set u p by arm at ure
curren t on t h e dist ribution of flux under m ain poles. I n oth er words arm at ure
react ion is m ean t t he effect of arm at u re am pere- t urn s upon t he valu e an d t he
di st ribution of t he m agn et ic flux ent ering an d l eavin g t h e arm at u re core. The
arm at u re m agnet ic field has t wo effect s:
1. I t dem agnet izes or weakens t he m ain flu x &
2. I t cross –m agn et izes or dist ort s it
Let us illust rat e ( dem onst r at e) t h ese t wo effect s of arm at u re react ion for 2 - pole d.c
gener at or. For bet t er u nderst an ding let us see t hree cases.
Ca se - I : Figure 4.18 shows t he dist ributi on of m agnet ic flu x wh en there i s no cu rrent
( I a= 0) in t he arm at ure condu ct ors,. For t his case
a) The dist ribution m agn et ic flux sym m et rical wi th respect t o t he polar axis.
b) The m agn et ic neut ral axis or place ( M.N.A. ) coin cides wit h geom et rical
n eu t ral axi s or plan e ( G.N.A)
M.N.A m ay be defined as t h e axis alon g which no-em f is produced in t h e arm at ure
conduct ors becau se t h ey m ove par allel t o t h e lines of flu x
or M.N. A. is t h e axi s which i s perpen dicular t o t h e flux passin g t hrou gh t he
arm at u re.
I n t his case, brushes are al way s placed along M.N.A and t he m m f ( Fm ) produ cing t he
m ain flu x is direct ed p erpen dicular t o M.N.A.
17
Fi gure 4. 18 Magn et i c flux di st ri but ion du e t o the m ain field poles onl y
Ca se - I I : Figu re 4 .19 , shows t h e fi eld (or flux) set up by t he arm at ure
condu ct ors alone, when curren t carryi ng t h e fi eld coil s being u nexcit ed ( I f = 0 ).
The direct ion of t he arm at ure current i s t he sam e as it would be when t he
gen er at or is loaded & det erm in ed by Flem ing’s Right -hand rule. Un der t his case,
t h e m agnet ic fields, which are set up by arm at u re con duct or are sy m m et ri cal t o
G. N.A. and t he m m f of t he arm at u re con duct or ( dependi ng on t he st rengt h of I a)
i s shown sep ar at ely bot h in m agnit ude and direct ion by t h e Vect or OFa which is
par allel to G.N.A
o
Generator
rotation
Fa
Field Flux due to

field current only
Polar-axis
.
Figure 4.19 Magnet ic flu x dist ribution due t o th e arm at ure excit at ion only
I n t h e above t wo cases, w e considered t he m ain m m f and arm at u re m m f separ at ely,
as if t h ey exist ed indepen dent ly, which is not t he case in pract i ce un der act ual load
conditions. The t wo cases exi st sim ul t an eously in gen erat or as will be shown in case
III.
Ca se - I I I : Fi gure 4.2 1 shows t h e com bi nat ion of case I & I I . I n t hi s case t he m ain
flu x t h rough t he arm at ure is n o longer u niform an d sym m et rical abou t t he pole- axi s,
rat h er it h as been dist ort ed. The flu x is seen t o be crowded at t h e t r ailing pol e tips
bu t weakened or t hinned ou t at t h e l eadin g pole t ips ( t h e pole tip which i s first m et
du ring rot at ion by arm at ure condu ct ors are known as t he leadi ng pole tip and t he
ot h er as t r ailin g pole tip) . I n Figure 4 .20 is shown t h e resu lt an t m m f OFR which is
fou nd by vect orally com bining OFm and OFa.
18
Figure 4.2 0 com bined m agn et ic flu x dist ribution due t o arm at ure and fiel d
The n ew position of M.N. A which is al way s per pendicular to t he resul t ant m m f
angle , bru shes are al so sh ift ed so as t o lie along t h e new posi tions of M.N.A.
vect or OFR is shown in Figure 4 .20 . Due t o t he shi ft of M.N.A, say t hrough an
Du e t o t his bru sh shift ( or forward, l eads) , t he ar m at ure conduct ors an d hence

t h e ar m at ure curren t is redist ribut ed, i .e. som e arm at u re con du ct ors, which were
earlier un der t h e in fluence of N- pol e, com e un der t h e in fluence of S- pole and
vice- v ersa. Let us see t hi s condition wit h help of Figure 4.21.
inclin ed by an gle  t o t h e left ( Figu re 4 .21 ). This vect or can b e r esolved int o t wo
Now t he arm at u re m m f is now represent ed by vect or Fa t hat is no vert ical but i s
rect angul ar com pon en t s, Fd p ar allel t o pol ar axis and Fc perpen dicular t o t hi s
axi s, we fi nd t hat
1. Com ponent Fc is at right an gl e t o t h e vect or OFm (Figure 4 .18 )
represent ing th e m ai n m m f i t produces dist ortion in t he m ain fiel d and i s
h en ce called t h e cross- m agn et izin g or dist ort ing com ponent of t he
arm at ure React ion.
2. Com ponent Fd is in direct opposition t o OFm , whi ch represen t s t he m ain
m m f. I t ex ert s a dem agnet izin g in flu en ce on t he m ain pol e flux. Hen ce, it
i s call ed t he dem agnet izing or weak en ing com ponent of t he arm at ure
react ion.
From t he abov e discu ssion we can conclu de t hat :
1. Th e flu x across t h e ai r gap is no longer uniform , but weaken s u nder t he
leading pole tips an d st ren gt h ened u nder t he t railing pole t ips. ( Th e pole tip
whi ch i s first m et duri ng rot at ion by ar m at u re conduct ors is known as t he
leading pole tip an d t he other as t railing pol e t ip) .Due t o t his t he result ant
m m f given rise t o decreases f lux. So t h at em f i n t he arm at u re u nder loaded
con dition s i s som ewhat less t h an t hat of u nder no-load conditions.
2. Th e bru shes should be shift ed in t he direct ion of rot at ion t o avoid a heav y
short - circui t curren t an d sparking at brushes.
3. Th e fi eld di st ortion cau se, an increase in t he iron losses as com par ed it s no-
load valu e becau se of increases p eak v alue of flux densit y in t he t oot h.
19
Figure 4.2 1 t h e dem agnet izing an d cross- m agn et izing com pon en t s of
arm at u re m m f
4.7. COM MUTATI ON

Th e arm at u re conduct ors carry curren t in on e di rect ion when t hey ar e u nder t he
influence of N- pole and in opposit e direct ion when t hey ar e un der S- pole. So wh en
t he conduct ors com e u nder t he influ en ce of t h e S-pol e from th e i nfluen ce of N- pole,
t he direct ion of flow of curren t in t hem is reversed. This reversal of cu rrent in a coil
will t ake pl ace wh en t h e t wo com m ut at or segm en t s t o which t h e coil is connect ed
ar e bei ng short circui t ed by bru sh. Th e process of reversal of curren t in a coil i s
t er m ed as com m u t at ion. The period during which t h e coil rem ains short - circuit ed is
call ed com m ut at ion period, Tc. This com m u t at ion period is very sm all of t he order of
0.0 01 to 0 .003s.
I f t he current rev ersal i.e. t he changes from + I t o ZERO and t hen to –I i s com plet ed
by t h e en d of sh ort circuit or com m ut at ion period, t h e com m ut at ion is I deal. I f
curren t rev ersal i s n ot com plet ed by t hat t i m e, t hen spar kin g is produ ced b et w een
t he bru sh an d t h e com m ut at or, which result s in progressive dam age t o bot h.
Let u s discuss t he process of com m u t at ion in m ore det ail with h el p of Figure 4 .22
where ring winding has been used for si m plicit y.
Motion
A B C
I I
a b c
2I
(a) ( b)
20
( c)
Figure 4.22 com m u t at i on process
I n Figu re 4 .22 ( a) Coil B carri es cu rren t in clock wise direct ion but it i s about t o be
short circui t ed, because brush is about t o com e in touch with com m ut at or segm en t
“ a” .
Fi gure 4.22 ( b) shows t h e coil B in t he m iddle of i t s short - circuit ed period and it i s
observed t h at current can reach t he bru sh wit h out passing through coil B, so coil B
has no cu rrent .
Fi gure 4. 22( c) depict s t he m om ent when coil B is alm ost at t h e end of com m u t at i on
or short - circuit period and the current in t he coil has t o be rever sed.
During t h e period of short circuit , period of com m ut at ion, t h e curren t in t h e short -
circuit ed coil should be rever sed t o full valu e. Rapid rever sal of current in t he short
circuit ed coil does n ot at t ai n it s full value in t he rev er se direct ion by t he en d of short
circuit . Th e failure of cu rren t in t he short -circuit ed coil t o reach t he full valu e in
rev er se direct ion by t he end of short circuit is t he basic cause of sparking at t he
com m u t at or ( as shown in Fi gu re c current j u m p from com m ent at or segm en t “ b” t o
bru sh in t he form of an arc) . Th e reason for sparking at bru shes of dc m achine is
du e t o react an ce volt age ( self-induct ed em f) , which set s-u p by r apid reversal of
 
curren t in t he arm at u re coil and t en d t o delay t h e current rever sal in t h e coil.
Because coil B h as som e indu ct an ce L, t h e ch ange of curren t ∆I in a time ∆t induce
a volt age L I
t
in t he coil. According Len z’s l aw, t h e direct ion of t his volt age is
opposi t e t o t he ch an ge ∆I that is causing it. As a result, the current in the coil does
not com plet el y rever se by t h e t i m e t he bru sh es m ove from segm en t b t o a.
Figure 4 .23 Com m ut at ion in Coil B

4 .7 .1 . M e t hods of im provin g com m ut a t ion
Th ere have b een adapt ed t wo pract ical ways of im proving com m u t at ion i.e. of
m aking current reversals in t he sh ort - circuit ed coil as sparkles as possible. Th e t wo
m et hods are:
21
(i) resist ance com m ut at ion and

(ii) em f com m ut at ion .
This m et hod i s achieved by
i By replacing low- resist ance copper bru sh by com par at i vely hi gh resi st ance
carbon brush ( approxim at ely 1 2 ti m es t h at of copper) . However , it sh ould be
clearly underst ood t h at t he m ain causes of t h e sparki ng com m ut at ion is t he
self in duced em f , so bru sh es alone do not give a sparkles com m u t at ion,
t hough t h ey do help in obt aining it .
ii By t he help of in t er pol es, neut ralize t he self- react an ce volt age by produ cing
rev er sin g em f. I n t his m et hod, arran gem ent is m ad e t o neut ralize t he
react ance volt age by produ cing a r ever sing em f in t he sh ort - circuit ed coil
un der com m ut at ion . Thi s rever sin g em f, as t h e n am e shows, is an em f in
opposi tion t o t h e react an ce volt age and i f it s value is m ade up equ al t o t he
lat t er, it will com plet ely wipe it off, t h ereby produ cing quick rev er sal of
curren t in sh ort - circuit ed coil which will result in spar kles com m ut at ion .
4 .7 .2 . I nt e rpole s or Com pole s
Th ese ar e sm all poles fixed t o t he yoke and sp aced in bet w een t h e m ain poles. They
ar e wound with com parat ively few heavy g au ge copper wire t urn s an d are con nect ed
in series wi t h t h e arm at ure so t h at t h ey carry f ull arm at u re current . Their polarit y, in
t he case of a gen er at or, is t he sam e as t h at of t he m ain pole ahead in t h e direct ion
of rot at ion as illust rat ed i n Figure 4 .24 ( a) . For a m ot or, t h e pol arit y of t he int erpole
m u st be t h e sam e as t h at of t he m ain pole behin d it in t he direct ion of rot at ion as
shown in Fi gure 4. 24 ( b) .
Main-Poles
N
N
S
S
S
S
N
Interpoles
( a) ( b)
Figure 4 .24 polari t y of I nt erpoles (a) in generat or m ode; (b) in m otor m ode
Th e function of in t erpole is t wo fol d:
i) As t heir polarit y i s t h e sam e as t hat of t he m ain pol e ahead, t he i nduced an
em f in the coil (under com m ut at ion ) which h el ps t he r ev er sal of current . The
em f i ndu ced by t he com pol es is known as com m ut at ing or rever sing em f. The
com m u t at i on em f neut ralizes t he react ance em f t her eb y m aki ng
com m u t at i on spar kles. As in t erpoles carry arm at ure cu rrent , t h ei r
com m u t at i ng em f is proportional t o t he arm at u re current . This ensures
aut om at ic neut ralizat i on of t h e react ance volt ag e, which is also due t o
arm at ure cu rrent .
ii) Anot h er fun ct ion of t h e in t erpoles is t o neut ralize t h e cross- m agn et ize eff ect
of arm at ure r eact i on . Hen ce, bru sh es ar e not t o be shift ed from t he origin al
22
position. Neut ralizat ion of cross- m agn et izat ion is au t om at ic and f or all loads
becau se bot h are produced by t he sam e arm at u re curren t .
4 .7 .3 . Com pe nsa t ing w inding
Th e effect of cross- m agnet izat ion can be neut ralized m ean s of com pensat i ng
windin g. These are conduct ors em b edded in pole f aces, con nect ed i n seri es wit h t he
arm at u re win dings an d carryi ng current in an opposit e direct ion t o t h at flowin g in
t he ar m at ure conduct ors under t he pole face. Once cross-m agnet izat i on h as been
neut ralized, t he M.N.A does n ot shif t wi t h t he load an d r em ai ns coin ci dent wit h t he
G.N.A. at all loads.
Figure 4.2 5 com pensat ing win din gs
4.8. CH ARACTERI STI CS OF DC GEN ERATORS

Th e beh avior of various t ypes of dc g en erat ors can be st u dies by t heir char act eri sti c.
Th e t h ree m ost im port ant ch ar act eristic curves of a dc gen erat or are:
1. M a gne t iza t ion cha ra ct e r ist ic or ope n- circuit cha ra ct e ri st ic

( O.C.C. ) - shows t he relat ionship bet ween t h e field current I f an d t he
gen er at ed em f Eg at no load and at const ant given sp eed.
2. Ex t e rna l ch a ra ct e rist ic- sh ows t h e relat ion ship bet ween t he t erm in al
vol t ag e V across t he load and t he current I L flowin g in t h e ext ernal load
circui t .
3. I nt e rna l cha ra ct e rist ic – sh ows t h e r elat ion ship bet ween t he em f

gen er at ed E ( aft er allowin g for dem agn et izing effect of arm at ure react ion )
at load an d t h e arm at ure curren t I a.
M a gne tiza tion cha ra ct e rist ic ( O.C.C. )
Th e em f generat ed in t he arm at u re win ding of a dc m achin e u nder n o load condition
P NZ
is gi ven by
Eg 
60 a
Eg  
P, Z an d a are con st ant s for a part i cular generat or, hence at con st ant given speed.
 The gen erat ed em f is direct ly proportional t o t he flu x per pole ( speed b eing
const ant ) , wh ich in t urn s depen ds u pon t he field curren t I f
Th e char act erist ic cu rve plot t ed bet w een gen er at ed em f Eg and t he field current I f at
const ant sp eed of rot at ion is called t he m agn et izat ion cu rve or O.C.C. of t he dc
gener at or. The m agnet izat ion charact eristics of a separ at ely excit ed gen erat or or
shun t generat or can be obt ain ed as explained bel ow.
23
Figure 4 .26 Circui t diagram for det erm i nat ion of m agn et izat ion charact erist ics
Fi gure 4.2 6 shows t h e connect i ons of t he gen erat or and t h e field for det erm in at ion
of O.O.C. A pot en t iom et er arrangem en t h as b een m ade t o supply t he field win ding
so t hat t h e field current can be v ari ed ov er a wide rang e b y m oving t he cont act K.
Am m et er in dicat e t he field current an d volt m et er indicat e t h e g ener at ed em f. The
field current is in creased in st ep s from zero t o m axim u m an d t he correspondi ng
valu e of I f and Eg ar e not ed down at each st ep. On plot t ing t h ese result s, a curve of
t he form shown in Figure 4 .27 is obt ained.
Fi gure 4.2 7 Magn et izat ion curve or O.C.C.

On an alyzing t he curve in Figure 4 .27, it is obser ved t hat a sm all em f OA is
gener at ed b y t h e gener at or, ev en when t h e fi eld curren t is zero. The r eason for t hi s
gener at ed em f is t he residu al m agnet ism in th e poles. This em f whi ch is due t o
residual m agnet ism is norm all y 1 t o 5 % of t he norm al volt age of t h e g en er at or. The
m agn et i zat ion curve of a shunt gen erat or and a series gener at or can also be
obt ained i n a sim ilar m an ner. Howev er, a shunt generat or diff ers com par ed t o
separ at ely exci t ed one, in t he m anner t hat t h e field current in shunt generat or is
du e t o t he gen er at ed em f only, where as t h e field current is i ndependen t of t he
gener at ed em f in case of separat ely.
This m agn et i zat ion curve is of grat e i m port ance because it r epresen t s t h e sat urat i on
level in t h e m agnet ic sy st em of t he d c m achine for various value of t he ex ci t at i on
m m f ( current ) .
4.9. VOLTAGE BUI LD- UP PROCESS I N SH UN T GEN ERATOR

I n t h e shunt or self- ex cit ed generat or t h e fiel d is connect ed across t h e arm at ure so
t hat t he arm at ure volt age can supply t he field current . Un der cert ain conditions, t o
be discussed here, t hi s generat or will build up a desired t erm inal vol t age. I f t he
m achin e is t o operat e as a self- excit ed generat or, som e r esi dual m agnet ism m u st
exist in t h e m agnet ic ci rcuit of t h e gen er at or. Figu re 4. 28 shows t he m agnet izat i on
curve of t h e dc m achine. Also shown in this Figu re 4 .28 i s t h e field resist an ce lin e,
which is a plot of Rf I f versus I f .
24
Figure 4 .28 volt age build- u p process in self exci t ed dg generat or

A sim plistic expl an at ion of t h e vol t age buildup process in t he self- excit ed dc
gener at or is as follows:
Assum e t hat t he f iel d circuit is initially discon nect ed from t he ar m at u re circuit and
t he arm at u re i s driven at a cer t ain speed. A sm all volt age, Ear will appear across t h e
arm at u re t er m inals because of t he residual m ag net ism in t he m achin e. I f t h e swit ch
SW i s n ow cl osed (Figure 4 .29 ) and t h e field circuit is connect ed t o t h e arm at ure
circuit , a cu rrent will flow in t h e field winding. I f t he m m f of t hi s fi eld cu rren t aids
t he residual m agnet ism , event u ally a current I f 1 will flow in t he field circuit .
Figure 4.2 9 schem at ic di agram of a shun t or self– ex ci t ed dc gener at or

Th e buildu p of t his current will depend on t he t im e con st ant of t h e field ci rcuit . Wit h
I f1 following in the field circui t , t he generat ed v olt age is Ea1 ( from t h e m agnet izat i on
curve) bu t t h e t er m inal volt age i s Vt = I f l RF < Eal. The increased arm at ure volt age
Eal will even t ually increase t he field current t o t he val ue I f 2 , which in t urn will build
up t h e arm at u re volt age t o Ea2 . Thi s process of vol t age buildup con tinu es. I f t he
volt age drop across Ra is neglect ed ( i.e. Ra < < Rf ) , t he volt age bu ilds up t o th e v alue
gi ven by t h e crossing poin t P of t he m agn et izat ion cu rve and t h e field resi st ance
lin e. At t his poin t Ea = I f Rf = Vt ( assu m e Ra is negl ect ed) , an d n o excess volt age is
av ailable t o fu rt her increases t he fiel d current . I n t h e act u al case, t he changes in I f
an d Ea t ak e pl ace sim ul t an eously and t he volt age buildu p follows approxim at ely t he
m agn et i zat ion curve, inst ead of clim bing t he flight of st airs.
Fi gure 4.3 0 shows t he volt age buildup in t he self- excit ed dc gener at or for variou s
field circui t resist an ces. At som e resist an ce value Rf3 , t he resist an ce lin e is al m ost
coin ci dent wi t h t h e linear port ion of t he m agnet izat ion cu rve. This coin cidence
condition result s i n an unst able vol t age sit uat ion. This resist an ce is known as t he
crit ica l fie ld circuit re sist a nce . I f t h e resist an ce is great er t h an t his v alu e, such
as Rf4 , bu ildup ( Vt 4 ) will be insignifi cant on th e ot her h an d, if t h e resist ance is
sm aller t han t his value, such as Rf 1 or Rf 2 , t he gener at or will build up hi gher volt ages
( Vt 1 , Vt 2 ) .
25
To sum up, four conditions are t o be sat isfied for volt age buildu p in a self- excit ed dc
gener at or.
1. Residual m agnet ism m ust be presen t in t he m agn et ic syst em .
2. Field windin g m m f sh ould aid the residual m agnet ism .
3. Field ci rcuit resi st ance sh ould be less t han t he cr iti cal field circui t resist ance.
4. The speed at which t h e arm at ure i s rot at i ng should be great er t h an t he cri tical
speed.
Figure 4 .30 eff ect of field resist an ces on volt age build-u p process
4.10. EXTERN AL CH ARACTERI STI CS

Th e ext ernal ch aract erist ics of a dc gen erat or express t h e relat i on ship bet ween t he
t er m in al volt age and t he load current at a con st ant speed an d wit h the field cu rrent
keepin g t he sam e as un der t he no load con dition. The sh ape of t his curv e d epends
upon :
i Th e arm at ure react ion
ii volt age drop in t he arm at u re win din g, series , int er pole and
com pensat in g windings
iii volt age drop at t he bru sh cont act ( 0.8 - 1,0- V per bru sh ) an d
i v Th e drop in t erm in al volt age due t o (i) and (ii) result s in a decreased
field cu rren t which furt her reduces t h e induced em f.
4 .1 0 .1 . Se pa ra t e ly Ex cit e d Ge ne ra tor
I n separat ely excit ed generat ors, t h e f iel d current i s i ndependen t of t he load
curren t , so t hat if t here w ere no arm at ure r eact i on and no vol t age drop in variou s
windin gs t h e t erm in al volt age will be equal t o t he gener at ed em f an d would be
const ant for various valu es of load cu rrent as indicat ed by cu rve I in Fi gu re 4 .31.
Figure 4.31 ext ernal charact erist ics of separ at ely excit ed generat or
26
As t he gener at or is sep ar at ely excit ed, t h e arm at ure cu rren t is equal t o load cu rrent .
However, t he arm at ure r eact ion will cause a decrease in th e vol t ag e, wh ich depends
upon t h e load cu rren t . As such con sidering t he effect of arm at u re act ion only, t he
curve of t erm i nal volt age Vs arm at u re current will be sligh tly drooping as sh own by
curve I I in Figure 4.31. Cu rve I I of t he gen erat or, which t akes in t o accou nt t he
ef fect of arm at ure react ion, gives t o a di fferent scale t he em f in du ced in t he
arm at u re and t hu s, it is n orm all y called t h e in te rna l cha ra ct e rist ics of t he
gener at or. The curve of t erm inal volt age Vs load current or arm at ure current is
obt ained by subt ract ing t he holm ic drop in t he arm at u re win ding wi th respect t o t he
arm at u re current is represent ed b y t he st r aight line passin g t hrough t he origin as
shown Figu re 4 .31 . Wh en t he ordinat es of st r aight line represent in g th e vol t ag e drop
in t h e arm at u re win din g ( I aRa) ar e d educt ed f rom t hose of curve I I , a cure I I I is
obt ained, which given t h e ext ern al charact eri st i c of th e gener at or i.e. curve I I I =
curve I I - I a Ra. Ext ern al ch aract erist ics cl early indicat e t hat t he t erm in al volt age falls
as l oad on th e gen er at or in crease.
4 .1 0 .2 . Shunt - W ound Ge ne ra t or
I n t his t ype of generat or, t he field winding is con not ed across t he arm at u re win ding.
Th e gener at or will t herefore build u p it s own m agn et i sm . The volt age across t he
shun t field win din g is equal t o t he t er m inal volt age of t he g en er at or as discussed
abov e, t he t erm i nal vol t age of t he gen erat or will fall down du e t o t he arm at ure
react ion an d t he oh mic drop in t he arm at u re w in ding, as t he l oad on t he generat or
in creases. Thus t he volt age across t he f iel d will not rem ain const ant as t h e load on
t he sh un t gen erat or in creases. The volt age acr oss t h e field winding decreases wit h
an in crease in t h e load current , which causes a decr ease in t h e exci ting curren t . The
t er m in al volt age f urt her f alls down in case of a sh un t generat or because of decr eases
in excit at ion cu rrent as explain ed earlier with in creasin g load current . Hen ce t h e
t ot al decr eases in t he volt ag e in case of shu nt gener at ors is m ush great er t han in
separ at ely excit ed gen erat ors.
For obt aining t he relat ion bet w een t he t erm in al volt age an d l oad current , t he
gener at or is conn ect ed as shown in Figu re 4.3 2 ( a) . Fi gure 4 .32 ( b) shows t he
ex t ern al charact eri st i cs, of a part icul ar generat or, when it is run as a separat ely
ex cit ed gener at or ( curve I V) and when run as a shun t generat or ( Curve I I I ).
Com parin g t hese t wo curv es for t he sam e gen er at or, it is observed t h at wit h self -
ex cit at ion the ext ernal char act eri sti c is lower t h an t hat obt ained wi th separat e
ex cit at ion .
( a)
( b)
Figure 4.32 ext ern al ch aract erist ics of sh unt woun d gen erat or
Th e basic reason for t he dif ference i n t he t wo curves is t hat , in t he form er case t he
shun t field current decr eases wit h decreasi ng t erm inal volt age, whil e in t he case of
27
separ at e excit at ion t he field current rem ain s con st ant . I f t h e load on t h e sh unt
gener at or is gradually in creased by decr easing t h e resist ance in t h e ext ern al circuit ,
it s t erm inal vol t age t ends t o f all by a process of ex act ly a reverse nat ure t o t hat of
building up. Up t o t h e norm al load current , st eady con diti ons are obt ained wi t hout a
serious fall in t he t erm in al volt age as sh own by t he t hick line of cu rve I I I . Wh en t he
load on t he sh unt gen erat or in crease beyond it s full load value, t he drop in t erm in al
volt age becom es m ore appr eciable as shown by t h e dot t ed line of cu rve I I I of Figure
4.3 2(b) .
Up t o t he point D on cu rve I I I , t he load current increases u pon decreasin g t he
ex t ern al resi st ance in the load circuit , wh ere t h e t erm in al vol t age has f all en t o an
appr eci ably low value. The curren t correspondin g t o t his con dition is generally
t er m ed as critical curren t I c. A furt her decrease in t he ext ernal load resi st ance
beyond t h e poin t D, does not increase t he cu rrent in t h e load circui t , but on t he
ot h er h an d decreases it , because t h e l oad resi st ance sh un t s t h e f iel d winding t o such
an ext ent t he t er m inal vol t age decreases m ore r apidly t han t h e load resi st ance.
Hence t h e ex t ern al charact erist ic t u rns back an d t he t erm in al volt age is zero wh en
t he arm at ure is act ually short - circui t ed. The arm at u re cu rren t at t hi s inst ant is
shown by a vale OE t hat is purely due t o residual m agn et i sm of t h e gener at or. To
obt ain t he in t ernal charact erist ics of t he dc shun t gener at or, t he su m of t he volt age
drop in t he ar m at ure win din g inclu ding t he b rush cont act drop i s added t o t he
ex t ern al ch aract erist ic, t hus obt ainin g curve I I represent i ng t his charact eri sti c.
Fi gure 4.3 2 also shows t he no load volt age Eo of t he gen erat or represent ed by t h e
dot t ed lin e I . The volt age drop bet w een cu rve I I an d line I is du e t o r educt ion in flux
caused by t h e com bined act ion of arm at ure react ion and t h e fall caused by t h e
com bin ed act ion of arm at ure react i on and t he fall in t h e shunt field current .
4 .1 0 .3 . Se rie s W ound Ge ne ra t or
I n series- wound gen erat ors, t he fi eld winding is con nect ed in series wit h t he
arm at u re winding. Thu s, t h e current in t he field wi nding is t he sam e as t he cu rrent
in t he ar m at u re win din g. I f t h e gen erat or is driven at t he const ant r at ed sp eed, and
t he arm at u re current is varied by v arying t he ext ern al resist an ce in t h e load circuit ,
a cu rve I I I of Figure 4.33 is obt ained by plot ting t he t er m in al volt age ver ses t he load
curren t or arm at ure curren t .
VL
I
s
tic
ris
II
te
s
ac
tic
ar
tic ris
Ch
III
te
ac
s
n
io
ar
at
ri s
C h
tiz
te
Ch al
ne
ac
al e rn
ag
ar
t
M
In
rn
te
Ex
Figure 4.33 ext ernal charact erist ics of series woun d gen erat or
Th e in t ern al or t ot al char act eri st ic of t he sam e gen er at or is represen t ed by cu rve I I
in Figure 4.33 whi ch can be obt ained by addin g t he t erm inal volt age ( curv e I I I ).
Curve I , in Figure 4.33, sh ows t he m agnet izat ion charact erist ics of t h e sam e
gener at or. The volt age drop bet w een t h e curves I an d I I is caused by ar m at ure
react ion .
28
4 .1 0 .4 . Com pound Gene ra t or

Th e shun t generat or already discussed h as a drooping ext ernal ch aract erist ic, i .e.
t he t erm i nal vol t age falls with load, whereas series gener at ors have an ext ern al
charact erist ic, in whi ch the t er m in al vol t age ri ses wit h th e load. Hence, a seri es field
windin g in dc gen erat ors can com pen sat e for t he t en dency of th e shu nt generat or t o
lose volt age wit h load, t h us m aint aining pract ically a con st ant volt age at all loads.
For t hi s reason , t he m aj ori t y of dc generat ors in service h av e bot h sh unt and series
windin gs. Such a dc gener at or h aving bot h shunt and series windings is called a
com pound generat or.
Figure 4.3 4 t he ext ernal charact erist ics of dc com poun d generat or.
Curve I sh ows t he ext ernal charact erist ic, in which t he series ex ci t at ion i s such t hat
t he t erm inal vol t age on full load is t he sam e as on n o load an d t h e t erm in al volt age
rem ai ns pract ically con st ant from no load t o full load. A dc com poun d generat or
gi vin g such an ext ern al charact eri st ic i s called le ve l- com pou nde d gen erat or. The
ex t ern al charact erist ic shown by cu rve I I indicat es t h at t he t erm inal volt age ri ses
with t he load. Such a com pound generat or wit h t his ex t ern al ch aract erist ic is said t o
be ov e r com pounde d gen er at or. The com poun d generat or havin g an ext ern al
charact erist ic of th e n at u re represent ed by cu rve I I I i s called unde r com poun de d
gener at or.
I n all t h e above t hree t ypes of com pound generat ors, i .e. lev el- com poun ded , over-
com pounded an d un der- com pounded, t h e series fiel d ai ds t he sh unt fi eld an d t hu s
t hese com pou nd gen erat ors can also be called as cum ula t ive com pound
gener at or. Cum ulat ive com pound gen erat or is m ost widel y used in pract ice. Th ei r
ex t ern al ch aract erist ic can m at ch t o all classes of service. These t ypes of gener at ors
used for elect ri c railways, for suppl yin g current of incandescent lam ps, et c. I n case
t he series fi eld opposes t he shu nt fi eld, t he ext ern al char act eristic of t he gener at or
will be highl y drooping wit h large dem agn et i zing arm at ure r eact ion as shown by
curve I V in Fi gure 4 .34. Su ch a com pound gener at or said to be diffe re nt ia l-
com pound generat or. Differen tial com pound generat ors find t h eir field of
applicat ion in arc weldi ng wh ere a large volt age drop is desi rable, wh en t he cu rrent
in crease.
Ex a m ple 4 .6 The open ci rcuit ch aract erist ic of generat or dri ven at 50 0 rpw is as
follows:
Field cu rren t , I sh 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1.0 1 .2 1.4 1 .6

(A)
Em f , Eg (V) 40 66 86 1 01 112 1 21 128 1 33
Th e m ach ine is connect ed as sh un t generat or an d dri ven at 50 0 rpm . Fin d
29
i) open circuit vol t age, wh en t he field circuit resi st ance is 94 ,

ii) t he addi tion al resist an ce r equired in t h e fi el d circuit t o reduce t he em f t o 1 10
V and
iii) critical valu e of shun t field resist ance.
30
Solu t ion
Fi gure 4. 35 sh ows t he m agn et i zat ion charact eri st ic drawn as p er t he given
of 94 . An y poin t on t he fi eld resist ance line can be found ou t corresponding to a

dat a. Lin e OA h as been drawn as t h e fi eld resist an ce line, represen t ing a r esi st ance
part icular v alu e of field cu rren t , for exam ple, w hen t h e f iel d current is 1 .0 A, volt age
across t he shu nt field will be
Vsh = I sh  Rsh = 1.0  94 = 9 4 V,
t hu s est ablishin g a poin t B on t h e field resi st ance line. Th e field resi st ance line is
drawn j oining the poin t B wi t h t h e origin O.
i) Th e fi eld resist ance line OA cut s t h e m agnet izat ion curve at t h e poin t A. Hence
t he gen er at or will develop an em f corresponding t o t he operat i ng poin t A,
which is equal to OC or 126 V.
ii) Corresponding t o t he volt ag e of 110 V, a h orizont al lin e is drawn, whi ch cu t s
t he OCC at t he poin t D. Join t he point D with t he poin t O. Th e lin e OD
represen t s t he field resist an ce lin e t hat would gen er at e a volt age of 110 V.
Fi gu re 4 .3 5 Mag n et i zat io n cur ve f or exam p l e 4. 6

Hence t o gener at e a volt age of 11 0 volt s, t he t ot al resist ance of t he shu nt field
circuit shoul d be
RF   116.7 
70
0.6
Resi st ance of t he sh un t fiel d win ding, Rsh is 94 . Thu s additional resist ance in t he
shun t field ci rcuit i s
Radd = 116 .7 - 94 = 22.7 
iii) Criti cal valu e of shu nt field resist an ce is obt ained by drawin g a t angen t f rom
t he origin t o the initial portion of t he m agnet izat i on cu rve. Line DE represen t s
t he critical resist an ce of t he shun t field.
Thus critical resist ance,
R cr 
40
 200 
0.2
Ex a m ple 4 .7 The open circuit charact eri st i c of a dc generat or at rpm is as follows:
31
Field cu rrent , I sh ( A) 0.5 1.0 1 .5 2.0 2 .5 3: 0 3 .5
open circui t volt age, VOCC(V) 60 120 138 1 45 149 1 51 152
resist ance of shun t field circuit bei ng 60 . Calculat e,

Th e m achine is conn ect ed as shu nt gen er at or and driven at 1 000 rpm . The
i) t h e open circui t volt age,

ii) t h e critical value of t h e fi el d resist an ce,
iii) t h e t er m inal volt age when t h e load h as resist an ce of 4. 0 , and
react ion. The arm at u re resist ance is 0.1 .

i v) t h e load cu rren t when t he t erm in al volt age is 100 V. Neglect ar m at ure
Solu t ion
pl ot t ed in Fi gure above. The resist ance of t he sh un t field circui t is 60  an d as such

Th e open circuit charact eri st i c of t he dc shu nt gener at or at 10 00 rpm h as been
valu e of 60 , for exam ple, corresponding to fiel d current of 2 A, t h e vol t age is 120
field resi st ance line OA has been drawn . Any point on t his line gi ves a resi st ance
V ( poin t F) .
i) Th e field resi st ance line OA corresponding t o t he field resist ance of 60  cu t s
t he OCC at point A. Hen ce t h e shu nt generat or will generat e a volt age
correspon din g t o t h e oper at ing point A which is equal t o OC or 14 9 V.Thu s
open circuit vol t age = 1 49 V.
ii) Tangen t OE i s drawn t o t h e OCC from t he origin O t o find out t he cri tical
valu e of shu nt field resist ance. The resist ance represent ed by t h is t angent
 120  . Hen ce critical resist ance of shunt fi eld = 120 .

120
line OE is
1 .0
iii) Let t h e t erm i nal volt age across t he load of 4  resist ance be V volt s
Th en t he load cu rren t , I L 
V
A
4.0
Shunt field resist an ce = 60 
Thus shun t field curren t , I sh 

V
A
60
For shun t generat or, I a = I L+ I sh
  
V V 16V
4 60 60
 V A
4
15
Volt age at n o load, Eg = V + I aRa
V  Eg  Ia R a
Term i nal volt age,
4 
 149   V   0.1
 15 
 149  0.0267 V
Or V 1  0.0267  149
Term inal volt age, V   145.1 V

149
1.0267
i v) Term i nal volt age, V = 100 V
32
Volt age at n o load, Eg = V + I aRa

or I aRa = Eg  V = 1 49 1 00 = 49 V
Ia   490 A
49
Arm at u re current ,
0 .1
Shunt field current , I sh    1.67 A

V 100
60 60
Hence load current , I L = 490 1.67 = 488.3 3 A
0Ω
6
sh
R
Figure 4 .36 Open circui t charact eristic for ex am ple 4 .7

Ex a m ple 4 .8 The OCC of a dc gen erat or when driven at 7 50 rpm gave t h e following
resul t s:
Field curren t , I sh ( A) 0.5 1 .0 1.5 2 .0 2.5
Em f, Eg ( V) 50 84 1 05 120 1 31
excit e wit h sh unt field resist an ces equal t o ( a) 70  ( b) 55  ?

i) I f t he m achin e is run as sh un t gen erat or at 750 rpm , t o what volt age will it
ii) What is t he cri tical value of t he shun t field resist an ce?

iii) What is t he cri tical speed wh en t he shun t field resist ance is 70 0 ?
i v) With t he shun t field resist ance equal t o 55 , what reduct ion in speed m u st
be m ad e t o m ake t he open circuit volt age equ al t o 100 V?
33
Generated emf, Eg, V
Figure 4 .37 Open circui t charact eristic for ex am ple 4 .8

Solu t ion
OCC of t he sh unt gen erat or at 750 rpm h as been plot t ed in Figure 4 .37 as per t he
 110 V 
gi ven dat a. Lin e OA has b een drawn t o represen t field resist an ce lin e correspon ding
t o 5 5    . Anot her line OB has b een drawn , which represen t s f iel d resi st ance
 2 .0 A 
 70 V 
of 70    .
 1.0 A 
i .) ( a) When t he field resist an ce is equ al t o 70 , t he gen erat or will gen erat e a
70  field resi st ance li ne and t he OCC of t he gen er at or. Th e open circuit

volt age corresponding t o t h e operat in g poin t B, which is a com m on poin t on
volt age is equal t o OC or 105 V. Hence g en er at or will excit e t o t h e volt age of

105 V.
( b) Wh en t h e field resist ance i s 55 , t h e shun t generat or will exci t e t o a
volt age given by t he operat in g poin t A, at whi ch t he 55  field resist an ce line
cut s t he OCC of t h e gen er at or. Th e correspon din g volt age is equal t o OD or
128 V. Th us t he generat or will excit e t o t h e vol tag e of 128 V.
ii.) A t angen t lin e OE is drawn t o t he OCC of the generat or t o find ou t t he cri tical
resist ance of t he shunt fi eld. Th e resist an ce repr esent ed by OE is t he
 100  . Thus cri tical

100 V
critical shunt field resist ance, wh ich is equal t o
1A
valu e of shunt fi eld resist ance = 100 .
iii.) Th e shunt fi el d resist ance i n thi s case is 70 . Criti cal speed can be obt ained
by er ect in g a perpendicular from t he point F, so as t o cu t t h e 70  field
resist ance line at G an d criti cal shunt fi el d resi st ance lin e OE at point H. Then,

FG critical speed
FH 750
critical speed   750

FG
Or
FH
34

FG 70
But
FH 100
critical speed   750

70
 525 rpm
Thus 100
i v.) Open circuit volt age Eg = 1 00 V

Shunt field resist an ce = 5 5 
Wi th shu nt field resist an ce equal t o 57 , t h e g en er at or gen erat es a volt age of 1 28
V at 75 0 rpm . To generat e 10 0 V wi th t h e sam e field resi st ance, t he oper at ing point
has t o be M i nst ead of A, for whi ch t he sp eed of t h e gen erat or has t o be redu ced.
Th e speed in su ch a case can be found out by dr awing a p erpen dicul ar from t he
point M, so as t o m eet t he OCC at poin t N. Then,

LM desired speed
LN 750
Hence,
desiredl speed  750   750 

LM 100
 652 rpm
LN 115
Reduct ion in speed = 7 50  6 52 = 98 rpm

Ex a m ple 4 .9 A dc generat or has t h e following open circuit ch aract erist ics at 8 00
rpm :
Field cu rrent , I sh ( A) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Gener at ed em f , Eg ( V) 10 112 1 98 2 32 252 266
Fi nd t h e no load t erm i nal volt age wh en t h e m achine ru ns as a sh un t gen erat or at

1000 rpm . The resist an ce of t h e field circuit is 70. What addit ion al fiel d regul at or
resist ance will be required t o redu ce t h e vol t ag e t o 270 V?
Solu t ion
Th e open circuit ch aract erist ic of t he dc generat or has been given at 80 0 rpm .
However, t his generat or run s as a shu nt t ype at 10 00 rpm . As t he speed of t he
gener at or has i ncreased, t h e em f generat ed correspondin g t o t he sam e field cu rrent
will in crease an d is given by
PNZ
Eg   KN
60  a
for t he sam e fi eld curren t

Eg2 N2
Hence,
E g1 N1
E g 2  E g1   E g1 
N2 1000
Or
N1 800
Based on t his, the readings for t h e OCC at 100 0 rpm will be:
Open Circuit Charact eri st i cs at 10 00 rpm
I f (A) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Eg (V) 12 .5 1 40 2 47. 5 290 315 332 .5
35
Fi gure 4.3 8 shows t he open circuit ch aract erist ics of t he sh un t gen erat or dri ven at
 210 V 
1000 rpm , which h as been plot t ed based on t he cal culat ed values of generat ed em f
Eg2 . A field resist ance lin e OA represent in g resist an ce of 70    h as been

 3A 
drawn.
Fi gure 4 .38 Magn et i zat ion curve f or exam ple 4.9

i .) The fi eld resist an ce line of 70  cut s t h e OCC at t h e point A. t he sh unt
gen er at or will gen erat e volt age equal t o OC or 330 V. Hence no load
t er m inal volt age is 33 0 V.
ii.) The no load t erm i nal volt age is 27 0 V. Correspon din g t o 27 0 V, a horizon t al
line FD sh own dot t ed i n Figure 4 .38 has b een d rawn , which cu t s t he OCC at
D. Hence t o gener at e 27 0 V, t h e oper at in g point m ust be D. The point D is
j oin ed wi t h the origin, t hus givin g t he resist an ce lin e OD correspon din g t o
t h e operat in g point D.
Th e resist an ce repr esent ed by t h e line OD
  112.5 
270 V
2.4A
Shun t field resist an ce, Rsh = 70 
Hence additional resi st an ce required in t he field circuit i s
1 12 .5 70 = 42 .5.
4.11. VOLTAGE REGULATI ON

Th e change in out pu t volt age of a gener at or from no-load t o full-load divided by t he
full-load volt age, is call ed t he volt age regulat ion.
VNL  VFL
V %   100%
VFL
I t is an im port ant param et er in the perform ance of generat or by provi din g an
inform at ion t hat how const an t t he ou t pu t volt age is wit h load.
4.12. DC M OTORS
36
W ork ing pr in ciple

Th e prin cipl e upon whi ch a dc m ot or works i s ver y sim ple. I f a current carr ying
conduct or is placed in a m agn et i c field, m echanical force is experienced on t he
conduct or, t h e direct ion of which i s gi ven by Flem i ng's l eft hand rule ( also call ed
m ot or rule) and hence t he conduct or m oves in the direct ion of force. The m agn it u de
of t he m ech an ical force experien ced n t he con duct or is gi ven by
F = B I c l c, [ Newt on s]
Wh ere B is t h e fi eld st ren gt h in Teslas ( wb/ m 2 ) , I c i s t h e current flowin g t hrou gh t he
conduct or in am p eres and l c i s t h e l en gt h of condu ct or in m et ers. Wh en t he m ot or is
conn ect ed t o t h e d c Supply m ain s, a di rect cu rren t passes t h rough t h e bru shes and
com m u t at or t o t h e arm at u re win din g. Whil e it passes t hrough t he com m u t at or i t is
convert ed in t o a.c. so t h at t he grou p of conduct ors un der successive field poles
carries cu rren t s in t h e opposit e direct ions, as sh own in Figure 4.3 9. Also t he
di rect ion of cu rrent in t h e in di vidual con du ct or rev er ses as t h ey pass away f rom t he
influence of one pole t o t h at of t h e n ext .
Fi gure 4. 39 schem at ic diagram of 4- pole dc m otor

I n Figure 4 .39 , a 4- pole d.c m ot or i s shown when t he fil ed an d arm at ure circuit s are
conn ect ed across dc supply m ain s. Let t h e current in arm at ure con duct ors be
ou t wards u nder t he N- poles ( shown by dot s) and inwards under S-pol es ( sh own by
crosses). By applying Flem ing’s left h an d rul e Figu re 4 .40 , t he direct ion of force on
each conduct or can be det erm ined, which h as been illu st rat ed in Figure 4.3 9. From
Fi gure 4.3 9 it is observed t h at each conduct or experiences a force which t ends t o
t he m ot or arm at u re in clockwise di rect ion. These forces collect ively produce a
drivin g t orqu e.
Fi gure 4. 40 Left - hand rule for det erm inat ion of the di rect ion of force
4.13. COM PARI SON OF M OTOR AN D GEN ERATOR ACTI ON
37
As m ent i oned above, dc m ot or and t he dc generat or ar e t h e sam e devices, at least

t heoret ically. Th e m achin e operat ing as a generat or is driven by som e ext ern al
drivin g force and dc ou t pu t is obt ain ed from it wh ere as t h e m achine operat ing as a
m ot or i s su pplied by elect ri c cu rrent and m echanical rot at ion i s produced.
Let u s fi rst consider t he gen er at or operat ion. I n Fi gure 4. 41( a) dc m achin e driven , in
a clockwise direct ion, by it s prim e m over and suppl yin g direct curren t t o ext ern al
load ci rcuit is shown. The m achin e i s working as a g en er at or and t he direct ion of t he
gener at ed em f and curren t flowing t hrough t he arm at u re con du ct ors, as det er m in ed
by Flem in g's right h an d rule, will be as shown in t h e Figure 4 .41 ( a) .
( a) ( b)
Figure 4.41 ( a) Generat or act ion ; ( b) Mot or act ion
Sin ce t he arm at ure is carryin g cu rren t and rot at in g in a m agnet i c field, Elect ro-
m agn et i c forces will be given by Fl em ing's lef t h an d rule. Th ese El ect ro m agnet ic
forces act i ng on th e arm at ure con du ct ors will collect ively resu lt in torque act ing on
t he ar m at ure i n a coun t er- clockwise direct ion ( see Tback in Fi gure 4.41 ( a) ) . This
El ect ro- m agnet ic t orque, t h erefore, opposes t h e ou t si de driving t orque, which is
causin g t h e rot at ion of t he m ach ine and called t he backw ard t orque(Tback ) or
m agn et ic drag on t he con du ct ors. Th e prim e m over has t o work against t h is
m agn et i c drag an d t he work so done is convert ed in t o elect ri cal energy. The larger
t he ou t put cu rrent , m ore will be t he back ward t orqu e and, t herefore, m ore
m echanical en ergy will be required t o be supplied t o t he gen erat or.
I n Figu re 4 .41( b) t he sam e m ach ine oper at ing as a m ot or is sh own . This operat ion
t ak es place when t he prim e m ov er i s u ncou pled from t he m ach ine an d t h e m achi ne
is connect ed t o t he dc su pply m ain s. Wi th t he di rect ions of fi eld and arm at ure
curren t shown in t h e Figure 4.41( b) t he t orque dev eloped by Elect ro- m agnet ic
act ions will rot at e t h e m achine in a clockwi se direct ion ( as det er m ined by Flem ing's
left - hand rule) . The friction of t h e m ach ine an d t he m echanical load t h at t h e m ot or
is drivin g will exert a t orque in count er- clockwise di rect ion, opposing t he rot at ion of
t he m ot or. Since t he ar m at u re con du ct ors are r evolvin g in t he m agn et i c fiel d, em f is
in duced in t he arm at u re con du ct ors. Th e direct ion of em f so indu ced, as det erm in ed
by Fl em ing's right hand rule, is in direct opposit ion t o t h e applied volt age ( see Eb in
Fi gure 4.4 1( b) ) . Th at is why t h e in du ced em f in m ot or oft en is call ed t h e cou nt er
em f or back em f Eb . Th e appli ed vol t age m u st be large enough t o overcom e t h is
back em f and t o send t h e curren t t h rough t he resist ance of t he ar m at ure. The
el ect ric energy su pplied to overcom e t h is opposition is convert ed int o m ech an ical
en ergy d ev el opm ent in t he arm at ure.
38
Thus we see t h at an em f i s gen er at ed in bot h gener at or an d m ot or, t herefore, t h er e

is a g en er at or act ion in bot h m ot or an d gener at or operat ion . However, in generat or
operat ion t he generat ed em f produces t h e ar m at ure cu rrent , wher e as, in m ot or
operat ion t he g en er at ed em f opposes t h e current direct ion . We also observe t hat
El ect ro- m agnet ic t orque is developed in generat or as w ell as m ot or i .e. t h er e is a
m ot or act ion in bot h gen erat or an d m ot or, operat ion . However, in m ot or operat i on
t he Elect ro- m agnet i c t orqu e dev eloped cau ses t he arm at ure rot at ion, where as i n a
gener at or operat ion t he El ect ro- m agnet ic t orque produced opposes t h e rot at ion.
4.14. TYPES OF DC M OTORS

All dc m ot ors m ust r ecei ve t heir ex ci t at i on f rom an ext ernal sou rce; t herefore, t h ey
ar e separ at ely ex cit ed. Th ei r field and the arm at u re win dings are con nect ed,
however, i n one of th e t h ree diff erent ways em pl oyed for sel f- excit ed dc gener at ors,
an d so according t he field arran gem ent t h ere ar e t hree t ypes of dc m ot ors nam ely;
i) Series woun d ii) shunt woun d and iii) com poun d wound.
4.13.1. Se rie s w ound m ot or
A series m ot or is one in which t he fiel d windin g is connect ed in seri es wi t h t he
arm at u re so t hat t h e whole current drawn by t he m ot or passes t hrou gh t h e field
windin g as w ell as ar m at ure. Con nect ion diagram is shown in Fi gure 4. 42.
i. I a  I se  I L
ii. Eb  VL  I a Ra  Rse 

iii. Pdrawn  VL  I L
iv. Pdev  Eb  I a
Figure 4 .42 conn ect ion diagram of series- woun d m ot or

4.13.2. Shunt w ound m otor
A shunt wou nd mot or is on e in which t he fiel d win ding i s connect ed i n parallel with
arm at u re as illust rat ed in Figu re 4 .43. The cu rren t su pplied t o t h e m ot or is divided
in to t wo pat hs, one t hrou gh t he shunt fi eld win din g and secon d t h rou gh t he
arm at u re.
I m porta nt re la t ionsh ips

i. I sh  L
V
Rsh
ii. I L  I sh  I a
iii. Eb  VL  I a Ra
iv. Pdrawn  VL  I L
v. Pdev  Eb  I a
Figure 4 .43 conn ect ion diagram of sh un t- woun d m ot or
39
4.13.3. Com pound w ou nd m ot or

A com poun d woun d m ot or has bot h seri es and sh unt windings which can be
conn ect ed as sh ort - shun t or lon g shu nt wit h arm at ure winding as illu st rat ed in figure
4.4 4.
i. I se  I L
I m port a nt re la t ionships
E I R V I R
ii. I sh  b a a  L se se
Rsh Rsh
iii. I L  I sh  I a
iv. E b  V L  I a Ra  I L Rse
v. Pdrawn  VL  I L
vi. Pdev  Eb  I a
( a) sh ort - shun t com poun d m otor
i. I a  I se
E b  I a R a  R se  V L
ii. I sh  
R sh R sh
iii. I L  I sh  I L
iv. Eb  V L  I a Ra  Rse 
v. P drel  V L  I L
vi. Pdev  Eb  I a
( b) long - shu nt com poun d m otor

Figure 4.4 4 con nect ion diagram of com poun d- wound m ot or
4.15. DI RECTI ON OF ROTATI ON

I t is clear t h at , from principl e operat ion of dc m ot or, if the arm at u re curren t wer e
rev er sed by rev ersin g th e arm at ure t erm inal lead s, but l eavi ng th e fiel d polarit y t he
sam e, t orque would be dev eloped in a count er- clock wi se direct ion . Li kewise, if t he
field pol arit y were r ev er sed leaving t he arm at u re current as shown t orque would be
developed in a count er- clockwise direct ion. However if both t he arm at u re cu rren t
di rect ion and fi el d polarit y w ere reversed t orque woul d be developed in a clockwise
di rect ion as before. Hen ce t h e direct ion of rot at ion of a m ot or can be r ev er sed by
rev er sin g t he cu rren t t h rou gh eit h er t he arm at ure windin g or the field coils. I f t he
curren t t h rou gh bot h is rever sed, t he m ot or will continu e t o rot at e in t he sam e
direct ion as bef ore.
4.16. SI GN I FI CAN CE OF BACK EM F

As explained earli er, when t he m ot or ar m at ure con tinues t o rot at e du e t o m ot or
act ion, t he arm at u re conduct ors cut t h e m agn et ic flux and t herefore em f s are
in duced in t hem . Th e direct ion of t his induced em f known as b ack em f is such t h at is
opposes t h e applied volt age. Since t he back em f i s in du ced du e t o t h e gener at or
act ion , t h e m agnit u de of i t is, t herefore , given by t h e sam e expr ession as t h at for
t he gener at ed em f in a generat or
40
ZN P
Eb   volts, 4 .1
60 a
Th e sym bols h aving t heir u su al si gnificance
Figure 4 .45 Equival en t ci rcuit of a m ot or Arm at ure

Th e equi valen t ci rcuit of a m ot or i s shown in Figure 4 .45. The arm at ure circui t is
equivalen t t o a source of em f Eb in series wit h a resist an ce, Ra put across a d c
supply m ains of V volt s. I t is evi dent from Figure3 t h at t h e applied volt age V m u st
be large enou gh t o balan ce bot h t he vol t ag e drop in arm at ure resist an ce and t he
back em f at all ti m es i.e.
V = Eb + I a Ra 4 .2
Wh ere V is t he applied vol t age across t he ar m at u re, Eb is the induced em f in t he
arm at u re by gen er at or act ion; I a i s t he arm at ure cu rrent and Ra is t he ar m at ure
resist ance.
Equat ion ( 4.2 ) m ay be r ewri t t en as I a  V  Eb t o give ar m at ure cu rrent in t erm s of

Ra
applied volt age V, i ndu ced em f Eb and arm at ure resist an ce, Ra.
As obvious from Eqs.( 4.1 ) an d ( 4.2 ) t he induced em f in t he arm at ure of a m ot or, Eb
depends am ong ot her fact ors u pon t he arm at ure speed and arm at ure cu rrent
depends u pon th e back em f Eb for a const an t appli ed volt age an d ar m at ure
resist ance. I f t he ar m at ure speed is high, back em f Eb will be l arge an d t her ef ore
arm at u re current becom es sm all . I f t he speed t o t h e arm at ure is low, t hen back em f
Eb will be l ess an d arm at ure cu rrent I a will be m ore resulting in dev elopm ent of large
t orque. Th us it is evi dent t h at back em f Eb act s li ke a govern or i.e. it m akes a m ot or
self-regulat ing so t hat it draws as m u ch cu rren t as j u st requ ired.
41
4.17. TORQUE EQUATI ON

Th e back em f of dc m ot or is given by
E b  V  Ia R a 4 .3
Mult iplyin g bot h sides of Eq. (4 .3) by I a,
E b I a  VI a  I 2a R a 4 .4
I n Eq. (4.4 ) VI a = Tot al elect rical power supplied t o t h e Arm at u re of t h e dc m ot or

( arm at u re in pu t ) and I a2 Ra = power wast ed in th e arm at ure (arm at ure copper loss).
Th e differen ce bet ween t h e arm at ure input and t he arm at u re copper loss is equal t o
t he m ech anical power devel oped by t he arm at u r e of t he m ot or.
Hence, m echani cal power developed = Eb I a, wat t s 4.5
I f Ta is t he t orque in Newt on m et er developed by t h e arm at ure of t he m ot or, running
at N revolu tions per m inu t e, t h en
2 N. Ta
Mechani cal power developed, Pmech  watts 4 .6
60
Equat ing Eqs. ( 4.5) and (4.6 )
2 N Ta
E b Ia 
60
Torque, Ta 
4 .7
(60) E b I a
2
.
N
However back em f ,
p NZ
Eb  4 .8
60.a
Substit ut ing Equation (4.8 ) int o equat ion (4. 7)
60 PNZI a P I a Z
Torque, Ta   0.159.
2 60 a N
. [ N .m]
a
For a part icular dc m ot or; P, Z & a are fixed. Hen ce,
Ta   Ia
Th erefore, t he t orqu e dev el oped by t h e arm at u re of dc m ot or is proportional t o t he
produ ct of arm at u re current and t h e flux per pole. For dc shunt m ot or, th e flux per
pole is pract ically const ant , h ence t he t orqu e d ev el oped i s direct l y proportion t o t he
arm at u re current , i.e.
Ta  I a ( for dc sh unt m ot or)

For dc series m ot or, t he flu x per pole is direct ly proportional t o I a h en ce t he t orque
developed is direct ly proportion t o t he square of t h e arm at ure curren t , i.e.
Ta  I 2a ( for a dc series m ot or)
4.18. SPEED EQUATI ON
P N.Z
The back em f f or dc m ot or is given by
Eb  volts
60a
42
Also, E b  V  Ia R a
P N.Z
Com bing t he above t wo equ at ions,
 V  Ia R a
60a
N  ( V  I a R a ).
60.a I
PZ 
Or .
V  I a R a 
For a given part icular m otor, P, Z an d a are fixed. Hence
N K K b
E
 
Thus t he speed of dc m ot or i s di rect ly proport ional t o the vol t ag e applied t o t he
arm at u re or t he back em f & i nversely proportion al t o t h e fl ux per pol e. For dc sh unt
m ot or i s direct l y proportional t o t h e back em f i.e. N  Eb . For dc series m ot or, t he

m ot or, t h e fl ux per pol e i s approxim at ely con st an t and hence t h e speed of dc sh unt
flu x per pole is direct ly proportional t o t h e arm at ure cu rrent and hence t h e load on
t he m ot or. Thu s t he sp eed of dc series m ot or is inversely proportion al t o t h e flux per
pole or t he arm at u re current i.e. N 

1

. Th e speed of t h e m ot or increases wit h t h e
fall in flu x.
300 A at t he speed of 40 0 revolution s per m inut e. The flu x per pole is 75  10 - 3 Wb.
Ex a m ple 4 .1 0 The arm at u re of a 6 pole, 6 circuit dc sh un t m ot or t akes
Th e num ber of arm at u re t urn s i s 500. The t orque l ost in windage, frict ion and i ron
losses can be assum ed as 2.5 per cen t . Cal culat e ( i) the t orqu e developed by t he
arm at u re, ( ii) shaft t orque an d (iii) shaft power in kW.
Solu t ion
PI a Z
i) Th e t orqu e dev eloped by t he arm at u re of a dc m ot or i s given by
Ta  0.159 N.m
A
Num ber of poles of shunt m ot or, P = 6
Arm at u re win ding has 6 circuit s, t hus, A = 6
Arm at u re current , I a = 3 00 A
Num ber of arm at u re t u rns = 50 0
Thus t ot al condu ct ors on t he arm at ure, Z = 2  5 00 = 100 0
Fl ux per pole,  = 75  1 0 - 3 Wb
Substit ut ing t hese v alu es in t he above equ at ion
6  75  103  300  1000

Arm at u re t orque, Ta  0.159  3577.5 N.m
6
ii) Torque lost in windage, f rict ion an d iron losses
= 2 .5% of Ta
= 0 .02 55  3577.5 = 89 .44 N.m
Thus, shaft t orque, Tsh = 3577.58 9.4 4 = 3488.0 6 N m
iii) Shaft power,
43
2NTsh Z
Tsh 
60  1000
kW
2   400  3488.06

60  1000
 146.22 kW
Ex a m ple 4 .1 1 A 440 V dc m ot or t ak es an ar m at ure current of 60 A
when i t s sp eed is 7 50 rpm . I f t he arm at u re r esist an ce is, 0.2 5, calculat e t h e t orque
produ ced.
Solu t ion Back em f developed, Eb = V  I a Ra = 4 4060 0.25 = 42 5 V
425  60
Torqu e produced, Ta    324.68 N .m
E b Ia
2 N / 60 2   750 / 60
Ex a m ple 4 .1 2 A 10 hp 2 30V shun t m otor t akes an arm at ure curren t of
6A from 2 30 V line at no load and ru ns at 1,2 00 rpm . The ar m at ure resist an ce is
0.2 5. Det er m in e t he speed and elect ro- m agn et i c t orqu e when t h e arm at ure t akes
36 A with the sam e flux.
Solu t ion No-load back em f, Ebo = V  I ao Ra = 230 6 0 .25 = 228.5 V
No-load speed, N0 = 1200 rpm .
Wh en arm at u re t akes 36 A
Back em f developed Eb1 = V  I a1 Ra = 230360.2 5 = 2 21
Sin ce E b  N
E b1 1 N1 N 1
    flux is sam e i. e. 1 = 0
E b0 2 N 0 N 0
N1   N0   1200  1161 rpm

E b1 221
Or
E b0 228.5
221  36
El ect ro- m agnet ic t orque developed, Ta    65.44 N.m
E bI a
2 N1 / 60 2  1161 / 60
Ex a m ple 4 .1 3 The arm at ure of a 4- pole dc sh unt m ot or has a lap
windin g accom m odat ed is 60 slot s, each cont aining 2 0 con du ct ors. I f t he useful flux
per pole be 23 m Wb, calculat e t he t ot al t orque dev el oped in Newt on m et er s wh en
t he ar m at u re cu rrent i s 50 A.
Solu t ion
Fl ux per pole,  = 23 m Wb = 0 .023 Wb
Tot al nu m ber of arm at u re condu ct ors, Z = 60  20 = 1200
Num ber of poles, P= 4
Arm at u re current , I a = 5 0 A
Sin ce ar m at ure has l ap windin g, Nu m ber of parallel pat hs, A= P= 4
Tot al t orque developed,
Ta  0.159ZP  a
I
 0.159  0.023  1200  50  219.6 N.m

A
4.19. DC M OTOR CH ARACTERI STI CS

Th e 3 I m port ant charact erist ic cu rves of dc m otors are:
44
1. Torqu e - Arm a t ure Cur re nt Cha ra ct e rist ic

This charact eri st i c cu rve gives relat i on bet ween m echanical t orque T and
arm at u re current I a. Thi s is kn own as elect rical charact erist ic.
2. Spe e d- Arm a tu re Cur re nt Cha ra ct e r ist ic
This charact erist ic curve gives r el at ion bet w een speed N an d ar m at ure
curren t I a
3. Spe e d- Torque Ch a ra ct e rist ic
This ch aract erist ic cu rve gives relat ion bet w een speed N and m ech an ical t orqu e T.
This is al so known as m echanical charact erist ics. This curve can be derived f rom t he
abov e t wo curves.
4.18.1. Cha ra ct e rist ics of Dc Se r ie s M ot ors
a .) Ma gne t ic cha ra ct e risti c
I n case of dc series m ot ors t h e flu x  varies w ith t h e variat ion in line or arm at ure
curren t as t h e field is in series wit h t he arm at ure. The flux  in crease f ollowin g a
lin ear law wi t h the increase in load current , becom es m axim u m at sat urat ion point
an d finally becom e con st an t .
b.) Torque - Arm a t ure Cur re nt Cha ra ct e rist ics
From expression of m echanical t orque T it is obviou s t h at
Ta  Ia
curren t because I a = I f . Th erefore on light load T  I 2a an d hen ce cu rve dr awn

Up t o sat u rat ion point flu x is proportional t o field cu rren t an d hence t o t h e arm at ur e
Aft er sat urat ion poin t flu x  i s alm ost independent of excit at ion current and so T  I a
bet w een T and I a u p t o sat ur at i on point is a p ar abola as illust rat ed in Figu re 4. 46.
. Hen ce t he ch ar act erist ics curve b ecom es a st rai ght line as shown in Figu re 4. 46.
From t he t orqu e- arm at ure current cu rve it is evident t hat series m ot or develops
large st art ing t orque t o accelerat e t h e h eavy m asses. Hen ce series m ot ors are used
where large st art ing t orqu e is required such as in hoist s elect ri c railways, t roll eys
an d elect ri c vehicles.

N, rpm
T, N.m
, Wb
Fi gure 4 .46 Speed- curren t an d Torque-cu rrent ch ar act erist ics of DC

series m ot ors
c. ) Spe e d- Curre nt Cha ra ct e rist ic
From expression of speed, it is obvious t hat
45
V  Ia R a
N b 
E
 
I f t he applied volt age r em ai ns const an t , speed is in versely proportional t o flux per
pole. So, if a curve is drawn bet w een reciprocal of flu x and current I , t h e speed
curren t ch aract eri st i c is obt ained which i s a rect an gular hyperbol a in sh ap e as
represen t ed in Fi gure 4.46.
Sin ce on no load t he speed is dangerou sly high, as obvious from speed- cu rrent
charact erist ic cu rve, which will result in h eavy cent rifugal force which in t u rn will
dam age t he m ot or. That is wh y, series m ot ors are n ev er st art ed on no load, which is
expl ain ed below:
Wh en t h e m ot or is con nect ed across t h e su pply m ain s with out load, it draws a
curren t f rom t h e supply m ai ns flowing t hrough t he series field and arm at ure, t he
speed t ends t o increase so t he back em f, m ay approach t he applied volt age in
m agnit ude. The increase in back em f weakens t he arm at u re current an d hence t he
field current . This cause ag ain increases i n speed so in back em f. Th us t h e field
cont inu es t o weaken and sp eed con tinues t o in crease dangerou sly u ntil the arm at ure
get s dam aged.
Sin ce on no-load t he seri es m ot or at t ai ns dangerously high speed, wh ich cause
heav y cen t rifugal force result ing in t he dam ag e of t he m achine, t herefore, series
m ot or are not suit able for t he servi ces:
i.) where t h e load m ay be en t irely rem ov ed an d
ii. ) for driving by m ean s of belt s becau se m ishap t o t he belt would cause t he
m ot or t o run on no-load
Th ese m ot or are su it able for gear drive, because gear provides som e load on
accou nt of frictional resi st ance of t h e gear t eet h in case of su dden release of load.
d.) Spe e d- Torque Ch a ra cte rist ic
Th e speed- t orqu e ch ar act erist ic can be drawn with h elp of above t wo
charact erist ics, as shown in Figure 4 .47 , which sh ows t hat as t h e t orqu e in creases,
speed d ecr eases. Hence seri es m ot ors ar e best sui t ed for th e ser vices where t he
m ot or i s direct l y coupled t o load su ch as fans w hose speed falls wi th t h e in crease in
t orque. I t should be not ed t hat series m ot or i s a variabl e speed m ot or.
Figure 4.4 7 Speed- Torque ch ar act erist ics of dc series m ot or

4.18.2. Cha ra ct e rist ics of Dc Shun t Mot ors
a.) Spe e d- Curre nt Cha ra ct e rist ic
I f appli ed vol t age V is kept const ant , t h e fiel d curren t will rem ain con st ant hence
flu x will have m axim u m v al ue on n o load bu t w ill decrease slight ly due t o ar m at ure
46
react ion as t he load increase bu t for m ore purpose t he flux is considered t o be

const ant n eglect in g t h e effect of arm at ure react ion .
in versely proportion al t o t he flux . Si nce flux i s considered t o b e const ant as

From expr ession of speed N is direct ly proportion al t o back em f Eb or ( VI aRa) and
m ent i on ed abov e, so wi t h t he in crease in load current t he speed sligh tly falls due t o
in crease in volt age drop i n arm at u re I aRa . Since volt age drop in arm at ure at full-
load is very sm all as com par ed t o applied volt age so drop in speed from no-load t o
full-load i s ver y sm all an d for all pract ical purposes t he sh unt m ot or i s t aken as a
const ant speed m ot or.
Sin ce t h ere is a slight variat i on in speed of t he shun t m ot or f rom no-load t o full-load
an d t h is slight variat ion in can be m ade by in sert in g resi st ance in t h e shu nt fiel d and
so reducin g th e flux. Theref ore, sh un t m ot ors being const ant speed m ot ors are best
suit ed for driving of lin e shaft s, m ach ine lat hes, m illing m ach ines, conveyors, fan s
an d for all purposes wher e const an t speed is required.
N, rpm
T, N.m
Figure 4 .48 Speed- curren t and Torque- cu rrent ch ar act erist ics of dc sh un t m ot or
b.) Torque - Curre nt Cha ra ct e r ist ic
From t h e expr ession for t he t orque of a dc m ot or, t orque is direct ly proportional t o
t he product of flux an d arm at ure cu rrent . Since in case of dc shunt m ot ors t h e flux
is con st an t t her ef ore t orque in crease wit h t he in crease in load current following
lin ear law i. e. t orqu e- arm at ure curren t ch aract eri st i cs i s a st r aigh t line passi ng
t hrough origin ( ref er Figu re 4 .48 ) .
c.) Spe e d- Torque Ch a ra cte rist ic
This charact erist ic curve can be dr awn from t h e abov e t wo char act erist ics and is
shown in Fi gure 4. 49.
Fi gure 4. 49 Speed- Torque charact erist ics of dc shunt m ot or
47
4.18.3. Cha ra ct e rist ics of Com pou nd W ould M ot or

a.) Cum u la t iv e com pound w ound m ot or
As t he load is increased, t he flu x due t o seri es f ield winding in crease an d cau ses t he
t orque great er t han it would h ave wit h shunt field windin g alone for a given m achi ne
an d for given cu rren t . Th e in crease in flux due t o series field winding on accou nt of
in crease in load cause t h e speed t o fall m ore rapidly t h an i t would have don e in
shun t m ot or. The cu m ulat ive com pound m ot or dev el ops a high t orqu e wit h in crease
of load. I t also h as a def init e speed of no load, so does n ot run away when t he load
is rem oved ( refer Figu re 4 .50 and 4 .51 ) . Cum ul at ive com poun d wound m ot ors are
used in driving m achin es whi ch su bj ect t o sudden appli cat ions of h eavy loads, such
as occur in rollin g m ills, sh ear s or pun ches. This t ype of m ot or is used al so where a
large st art ing t orque is regard bu t series m ot or can not be used conveniently such as
in cranes an d elev at or.
b.) Diffe re nt ia l com pound w ou nd m ot or
Sin ce t he flu x decr ease wit h t he increase in load, so t he speed r em ains n early
const ant as t he load is in creased an d in som e cases t h e speed will in crease even.
Th e decrease in flu x wit h t he in crease in load cau ses t he t orqu e t o be less t h an t hat
of a shunt m ot or. Th e ch aract erist ics ar e si m il ar t o t hose of a sh unt m ot or. Since t he
shun t m ot or develops a good t orqu e and alm ost const an t sp eed, t h er efore
di fferenti al com pound m otor is sel dom u sed. The ch aract eri st i cs ar e shown in Figure
4.5 0 and 4.5 1.
Figure 4 .50 Speed- cu rren t and Torque- Figure 4.5 1 Speed- Torqu e
cu rrent ch ar act eristics of dc sh unt m ot or ch ar act erist ics of dc sh unt m ot or
4.20. STARTI N G OF DC M OTOR

I f dc m ot or is di rect ly connect ed t o a d c power su ppl y, t h e st art in g current will be
dangerously high. From Figu re 4 .52 ( a) ,
V  Ea
Ia  i
Ra
Eb (Ka  N) I a start 
V
Th e back em f i s zero at st art . Therefore,
Ra
48
Ia
+
Ra
Ish
Eb Vt
Rae
_
( a)
( b)
( c)
Figure 4 .52 dc m ot or st art er
Sin ce Ra is sm all , t h e st art in g cu rren t i s v ery large. The st art in g cu rren t can be
lim it ed t o a saf e value by t h e followin g m et h ods.
1. I nser t an ext ern al resist an ce, Rae ( Figure 4.52 (b) , at st art .
2. Use a low dc t erm inal volt age ( V) at st art . Thi s , of cou rse , r equires
a variable- volt age su pply
Wi th an ext ernal resist ance i n t h e arm at ure circuit , t he ar m at ure cu rrent as t h e
m ot or speeds up is
V  Eb
Ia 
R a  R ae
Th e back em f Eb increases as t h e speed increases. Therefore, t h e ext ernal resi st ance
Rae can be gradu ally t ak en out as t he m ot or speeds up wit hout t he cu rrent
ex ceedin g a cert ain lim it . This is don e u sing a st art er, shown in Figure 4 .52 ( c) . At
st art , t h e h an dle is m oved t o position 1 . All the resi st ances, R1 , R2 , R3 and R4 app ear
in seri es wi th t he arm at ure and t hereb y lim it t he st art ing current . As t he m ot or
speeds up t he h an dl e is m oved t o position s 2 , 3 , 4, and finally 5. At position 5 all
t he resist an ces in t h e st art er are t aken out of t h e ar m at ure ci rcuit . Th e h andle will
be held in posit ion 5 by t h e elect rom agnet , which is excit ed by t he field curren t I f .
49
( a) ( b)
Fi gure 4.5 3 variat ion of st art ing curren t an d speed as st art in g rheost at brou gh t out
from arm at ure ci rcuit
4.21. SPEED CON TROL OF DC M OTOR

Speed cont rol m eans int entional change of t h e dri ve sp eed t o a value required for
perform ing t he specifi c work process. This concept of speed cont rol or adj ust m en t
should not be t aken t o in clude t he n at u ral change in speed whi ch occu rs due t o
change in t h e load on t he drive shaft . The desired change in speed i s accom plished
by act in g accordingl y on t h e deri ve m ot or or on t he t r an sm ission con nect in g it t o t he
unit it serves t o drive. Thi s m ay be done m an ually by t he oper at or or by m ean s
of som e au t om at i c cont rol device.
Th e n at u re speed cont rol requirem ent f or an indust rial dri ve depends u pon it s t ype.
Som e drives m ay requ ire con tinuou s variat ion of speed for t h e whole of t he ran ge
from zero t o full speed, or over a port ion of t his range ; while t he ot hers m ay
requi re t wo or m ore fixed speeds. Som e m achin es m ay r equi re a creepi ng
speed for adj u st ing or set t ing u p t he work. Such a speed is of t h e order of few
r.p.m . For m ost of t he drives, h owever, speed a cont rol of speed wit hin t he range of
± 20 % m ay be suit abl e.
On of t he aat t ract ive f eat ures t he d. c. m ot or offers over all ot her t ypes is t he
rel at ive ease wit h whi ch speed cont rol can be achieved. Th e v ari ous schem es
av ailable for speed cont rol can be dedu ced from t h e expr essi on of speed f or a d.c.
m ot or.
I t has been sh own earlier t he speed of a m ot or is given by t h e relat ion
V  Ia R a  a  V  Ia R a
N    K
Z P 
r.p.s.
Wh ere Ra = arm at ure ci rcuit resi st ance

I t is obviou s t hat t he speed can be con t rolled by var ying
a) Fl ux/ pol e i .e. Flux cont rol
b) Resi st ance Ra of t he arm at u re circui t i.e. Rhe ost a t ic Cont rol and
c) Appli ed volt age V i.e. Volt a ge con trol
50
4 .2 1 .1 . Spe e d cont rol of shu nt m ot ors

a) Va ria t ion of Flux or Flux cont rol Me th od
I t is seen f rom above equ at ion t hat , N 

1

. By decr easing t he flux, t he speed can
be in crease and vice v er sa. Hen ce, t h e nam e flux or field cont rol m et h od. Th e flux of
dc m ot or can be ch an ged by ch an ging I sh with help of a shunt field rheost at . Since
I sh is relat ively sm all, shunt field rh eost at has t o carr y only a sm all curren t , which
m ean s I 2 R loss i s sm all. So t hi s m et hod is, t h erefore, v ery effi ci en t .
Figure 4 .54 speed cont rol of shun t m ot or by varyin g fi eld flu x
of 2: 1. Any furth er weak en ing of flux  adver sely aff ect s t he com m u t at ion and hence
I n non-int erpol ar m achines, t h e speed can be in creased by t hi s m et h od in t h e rat io
pu t s a lim it t o the m axi m u m speed obt ainabl e by t his m et hod. I n m achines fit t ed
with int erpoles, a rat io of m axim um t o m inim um speeds of 6: 1 is fai rly com m on .
b) Arm a tu re or Rhe ost a tic Cont rol M e t hod
This m et hod is u sed wh en speeds bel ow t he no-load speed ar e requ ired. As t he
supply volt age i s n orm all y con st ant , t h e volt age across t he ar m at ure is v ari ed by
in sert in g a variable rh eost at or resist an ce ( called con t roller resist an ce) in series
with t he arm at u re circuit as shown in Figu re 4 .55 ( a) .
( a) ( b)
Figure 4 .55 speed cont rol of shun t m ot or by var yin g resist ance in t he arm at u re
circuit
As cont roller resi st ance i s increased, pot ent i al difference across t he arm at ure is
decr eased, t h er eby decr easin g t he arm at u re speed. For a load of const an t t orqu e,
speed i s approxi m at ely proportion al t o t h e Pot en t ial diff erence across t he
arm at ure. From t he sp eed/ arm at ure curren t charact erist ics, as sh own in Figure
4. 55, it i s seen t h at t he gr eat er t h e resist an ce in t he arm at ure ci rcuit , great er is
t he fall in speed.
c) Arm a tu re - t e rm ina l volta ge cont rol
Utilizes t h e f act t h at t h e chang e i n t he arm at ure t er m inal volt age of a shu nt m ot or
is accom panied in t he st eady st at e by a subst ant i ally equal change in t h e speed
51
volt age (Eb ) and, wit h const ant m ot or flu x, a consequent proportion al change in
m ot or speed. On e com m on schem e, called t h e Ward- Leon ard Syst em , requi red an
in dividual m ot or-generat or set t o supply power t o t he arm at ure volt age of t he
m ot or wh ose speed is t o be cont rolled. Frequent ly t he con t rol of generat or volt age
is com bin ed wi t h mot or - field cont rol, as indicat ed by t he rheost at i n the fiel d of
m ot or M in Figu re 4.56, in order t o achi eve t h e widest possi ble speed range. With
such dual cont rol, base speed can be defin ed as t he n orm al -arm at ure volt age full
field speed of t he m ot or. Speeds above base speed ar e obt ained by m ot or field
con t rol; speeds below base speed are obt ain ed by ar m at u re- volt age cont rol. As
discu ssed in connect ion wi th field- cu rrent cont rol , t he range above b ase speed i s
t hat of con st ant power dri ve. The r ange below base speed i s t h at of a con st an t
t orque drive becau se, as in arm at ure- resist an ce con t rol, t h e flux an d t h e allowable
arm at ure cu rrent rem ain approxi m at ely con st ant .
3Φ - supply
Figure 4.5 6 ward- Leon ard syst em
Figure 4.57 con st ant- t orque and const an t - power operat ion
0.4  and a fi eld resist ance of 2 00 . Wh en t he m ot or is dri ving at 600 rpm a load,
Ex a m ple 4 .1 4 A 2 00 V dc sh unt m ot or has an arm at u re r esist ance of
t he t orque of which is const an t , t he ar m at ure t akes 20 A. I t is desired t o raise t he

speed from 600 t o 90 0 rpm by inser t ing a resist an ce in t h e shun t field circuit .
Assum ing the m agnet izat ion cu rve t o be a st r aigh t line, fin d t h e valu e of addit ion al
resist ance in t he fi eld circuit .
52
Solu t ion
I nit ial speed of t h e m ot or, N1 = 6 00 rpm
Arm at u re current , I a1 = 2 0 A
Appli ed volt age, V = 2 00 V
Back em f devel oped by t he m ot or at 60 0 rpm
Eb1 = V  I a1 Ra
= 200  2 00.4 = 19 2 V
I sh1   1 .0 A
200
Fi eld current u nder t hi s condition,
200
.
Now l et t h e t ot al resist an ce in sh un t field circuit t o raise t he sp eed t o 900 rpm be Rf
Th en t he field cu rren t , I sh1 

200
A
Rf
proportion al to fi eld current , i .e.   I sh

Th e m agn et i zat ion cu rve is t o be assum ed as a st raigh t line, t hu s flu x is direct ly
2 I sh 2 200
 
1 Ish1 R f
Or
As per t he gi ven conditions, t h e t orqu e rem ai ns con st ant du ring th e ch an ge of

speed.
Thus T1 = T2
Torqu e T  Ia 
T1  K ' I a11
T2  K ' I a 22
Or I a11  I a 2 2

I a 2  I a1  1  20  f  0.1R f
R
2 200
Wh ere, I a2 is t he curren t dr awn by t he arm at ure, when t h e m ot or i s driving t he load
at 900 rpm .
Back em f at 90 0 rpm , Eb2 = V  I a2 Ra
= 200  0.1 Rf 0 .4
= 2 00  0 .04 Rf
Back em f for a part i cular m otor, E b  KN
Thus E b1  K1N1 (i)
And E b2  K2 N 2 (ii)
E b 2 2 N 2
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i),
 
E b1 1 N 1
200  0.04 R f 200 900
 
192 Rf 600
Or, 0.04 R f2  200 R f  57600  0
53
200  40,000  9216

Rf 
 306.8 
0.08
Addition al resist an ce in t he shun t field circuit = Rf  Rsh1

= 306.8  200 = 106.8 
Ex a m ple 4 .1 5 A 250 V dc shu nt m ot or run s at it s norm al speed of 500
following cases: ( i) a r esist ance of 1.0  i s con nect ed in series wit h t h e arm at ure
rpm wh en t h e arm at ure current is 100 A. Find t he speed of t h e m ot or under t he
circuit , th e shu nt field rem aining const ant , (ii) t h e shu nt field cu rrent i s reduced t o
60 per cent of i t s norm al value by i nsert in g a resist ance in t h e fiel d circui t .
arm at u re i s 0 .25  and t h at of int erpol e winding, 0.05.

Th e arm at ure current i n bot h t he above cases i s 50 A. The resi st ance of t he
Solu t ion
Tot al resist an ce of t he arm at ure circuit 0.2 5+ 0.05 = 0 .3
Norm al speed, N1 = 500 rpm
Appli ed volt age, V = 250 V
Arm at u re current at norm al speed, I a1 = 1 00 A
Back em f at 50 0 rpm , Eb1 = 2 50  100 0.3
= 220 V
i) Addition al resist an ce in t he arm at ure circuit = 1. 0 
Tot al resist ance i n t h e arm at ure ci rcuit = 0 .3 + 1 .0 = 1.3 
Arm at u re current under t hi s condition, I a2 = 5 0 A
Back em f, Eb2 = 2 50  50 1 .3
= 185 V
As t he field curren t rem ai ns un ch an ged, 1 =  2
Back em f for a part i cular m otor, E b  KN
or E b1  K1 N1 (i)
And E b2  K2 N 2 (ii)
E b 2 2 N 2
 
E b1 1 N1
 1 2
150 N
Or
220 500
N 2  500   420 rpm

185
Speed,
220
ii) Tot al resist ance i n t h e arm at ure ci rcuit = 0 .3 
Arm at ure cu rren t , I a3 = 50 A
Back em f u nder t his condition, Eb3 = 2 50  50 0 .3
= 235 V
Sh unt field cu rrent u nder t his condition, I sh3 = 0.6 I sh1
Assum ing t he m agn et i zat ion curve t o be linear,   I sh
3 I sh 3
  0.6
1 I sh1
Or
54
E b3 3 N 3
 
E b1 1 N1
Now,
 0.6  3
235 N
Or
220 500
500  235
Speed of t he m ot or, N 3   890 rpm
220  0.6
Ex a m ple 4 .1 6 A 230 V sh unt m ot or dri ves a load at 900 rpm drawing a
curren t of 30A. Th e resist ance of t h e arm at ure circuit i s 0 .4. The t orque of t he load
is proport ion al t o the speed. Cal culat e t he r esist an ce t o be connect ed in seri es with
t he ar m at u re t o reduce t h e sp eed t o 60 0 rpm I gnore arm at ure react ion .,
Solu t ion
I n norm al conditions
Arm at ure cu rrent , Ia = 30 A n eglect in g field
curren t
Arm at u re circui t resist ance, Ra = 0. 4
Back em f, Eb1 = V  I a1 Ra
= 23 0 30 0 .4 = 2 18 V
Speed, N1 = 9 00 rpm
Let r esist ance R be con nect ed in series wit h t he arm at u re circuit t o reduce t he speed
T  N and al so T  I a
t o N 2 = 6 00 rpm .
Sin ce as per given dat a l oad t orqu e,
I a 2 2 N 2
 
I a11 N1
Assum ing flu x con st an t
I a 2  I a1   30   20 A
N2 600
N1 900
Back em f, Eb2 = V  I a2 ( R + Ra)
= 23 0 20 ( R+ 0.4 )
E b  N an d flux  is const an t
= 22 220R

 
E b2 N 2
E b1 N 1
220  20 R 600
Or 
218 900
Or R= 3.833 
Ex a m ple 4 .1 7 A 22 0 V dc shun t m ot or draws 4 .5 A on no load and run s
157  respect ively. Cal culat e t h e speed, when loaded and drawing a cu rrent of 30 A.
at 1 00 0 rpm . Resist ance of t h e arm at ure winding an d shunt fi eld win din g is 0 .3 and
Assum e t h at t h e ar m at ure react ion weakens t he field by 3 % .

Solu t ion
Volt age applied t o th e m ot or, VL = 220 V
Shunt field resist an ce, Rsh = 157 
55
I sh   1.4 A
220
157
Current drawn by t he m ot or at no load = 4 .5 A.
Thus arm at ure cu rrent at n o load, I ao = 4.5  1.4 = 3.1 A
Back em f at no load, Ebo = V  I ao Ra
= 2 20  3 .1  0 .3
= 2 19 .07 V
Under loaded con di tion s, cu rren t drawn by t h e Mot or = 30 A
Arm at u re current under loaded conditions, I a = 3 0  1.4 = 2 8.6 A
Back em f u nder loaded con dition s, Eb = V  I a Ra
= 2 20  28.6  0.3
= 2 11 .42 V
Let t he flu x u nder no load condition be 0 , t h en u nder t h e loaded condition flux  =
0.9 7 0 , b ecau se of arm at u re r eact ion.
PNZ
Th e back em f for a de m ot or is given by
Eb 
 KN
60a
E bo  Ko N o
Also, E bo  K 0.97o N
Thus ( i)
( ii)
N 0.97  E b
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i),

No E bo
Speed u nder t he loaded condition,
N 
211.42 1000
 995 rpm
219.07 0.97
4 .2 1 .2 . Spe e d Con trol Of D c Se rie s M ot ors

Flux Cont rol M e t h od
Variat ion in t h e flu x of a Series m ot or can be brought abou t in any one of t he
following ways.
i) Fie ld Dive rt or s
Th e series windin g are shun t ed by a variable resi st ance knows as fi eld divert or
( Fi gure 4.5 4) . An y desired am oun t of current can be passed t h rough t h e divert or by
adj ust in g it s resist an ce. Hence t h e flux can be decr eased, consequent l y, t h e speed
of t he m ot or increased.
56
Fi gure 4 .58 speed cont rol of series m ot or by field divert or m et h od

ii) Arm a t ure Div e rt or
A divert or across t h e arm at u re can be used for giving speeds lower t h en t he norm al
 m ust increase (  Ta   I a) . This resul t s an

speed. For a given con st ant l oad t orque, if I a i s redu ced du e t o ar m at ure di vert or, t h en
( N  1 / ) . The variat ion s in speed can be

increase in cu rren t t ak en from t he su pply
( which in creases t h e f lux) an d a f all in speed
cont rolled by varying t he divert or resi st ance.
Figure 4 .59 speed cont rol of series m ot or by arm at ure divert or m et hod
iii) Ta ppe d Fie ld Cont rol
Thi s m et h od is oft en used in elect ric t ract ion (Show in Figure 3 ) .Th e n um ber of series
fiel d t u rns in t he circuit can be ch an ged at will as shown . With full field, t h e m ot or run s
at it s m i nim um speed, wh ich can be raised in st eps by cu t t ing out som e of t he series
t u rns.
Figure 4 .60 speed cont rol of series m ot or by t apped field cont rol m et hod
Va ria ble Re sist a nce in se rie s w it h M ot or
By in creasin g t he resist ance in series with arm at ure, t h e volt age applied across t he
arm at ure t er m inals can b e decreased. Wit h reduced volt age across t h e ar m at ure, t he
speed is redu ced. Howev er, it will be not ed t hat since full m otor cu rren t passes t h rou gh
t his resist an ce, t here is a considerable loss of power in i t .
57
Figure 4.6 1 speed con t rol of seri es m ot or by var iable resist ance m et h od
curren t of 25 A. t he resist ance of t he arm at ure is 0 .5  an d t hat of fi eld is 0 .3.

Ex a m ple 4 .1 8 A 200 V dc seri es m ot or ru ns at 5 00 r.p.m , when t aking a
I f t h e current r em ai ns const ant , cal culat e t h e r esist ance n ecessar y t o reduce

t he speed t o 250 rpm .
Solu t ion
Mot or input cu rrent , I 1 = 25 A
Line volt age, V= 20 0 V
Back em f, Eb1 = V  I 1 ( Ra + Rse)
= 20 0 25 ( 0.5 + 0 .3)
= 1 80 V
Let r esist ance R be con nect ed in series wit h t he arm at u re circuit t o reduce t he speed
t o N 2 = 2 50 rpm .
Mot or inpu t cu rren t , I 2 = I 1 = 2 5 A ......
( given)
Eb2 = V  I 2 ( R + Ra + Rse)
= 20 0 25 ( R+ 0.5 + 0.3)
= 1 8025 R
N
Eb

Sin ce
N 2 E b2 1
   b2  2  1 as field current rem ain s
E
N1 E b1 21 E b1
Or
250 180  25R

t he sam e
Or 
500 180
Or R= 3.6 
 respect ively is connect ed across 2 20 V. The arm at ure t ak es 40 A and

Ex a m ple 4 .1 9 A series m ot or wit h series fiel d and arm at u re r esi st ance of 0 .06
an d 0.0 4
speed is 10 00 rpm . Det erm ine it s speed w hen t he ar m at u re t akes 75 A and
ex cit at ion is in creased by 1 0% .
Solu t ion
Arm at u re current , 1 a1 = 40 A
Bach em f, Eb1 = V  I 1 ( Ra + Rse)
58
= 22 0 40 ( 0.0 4+ 0.06)

= 2 16 V
Flu x 1 =  ( say)
When arm at ure curren t , I 2 = 75 A
Bach em f, Eb2 = V  I 2 ( Ra + Rse)
= 22 0 75 ( 0.0 4+ 0.06)
= 2 12. 5 V
Flu x 2 = 1.1 1 = 1 .1  .. .... ( gi ven)
N
Eb

Sin ce

N 2  N1  b 2  1 
E
E b1 21

  1000  
212.5
216 1.1
 894 rpm
at 460 V. The resist ance of t he arm at u re circui t is 0.2  and t hat of t h e f iel d win ding
Ex a m ple 4 .2 0 A series m ot or run s at 50 0 r.p.m . when t akin g a curren t of 60A
is 0.1 . Calcul at e t he speed when a 0.1 5  divert or is conn ect ed in parallel with t he
field winding. Assum e t h e t orqu e t o rem ai n unalt er ed and t h e flux t o be proportion al
t o t h e field current .
Solu t ion
I n norm al conditions
Arm at u re current , I a1 = Series field cu rren t , I se = Line current , I L1 = 60 A
Eb1 = V  I a1 Ra  I se1 Rse)
= 22 0 60  0.2  600.1
= 4 42 V
Aft er conn ect in g a divert or of resist an ce of 0 .15 a in parallel with t he fiel d winding
let t he speed be N2 an d line current I L2
Arm at u re current , I a2 = I L2
Series fi eld current ,
I se 2  I L 2 
R div
R se  R div
 I L2   I L2
0.15 3
0.1  0.15 5
Sin ce t orque rem ains un al t ered
 T2 = T1
I a2 2 = I a1 1
sin ce   I se
Or
Or I a2 I se2 = I a1 I se1
I L2  I L 2  60  60
3
Or
5
3600  5
Or I L2   77.46 A
3
59
I se 2  I L2   77.46  46.48 A
3 3
5 5
Back em f, Eb1 = V  I a2 Ra  I se2 Rse)
= 22 0 77 .46  0.2  4 6.4 8 0.1

= 4 40. 06 V
Speed N 2  N1  b 2  1  N1  b 2  se1 
E E I
E b1 21 E b1 I se 2
 500  
440.06 46.48
 386 rpm
442 60
4.22. LOSSES I N DC M ACH I N ES

I NTRODUCTI ON
Th e dc m ach ines ar e used eit h er for con vert ing m ech an ical en ergy in t o elect rical
en ergy, i.e. gener at ors or for con vert in g el ect r ical energy int o m ech an ical energy,
i.e. m ot ors. This conversion of energy from on e form t o an ot her obviously t akes
pl ace at an efficiency of less t han 100 percent . A part of t he energy consum ed by
m achin e can not be ef fect ivel y u tilized in the m achin e proper and is dispersed in t he
form of heat . Thi s part of t h e energy is gener ally t erm ed as lost energy or si m ply
t he losses of t he m achine. Th e losses i n gen eral occu r (i) in elect ri cal circuit s
carryi ng a cert ai n cu rren t , (ii) in m agnet ic circui t s subj ect ed t o alt ern at i ng
m agn et i zat ion an d (iii) du e t o m ech an ical friction. Hen ce t he losses occurrin g in an
el ect rical m achine constit u t e a source of inefficiency. I n addit ion , t hese ar e
com plet el y convert ed in to h eat , r esulting in a rise i n th e t em p er at ure of t he
m achin e. I f r eliable operat ion of an elect rical m achine i s desired du ring it s n orm al
service life, t h en t he t em per at u re of t he various p art s of t he m ach ine should not be
allowed t o exceed beyond t he per m issi ble lim it , decided by t h e t ype of insulat ing
m at eri al used in the m ach ine. The t em perat ure ri se also decides t h e capacit y t o
which the m achin e can be loaded safely.
Th e losses occurrin g in t h e m achine have al so to be paid for an d as such t h e ru nning
cost of a less efficient m ach ine for t h e sam e ou tpu t is m ore com pared t o an efficient
m achin e. Hence t h e problem of l osses in t h e m achine is closely conn ect ed wit h t he
problem s of it s service life an d oth er econom ic fact ors. Th e initial cost of a m ore
ef ficien t m ach ine i s cert ainl y higher t h an t h at of a m achine wit h poor efficiency.
However, t he h igh er initial cost i s com pensat ed by t he savin g in running energy
charg es; m oreov er a m ore efficient m achine i s highl y reliable , less su bj ect t o
breakdowns which is part icular im port an t w hen con tinuit y of service m u st be
m ain t ain ed. Bet t er elect rical m at erials are b eing developed an d wi th t he use of
t hese elect ri cal m ach ines ar e un dergoing a continuous im provem ent t ow ards
reduct ion in losses, so as t o produce m ore effi ci en t m ach ines with t roubl e free and
cont inuous service ev en under m ore sev ere workin g.
4 .2 2 .1 . Cla ssifica t ion of Losse s
Power losses originatin g in dc m ach in es ( eit her a m ot or or a gen er at or) can be
classified int o the following groups
1 . Coppe r losse s, caused b y t h e current flow and occur in (i) arm at ure
win din g, (ii) seri es field win din g , (iii) comm ut at ing pole win ding , (iv)
com pensat i ng win ding , ( v) sh un t fi eld winding and ( vi) loss due t o brush
con t act resist ance.
2 . I ron losse s caused by v ar ying m agnet izat ion and occu r in ( arm at u re core
and (ii) arm at ure t eet h , as hyst er esis loss and eddy curren t loss.
60
3 . M e cha nica l losse s caused b y t h e rot at ion of t h e m achin e and occu r as ( i )

bearing f riction (ii) bru sh friction and (iii) air frict ion ( win dage) . These losses
are also called friction and win dage losses.
4 . St ra y loa d losse s inclu de (i) increase in iron losses at load ( ii) increases in
copper losses due t o edd y current s in arm at u re con du ct ors and (iii) addition al
losses cau sed by sh ort circuit curren t s in t he coils under com m u t at ion and
occur in ( a) arm at ure t eet h , ( b) arm at ure core and ( c) arm at ure windin g.
For sm aller m ach ines, st ray losses ar e quit e negligible. For fairly l arge m achi nes, it
m ay be t ak en arbit rarily as on e percent of t he rat i ng of t h e m ach ine.
Of t hese grou ps of losses, copper losses v ary wit h t he load on t h e m ach ine, whereas
iron an d m echanical losses r em ai n su bst ant ially const ant at all loads. St ray losses
ar e m ore or less negligi ble in sm all and m edium m achines. Hen ce t h e t ot al losses
occurrin g in a dc m achi ne m ay also be classi fied as
i) v ari able losses and
ii) Con st ant l osses.
I n case of shun t or com poun d dc m achin es, even t he shun t field copper losses can
be grou ped wit h t h e con st ant losses b ecau se it rem ain s pract ically con st ant at all
loads. Thus for a shun t or com pound dc m achin e, t h e const ant and v ariabl e losses
in clude:
 Const ant losses inclu ding (i) iron losses, (ii) m ech an ical losses an d (iii)
sh unt field Cu losses.
 Variabl e losses i ncludin g (i) copper losses in arm at ure winding (ii) copper
losses in series field winding (iii) copper losses in com m ut at i ng pole
winding (i v) copper losses i n com pensat i ng winding if any an d ( v) losses
due t o brush cont act resist an ce.
4 .2 2 .2 . Coppe r Losse s
I n gen er al copper losses will occu r i n t hose part s of dc m achines t h at carry elect ric
curren t . Th ese losses could be furt h er subdivided in t o t hree groups.
1. Arm at ure copper l oss
2. Field copper loss , an d
3. Loss du e t o bru sh con t act r esist ance.
Arm a t ure coppe r lo ss
resist ance Ra .
Let t he cu rrent flowin g in t h e arm at ure win ding be desi gn at ed I a am peres and it s
2
Th en arm at u re copper losses = I a R a wat t s.
Moreover, series field win din g, in t erpole winding and com pensat i ng win din gs are
conn ect ed in series wi t h t he arm at ure wi nding. As su ch t he cu rren t flowing in t h ese
windin g i s also equ al t o th e arm at ure current , I a .
I a2 Ra  Rse  Ri  Rc 
Thus, t he t ot al arm at u re copper losses
Wh ere Rse, Ri and Rc are t he r esist ance of series field winding, in t erpole winding and
com pensat in g winding respect ively.
Th e arm at ure circui t copper losses v ar y as t h e squ are of t he ar m at ure cu rren t . As
such t hese losses could be also called variable losses of t he m ach ine t his loss is
abou t 30 t o 4 0% of full-load losses.
Fie ld Coppe r loss
61
I f I sh i s t h e curren t flowing in the shunt field winding t h en , Copper losses in t he

shun t field win ding = I sh 2 Rsh wh er e Rsh is t he resist ance of t he shun t field win ding
however t h e resist ance of t he sh unt field winding R sh 

V
I sh
Wh ere, V i s t h e t erm inal volt age of t he dc m achin e, i.e. volt age across t he
arm at ure t erm inals.
Hence, shu nt fiel d copper losses = V x I sh , w at t s
Term i nal volt age an d I sh ar e pract ically const an t as such t h is loss can b e t aken i nt o
t he group of const an t losses i n t h e dc m ach ine.
Losse s due to Brush cont a ct Re si st a n ce
I n dc m achines, bru sh es m akes a sliding cont act wit h t h e com m ut at or an d t he
conduction of current i s t hrou gh m inut e ar cs. The cont act volt age drop for a
part icular grad e of brush is m ore or l ess con st an t , v ar ying f rom 1 t o 2 vol t s for
norm al carbon bru sh es. Th e bru sh cont act loss is equal t o the product of cont act
volt age drop and t h e arm at u re curren t . St rict ly speakin g, it is not a copper loss;
however i t is norm ally in cluded in t he cl assificat ion of copper losses.
4 .2 2 .3 . I ron Losse s
Th e reversal of m agnet izat i on of the arm at u re core l eads t o iron losses i n t he core
an d t h e t eet h of t he arm at ure st ruct u re. I ron losses can furt h er be subdivided i nto:
i) h yst er esis loss an d ii) eddy current loss
H yst e re sis loss
Hyst eresis loss is m ainly due t o t he rev ersal of m agnet izat ion in t he arm at u re core
an d dep en ds upon t h e ar ea of t h e h yst eresis loop of t he m agn et i c m at erial used for
arm at u re core, t he volum e of t he core and t he frequency of m agn et i c flux reversal.
Area of t h e hyst er esis loop again depends u pon t h e flu x den sit y t o which t he
m at eri al is being worked.
Dr. Ch arles St einm et z suggest ed an em pirical form ula based on a series of t est s for
Ph  Vf Bmax 1.6 watts .

calcul at ing t he hyst eresis loss, which expressed as follows,
where,  is a const ant , known as St ein m et z’s co eff icien t or h yst eresis coef ficien t for
a p ar t icular m at erial . I t s v alu e for 4% silicon st eel and sh eet st eel is 27 5 and 5 00
respect ively. Hyst eresis loss is reduced by ch oosing a core m at erial with low
hyst er esis coefficient su ch as alloy st eel .
Eddy cur re nt losse s
As t he ar m at u re core rot at es rel at ive t o t he m agn et ic fi eld, it cut s t h e flu x. Thu s as
per t he lows of el ect rom agnet ic induction, a sm all em f is in duced in th e arm at ure
core body, which circulat es a large cu rrent in t h e arm at ure core due t o i t s sm all
resist ance. Su ch a ci rculat ing current is called eddy curren t and t he power losses
du e t o t he flow of t hi s cu rrent ar e called eddy curren t losses. The r esist an ce can be
great l y increased by lam i nat ing the arm at ure core of t he dc m ach ine, t h ereby
reducin g t he m agn itude of eddy current t o an appr eciable value. The eddy cu rrent
losses dep en d u pon t h e followin g fact ors:
i) Thickn ess of l am in at ions, t
ii) Fr equ en cy of flu x rever sal, f
iii) Maxim um value of flu x den si t y, B m ax
iv) Volum e of arm at ure core V an d
v) Qualit y of iron.
62
Hence t he eddy cu rrent losses occu rring in the arm at ure core an d t eet h of the dc
m achin e are given by
Pc  KB2max f 2 t 2 V, watts
4 .2 2 .4 . M e cha n ica l Losse s
Mechani cal losses are du e t o t he rot at ion of t he arm at u re and can be su bdivi ded in to
t hree cat egories.
1. bearing friction
2. brush f rict ion an d
3. air fri cti on ( winding)
Th ere ar e al so t erm ed as f ri ct ion an d windage losses.
Th e bearing friction losses occu rring in dc m ach ine depend upon (i) t he pressure on
bearing, ( ii) Periph eral speed of t he shaft at t he b earing and ( iii) coefficient of
friction bet ween t he bearing and t he shaft .
Th e bru sh fri cti on losses are qui t e appr eci able in dc m achin es. These losses ar e
dependen t upon (i) t h e brush pressu re, ( ii) t he peri pheral speed of t he com m u t at or
an d ( iii) t he t ype of t he brush.
Th e win dage losses are m ainl y produ ced b y t h e rot at ion of arm at ure. Th ese losses
depend upon ( i) peripheral speed of t h e arm at ure, ( ii) arm at ure diam et er, ( iii)
arm at u re core lengt h and ( iv) const ruct ion of t he m achin e
Th ese t h ree com pon en t s add ed t oget her give t h e t ot al m echani cal losses occu rri ng
in t he m ach ine t hese ar e pract i cally const ant provi ded t he speed rem ain s t h e sam e
du ring t he loading of t he m achin e.
4.23. EFFI CI EN CY
Th e rat io of out put of the m achin e t o it s in pu t is gener ally called t h e effici ency of t he
m achin e.
Efficiency 
output
input
I nput t o the m achin e = out put + t ot al losses
efficiency 
Output
Output  total losses
Thus,
Tot al losses i n dc m ach ine = con st ant l osses + variable losses

= Wc + Wv
efficiency η 
Output
Output  constant losses  variable losses
Hence,
Con dit ion for m a x im um e fficie n cy

Let t he dc m ach in e works as a dc shun t generat or, wi t h a t erm i nal volt age V volt s
an d l oad current I L am pere.
Th en t he power out put of the dc gen er at or = V  I L,
Variable loss of t h e arm at u re ci rcuit = I 2 a Ra ( assu m i ng t hat t he m achin e is not
provided wit h in t erpole an d com pen sat ing windin gs) .
Arm at u re current , I a = I L + I Sh
63
Shunt field curren t is qui t e sm all com pared t o t he load current an d I a can be
assum ed equal t o I L. Wit h t his assum pt i on,
Variable losses, Wv  I L Ra
2
Let t h e con st ant losses be = W C
V  IL
Th en , t he ef ficiency of the gener at or,

V I L  WC  I L2 Ra
 
1
1  c    I L Ra
VI L 
Or

W
V
Effi cien cy will be m axim um , when t h e den om inat or minim um i.e.
 WC 
  L Ra   0
d I
dI L  VI L V 
  a  0
or
Wc R
2 V
VI L

or
Ra Wc
V VI L2
or I L2 R a  W c
i.e. copper losses in arm at ure circuit = Const an t Losses.

Hence eff icien cy of a dc m achin e will be m axim um , wh en t h e variable losses ar e
equal t o the const ant losses.
Load current correspon din g t o m axim u m effi ci ency is given by
IL 
Wc
Ra
300 A at t h e speed of 40 0 rpm . Th e flux per p ole is 75  10 - 3 Wb. The nu m ber of

Ex a m ple 4 .2 1 The arm at u re of a 6 pole, 6 circuit dc sh un t m ot or t akes
arm at u re t urn s is 500. The t orque lost in windag e, friction and iron losses can be
assum ed as 2 .5 per cen t . Calculat e
i) t h e t orqu e dev eloped by t he ar m at u re,
ii) sh aft t orqu e and
iii) sh aft power in kW.
Solu t ion
PI a Z
i) The t orque developed by t he arm at ure of a dc m ot or is gi ven by
Ta  0.159 Nm (i)
a
Nu m ber of poles of shunt m ot or, P= 6
Arm at u re wi nding has 6 circuit s, t hus, a= 6
Arm at u re current , I a = 300 A
Nu m ber of arm at u re t u rns = 50 0
Thus t ot al conduct ors on t he arm at ure, Z = 2  5 00 = 1000
Flux per pole,  = 75  1 0 - 3 Wb
64
Substit ut ing t hese v alu es in Eq. (i) ,
6  75  10 3  300  1000
Ta  0.159
 3577.5 Nm
Arm at u re t orque, 6
ii) Torque lost in win dage, friction and iron losses

= 2 .5% of Ta
= 0 .02 5  3577 .5 = 8 9.44 N m
Thus, shaft t orque, Tsh = 35 77 .5  89 .44
= 3488 .06 N m
2 NTsh
iii) Shaft power,
Psh 
60  1000
kW
2   400  3488.06

60  1000
 146.22 kW
Ex a m ple 4 .2 2 2 A 2 00 V dc shun t m otor t akes a t ot al current of 10 0 A
windin g i s 0 .1 and 40  respect ively.

an d run s at 75 0 rpm . The resist an ce of t he arm at ure win ding and of shunt field
Fi nd out
i) t he t orque developed by t he ar m at ure, an d
ii) t he copper losses.
I f t he friction and iron losses am ou nt t o 15 00 W, also calculat e
iii) sh aft power, iv) shaft t orque, an d v) efficiency.
Solu t ion
i) Vol t age applied across t he m ot or, V L = 20 0 V
Resi st ance of t h e sh unt fiel d winding, Rsh = 4 0 
Shunt field current , I sh    5 .0 A

VL 200
R sh 40
Tot al curren t drawn by t h e m ot or, I L = 1 00 A.
Thus, arm at ure cu rren t I a = I L I sh = 1 00  5 = 95 A
Arm at u re resist ance, Ra = 0 .1 
Back em f, Eb = V  I aRa
= 200  95 0.1
= 190 .5 V
Mech ani cal power developed, Pm ec = Eb I a
= 190.5  9 5 =
2 NTa
= 18097 .5 W
Now, m ech an ical power developed, E b I a 

60
Thus, t orque developed by t h e arm at ure,
65
Ta  60 b a
E I
2 N
 60 
18097.5
2   750
 230.3 N m
ii) The back em f for a dc m ot or is gi ven by,
Eb = V  I aRa
Or EbI a = VI a  I a 2 Ra
Thus arm at ure copper losses, I a 2 Ra = VI a  Eb I a
= 20 0  95  180 97 .5
= 90 2.5 W
Fi eld copper losses = I sh 2 Rsh
= 5 2  4 0 = 1000 W
Tot al copper losses = 90 2.5 + 10 00 = 19 02.5 W
Copper losses could also be det erm in ed as follows:
I nput t o the m ot or = VLI L = 2 00  100 = 20 ,000 kW
Mechani cal power developed, Eb I a = 1809 7.5 W
Tot al copper losses = 20000  180 97 .5 = 1902.5 W
iii) Fri cti on an d I ron losses = 1500 W
Tot al copper losses = 1902.5 W
Out put = 2 0 000 ( 1500+ 19 02 .5)
= 1 6 597.5 W
or shaft power  16 .6 kW
2 NTsh
iv) Shaft power
Psh 
60  1000
kW
60  1000  16.6
Tsh 
2   750
 211.24 N m
Shaft t orque,
v) Effi ci en cy,
 
Poutput 16597.5
Pinput 20000
 82.99%
rpm . I t s arm at ure resist ance i s 0 .22 , while the series field resi st ance i s 0 .13 .
Ex a m ple 4 .2 3 A 100 V series m ot or t akes 4 5 A when running at 7 50
I ron and frict ion losses am oun t t o 7 50 W. Find (i) sh aft pow er, ( ii) t ot al t orqu e and
(iii) sh aft t orqu e.
Solu t ion
i) Volt age appli ed t o th e series m ot or, = 10 0 V
Tot al resist ance of t h e arm at ure ci rcuit , = Ra + Rse
= 0 .22 + 0.1 3 = 0 .35
Current in th e arm at ure circuit , I a = 45 A
Back em f, Eb = 1 00  45  0.35
66
= 8 4.25 V
Mechani cal power developed = Eb I a
= 8 4.25  45 =
= 3 791 .25 W
I ron an d fri ction losses = 7 50 W
Out put = 3 791 .25  750 = 3041 .25 W
Thus shaft power = 3 .041 kW
2 NTa
ii) Mechani cal power developed = E bIa 
60
Tot al t orque,
Ta  60 
3791.25
2   750 T°
 48.25 N m
iii) Out put = 3 04 1.2 5 W
2NTsh
Out put 
60
Or, shaft t orque,
60  3041.25
Tsh 
2   750
 38.7 N m
Ex a m ple 4 .2 4 A long- shun t com poun d m ot or t akes a curren t of 24A
from 24 0 V m ain s. Det er m in e t h e efficiency if resist ance of t h e arm at ure, series field
an d shun t field are 0.1, 0 .08 and 60 oh m s respect i vely and st r ay losses are 5 00
wat t s.
Solu t ion
I nput line curren t , I L = 24 A
Suppl y vol t age, V = 2 40 V
Tot al input power t o t he m ach ine VI L = 24 024 = 5760 W
I sh    4A
V 240
R sh 60
Series fi eld current , I se = I a = I L  I sh
= 24  4 = 20 A
Tot al losses = St ray losses + arm at ure copper loss + seri es f iel d copper loss +
shun t field copper loss
= Ps + I a2 Ra + I se2 Rse + V I sh
= 500 + 2 0 2 0.1 + 20 2 0 .08 + 24 04 = 1532 W
Useful Ou t put = Tot al input  Tot al losses = 5760 – 15 32 = 4228 W
Effi cien cy ,
   73.4%
Usefull output 4228
Total input 5760
0.2  an d series field resist ance of 0 .25. Wh en i t s pulley ex ert s a t orqu e of 27 .58
Ex a m ple 4 .2 5 A 100 V dc series m ot or h as an arm at u re resist ance of
67
N.m it run s at a sp eed of 600 rpm , iron an d frict ion losses at t h is speed ar e 300 W.
Det erm ine
( a) l ost t orque ( b) copper losses and ( c) ef ficien cy.
Solu t ion
Torqu e ex ert ed, T = 27. 58 N.m
2   N 27.58  2   600
Speed, N= 60 0 r.p. m .
Mot or out pu t = T   1732 W

60 60
St ray losses, Ps = 300 W
Let in pu t curren t be of I am peres t o give a t orque of 27 .58 N.m .
Copper losses in series fi eld and arm at ure = I 2 ( Ra + Rse)
= I 2 ( 0.2 + 0.25 ) = 0. 45 I 2
I nput t o mot or = Mot or out put +  Ps + copper losses
= 1 732 + 30 0 + 0 .45 I 2 = 20 32 + 0.45 I 2
……..( i)
Also mot or inpu t = VI = 100 I
……..( ii)
Com parin g expression s (i) an d (ii) we get
0 .45 I 2 + 203 2 = 100 I
or I = 2 2.5
( b) Copper losses = I 2 ( Ra + Rse) = 22.5 2 0.45 = 227.8 W
Ef ficiency of t he m ot or,    100   100  76.97%

Output 1732
22.5  100
( c)
Input
Losses in watts 300  227.8
Torqu e lost =    8 . 4 N. m
2  N / 60 2 
( a)
600
60
68
PROBLEMS
4. 1. The open - ci rcuit volt age of a separat el y excit ed dc generat or i s 350 V when
it is running at 1 80 0 rpm . I f t h e ex cit at i on is held con st an t , wh at is t he
out put volt age at 1 20 0 rpm ? At what speed would t he gen er at or run t o
produce 300 V?
An s. 233 .3V; 1543 rpm .
4. 2. For t h e gener at or of Problem 4 .2 draw no-load sat u rat ion curves at 12 00
and 80 0. Det erm in e t h e g en er at ed volt age at t h e speed s for current s of 2.4
A an d 5 A.
4. 3. A sh un t gen erat or has t he n o-load sat urat ion cu rve sh own in Figu re 4. 62.
Det erm ine
a) Th e v al ue of t h e fi eld circuit resist ance if t h e generat ed vol t age i s 3 50
V.
b) Th e out put vol t age if t he field ci rcuit resi st ance is 60 .
c) Th e value of t he crit ical fiel d resist ance for a speed of 2 00 0 rpm .
An s. (a) 58 , ( b) 340 V , ( c) 75 
Figure 4.6 2
A shun t generat or wit h a field resist ance of 60  has t he no-load sat ur at i on
cu rve of Figure 4.6 3 at 200 0 rpm . I f Ra is 0 .16  an d t h e brush drop is 2 V,
4. 4.
plot a graph of out put vol t age v er sus load cu rren t as it varies from 0 to 40
A in st eps of 5 A. Assum e t h at t he fiel d flux rem ai ns essen t ially const ant .
No load saturation
curve at 2000 rpm
Field current, Ish, A
Figure 4.6 3
4. 5. A 10-kW 250 V generat or has a shun t - field resist ance of 1 25, Ra of 0 .4,
a st r ay load loss of 5 40 W, and a 2 - V bru sh volt age drop. I f it is ru nning at
it s rat ed out put , cal culat e:
a) Th e gen erat ed volt age.
b) Th e efficiency. Ans. a) 2 68 .8 V ; b) 84 .5%
69
4. 6. A separ at ely ex ci t ed dc g en er at or is driven at 1 200 rpm and t he following

dat a w ere recorded:
I sh ( A) 0 0 .1 0.2 0 .3 0. 4 0.6 0.8 1. 0
Eg (V) 5 26 50 76 98 1 31 1 53 1 70
a) Draw t he no-load curves at 12 00 and l500 rpm .

b) Th e field ci rcuit resist ance is 200 . Wh at is t he open -circuit volt age
of t he m achine if it i s connect ed as a sh un t gen er at or ru nning at
1500 rpm .
c) Wh at is t he cri tical field resist an ce at 100 0 rpm .
4. 7. I n a 150 - kW 600 -V short -sh unt com pound gen erat or, 6 45. 6 V i s i nduced in
field current i s 6 A. Rse = 0 .08 . Det er m ine:

t he arm at ure when t he gener at or delivers rat ed load at 60 0 V. The sh un t -
a) Th e arm at u re resist an ce and shun t - field resist an ce. ( Neglect brush

volt age drop.)
Ans.: a) 0 .1, 10 3.3 ; b)

b) Th e volt age regulat ion if th e em f induced in the arm at ure on no load
is 600 V.
10 .0%
4. 8. A separ at ed ex ci t ed g en erat or has a no-load volt age of 12 5 V at a field
cu rrent of 2.1 A when driven at a sp eed of 1 60 0 rpm . Assum ing t h at i t i s
operat i ng on t he st raight -line port ion of it s sat urat ion curve, calculat e:
a) Th e gen erat ed volt age when t h e fi eld current is increased t o 2.6 A.
b) Th e gener at ed volt age when t he speed is redu ced t o 1 450 rpm and
t he field cu rren t is in creased t o 2.8 A.
4. 9. A 10 -kW 220 -V com pound generat or (lon g- shunt connect ed) is operat ed at
no load at t he proper arm at ure volt age and speed, from which t h e st r ay-
t he arm at ure resist ance Ra= 0.2 65  and t he series- field resi st ance, Rse=
power loss is det erm i ned t o be 70 5. The sh un t -fiel d resi st ance, Rsh = 11 0,
0.035. Assu m e a 2- V bru sh drop and calculat e t h e full-load efficiency.

Ans. 83.9 %
field resist ance of 24 , an ar m at u re r esist an ce of 0.0 03, a seri es- field

4. 10. A 250 - kW 240- V 12 00 rpm short - sh un t com pou nd gen erat or has a sh un t -
resist an ce of 0.0 013 , and a com m ut at ing-field resist ance of 0.00 4,
calculat e t he generat ed em f at fu ll load.
4. 11. The t erm in al volt age of a 200 - kW shun t generat or is 60 0 V wh en it deli vers
arm at ure resist ance i s 0.32 , and t he bru sh resist ance is 0 .01 4 .
rat ed curren t . Th e resist ance of t h e shu nt field circuit is 250, t he
a) Det erm ine t he em f indu ced at r at ed curren t .

b) Th e t erm inal volt age is 6 20 V at half-rat ed current . Det erm in e t he
em f indu ced. Ans. a) 712 .1 V; b) 67 6.5
V
4. 12. The no-load sat urat ion cu rve of a dc sh un t gen erat or when runnin g at a
speed of 10 00 rpm is as illu st rat ed in Fi g. 4 .64.
a) Det erm ine t he critical field resist an ce at ;
i. 1 000 rpm
ii. 1 500 rpm
b) I f t he resist an ce of t he field coils is 1 00 , find t he value of t he field
rheost at t o set t h e open- circuit volt age t o l25 V at a speed of 10 00
rpm .
70
Figure 4 .64 No-load sat urat ion cu rve for problem 4 .12
4. 13. The dc gen er at or h as t he following OCC at 8 00 r.p.m
I sh ( A) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Eg (V) 10 1 12 1 98 2 32 2 52 266
gener at or at 1 00 0 r.p.m . The resist ance of fi eld circuit is 70- .

a) Find the no-load t erm in al volt age when t he m achin e ru ns as a sh unt
b) Wh at additi onal field regulat or resist ance will be r equired t o reduce t he
330 V; b) 42 .5 
volt age t o 2 70 -V? Ans. a)
4. 14. The open - ci rcuit charact eri sti c of a de sh un t generat or driven at 8 50 rpm i s
given by,
I sh ( A) 2 3 4 5 6
Eg (V) 68 87 1 00. 5 1 09 1 12 .5
Th e resi st ance of t h e sh unt field winding is 22 .2 . Find the vol t age t o

which the m achin e will excit e, when it run s at 8 50rpm self- excit ed.
Ans.1 08 V
4. 15. The relat ion bet ween t he excit at ion current and t h e em f gen erat ed by
separ at ely- excit ed gener at or ru nning on open ci rcuit at 600 rpm is given
by,
I sh ( A) 0 1 .6 3 .2 4 .8 6 .4 8.0
Eg (V) 0 1 50 2 95 3 98 4 65 517
open circui t wi th shun t field resi st ance of 60  (i) at 600 rpm , (ii) at 5 00
Fi nd t he volt age t o whi ch t he dc m achin e will excit e as a shun t generat or on
rpm an d (iii) critical speed of t he gener at or.

4. 16. The m agn et i zat ion charact eri st i c of dc shun t generat or running at 8 50 rpm
is given by,
Field curren t (A) 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3 .2 4
Em f ( V) 0 28 57 76 90 1 00
Calculat e
71
2 2 ,
i. The em f t o which t h e m ach ine will excit e, when t he field ci rcuit resi st ance is
ii. t h e em f when an additional resist ance of 8  is in cl uded in th e field circui t ,

iii. t h e v alue of fiel d resi st ance Rf f or norm al vol t age of 100V,
iv. Cri tical resist an ce of t he field ci rcuit and
v. Cri tical speed wi t h fi eld resist ance Rf as calcul at ed in part (iii) .
Ans.(i) 110 V (ii) 81 V (m ) 25  (iv) 37  ( v) 575 rpm
4. 17. The open circuit charact erist ics of dc gener at or driven at 100 0 rpm is given
by, The m agn et i zat ion charact erist ic of 4 pole, lap wou nd dc sh unt
gener at or with 400 arm at u re conduct ors an d running at 750 rpm i s given
by,
I sh ,( A) 0 0.2 0.4 0. 6 0.8 1. 2 1. 6 2 ,0 2 .4 3.0 4 .4 5.6
Em f, Eg 10 44 84 1 20 1 50 1 86 2 06 220 230 2 40 260 2 74

( V)
of t he field coil is 40  .
Th e m achine is sep arat ely excit ed from suppl y of 22 0 V. The resi st ance
i. Calculat e t h e range of rheost at (ohm s an d cu rren t car rying cap acit y)

in cluded in t h e fiel d circui t to give vol t age from 1 00 t o 250 V
ii. Wh at is t he v al ue of t he resist ance in t he field rheost at , when t he
t er m in al volt age i s 200 V?
iii. I f t he field rh eost at is k ept const an t at 5 0  and excit ing volt age i s 2 20
Ans. (i) 37 7 , 3 .7 A (ii) 94  (iii) 1 84 V, 23 0 V,

V, wh at is t he in du ced em f for generat or speeds of 800 , 1000 and 1200
rpm .
276 V
4. 18. The open circuit charact eri st i cs of a d c sh unt gen erat or driven at 10 00 rpm
is as follows.
Fi eld current , I sh 0 1 2 3 4 6 8 10
( A)
Em f, Eg (V) 4 1 15 230 3 15 360 4 05 430 4 50
Based on t h e above, cal culat e
50 ,
i. t he em f t o which t h e m achin e will excit e wit h sh un t fi eld resist ance of
ii. t he addition al resist ance in t h e field ci rcuit t o redu ce t h e em f t o 39 2 V,

an d
iii. Criti cal resi st ance of t h e sh unt field circui t at 600 .
4. 19. A 4 -pol e, 44 0 V dc sh un t m ot or t ak es a full-load cu rren t of 40 - A. t h e
Wb. The armature resistance is 0.25 Ω. Assume a brush contact drop of 2V,
arm at ure is wave woun d with 762 conduct ors. The flu x per pol e is 0.0 25
calculat e t he full load speed.

Ans. 674 rpm
of 0.12 Ω and a field resistance 0f 100 Ω. Find the ratio of the speed as a
4. 20. A dc shun t m achin e con nect ed t o 250 V m ain s h as an arm at u re resi st ance
gener at or t o it s speed as a m ot or, t he lin e current in each case bein g 80A.

4. 21. A 46 0 V series m ot or runs at 50 0 r.p. m . t aki ng a current of 40 A. Calculat e
t he speed an d per cent age ch an ge i n torque if t he load is reduced so t hat
t he m ot or is t aki ng 30 A. Tot al resist an ce of t he arm at ure an d field circuit i s
72
0.8 . Assu m e flu x is proportional to t he field cu rrent .

Ans. 679 rpm , 43. 75%
resist an ce of arm at u re an d field is 0 .4 . Calculat e t h e resist an ce t o be

4. 22. A 200 V dc seri es m ot or runs at 1 000 r.p.m . and t ak es 2 0 A. Com bin ed
insert ed i n seri es so as t o reduce t he sp eed t o 80 0 r.p.m ., assum i ng torque

t o vary as squ are of t h e speed and lin ear m agn et izat ion curve.
4. 23. A 250 V dc sh unt m ot or draws 5 A from t he line on no load an d runs at
250  respect ively. Wh at will be t he speed of t he m ot or, wh en it is loaded

100 0 rpm . Th e arm at ure resist an ce an d shun t field resi st ance are 0 .2 and
and t ak es current of 50 A. Arm at ure react ion weakens t h e field by 3% .

Ans.994 rpm
A 2 50 V dc sh unt m ot or has a shun t fi el d resist an ce of 2 50  an d an
arm at ure resist an ce of 0. 25 . For a given load t orqu e and no addition al
4. 24.
drawi ng an arm at ure curren t of 20 A. I f a resist an ce of 2 50  is in sert ed in

resist an ce i ncluded in sh un t fi eld circuit , t h e m ot or run s at 1 500 r.p.m .
series wit h t he field, t he load t orque rem ai nin g t h e sam e, find ou t t he new
speed and arm at ure cu rrent . Assum ing t he m agnet izat ion cu rve t o be
linear.
4. 25. A 4 - pole, 44 0 V dc shu nt m ot or t ak es a full load Current of 40 A. The
arm at ure is wave woun d with 762 conduct ors. The flu x per pol e is 0.0 25
Wb. Effect ive arm at ure resist an ce is 0.25. Assu mi ng brush cont act drop of
2 V, calculat e t h e full load speed.
Ans.674 rpm
4. 26. The arm at ure of a 4 - pole dc sh unt m ot or has a lap win ding accom m odat ed
in 50 slot s, each cont ai ning 2 4 con duct ors. I f t h e u sefu l flu x per pole is 25
m Wb, calculat e t h e t ot al t orque dev el oped, wh en t he ar m at ure cu rren t i s
45 A.
and 100  respect i vely.

4. 27. A 240 V dc shu nt m ot or h as arm at ure an d sh un t fiel d resist ance of 0. 04
i. Calculat e t h e v al ue of resist ance t h at m ust be added t o t he f iel d circuit

in order t o increase it s speed from 120 0 to 75 00 rpm , wh en t he su pply
curren t is 200 A.
An s.(i ) 25  (ii)
ii. Wi th t h e fi eld resist ance as in (i ), find t he speed of t he m ot or, wh en t he
supply curren t is 10 0 A.
1525 rpm
4. 28. A 23 0 V, 4- pole, dc shun t m ot or running at 750 rpm gives 7 .46 kW wit h an
arm at ure curren t of 38 A and fiel d curren t of 1.0 A. The arm at u re is w ave
 an d t h e drop at each brush i s 1 .0 V. Det er m ine ( i) useful torque, ( ii) t ot al

woun d and h as 40 0 con duct ors. The resist an ce of arm at ure winding is 0.2
t orqu e, (iii) u seful flu x per pol e, (i v) rot at ional losses, an d ( v) effi ci en cy.
4. 29. A 440 V, 6- pole dc shu nt m ot or h as a w av e connect ed arm at ure win ding
and field resist an ces ar e 0 .4 and 2 20  respect i vely. I gnoring t he ef fect of

wi th 11 00 conduct ors. Th e useful flux per pol e is 20 m Wb. The arm at ures
arm at ure r eact ion , fin d t h e sp eed and t he t ot al developed t orque, when t he
cu rrent of 22 A is t aken from t he m ain s. I f t h e iron, fri ction and windage
losses am ount t o 800 W, fin d t h e u seful t orque, sh aft pow er an d efficiency.
Ans. (i) 393 rpm (ii) 20 9.9 N m
(iii) 1 90 .4 N m (iv) 7.8 3 kW ( v) 81 %
4. 30. A 20 0 V dc shu nt m ot or with an arm at ure r esist an ce of 0 .4  is excit ed t o
an arm at u re curren t of 25 A. I f a resist an ce of 0.8  i s pl aced in t h e

give const an t m ain field. At full load, t he m ot or ru ns at 6 00 rpm an d t akes
arm at ure circuit , find t he speed at

( i) full load t orque an d,
73
( ii) double full load t orque.

4. 31. A 220 V dc sh unt m ot or t akes a no load ar m at ure curren t of 1 0 A an d run s
147 0rpm . Resist an ce of t he arm at u re circui t is 0.1 . Calculat e t he following

at 15 00 rpm . At full load, arm at ure current is 100 A an d t he m ot or ru ns at
:
( i) back- em f at no load an d at full load,
( ii) percent age reduct ion in flux due t o arm at u re react ion and
( iii) rat io of no load t o full-load t orque developed by t h e arm at ure.
Ans. (i ) 219 V, 21 0 V (ii) 2.14 % (iii)
0 .102
4. 32. A 440 V dc shun t m ot or t akes an ar m at u re current of 12 0 A at fu ll load and
ru ns at 80 0 rpm . Find t h e speed of t h e m ot or, wh en t h e t orqu e on t he
m ot or is redu ced t o 6 0 per cent of i t s full load v alue and a resist ance of
1.5 is insert ed in t he arm at ure circuit . Take t he effect ive arm at ure
resist an ce as 0 .2.
4. 33. A 250 V dc sh unt m ot or t ak es 21 A and runs at 60 0 rpm while drivin g a
and t he field are 0.5 an d 2 50  respect ively. I t is d esired t o raise t he speed

load, t he t orque of which i s con st an t . The resist an ce of t h e arm at ure
from 600 t o 80 0 rpm . What resist ance m u st b e in cl uded in t he shun t field
An s. 88 
circuit ? Assu m e t he m agnet izat ion curve t o be st rai ght lin e.
4. 34. A 220 V dc shun t m ot or has an arm at ur e resist an ce of 0. 25  and a field

resist an ce of 55. The m ot or while driving a const an t load t orqu e t akes 64
A an d ru ns at 500 rpm . Find the speed when a resist ance of 20 is
insert ed i n t he shunt field circuit . Assum e t h e flax t o be proportional to t h e
field current .
4. 35. A 10 h p, 50 0 V dc shun m otor h as an arm at ure resist an ce of 0. 25  and
field resist ance of 4 00 . I t s full load effi ci en cy is 85 % . I t is desi red
t o redu ce t he speed of m ot or by 30 % by including a resist ance in t h e
arm at ure ci rcuit , keepin g t h e sam e field an d ar m at u re current s. Assu m i ng
t hat all losses except copper losses v ary direct ly with t h e speed, f ind t h e
value of t he r esist an ce in sert ed in t he arm at ure circui t an d also t he
An s.9 .12 , 59.6%

effi ci ency of t he m ot or, wh en it is ru nning at t he redu ced sp eed.
74

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

4.2. CON STRUCTI ON OF DC M ACH I N ES

Figure 4 .1 cut - away view of DC m ach ines

Figure 4 .1 Flu x pat h s in a 6- pole dc m ach ines

Th e st at or of dc m achines com prises of

Figu re 4 .3 Main- pol e

1. Arm at ure core wi th slot s and

Figure 4.6 Brush and bru sh holder

4.3. PRI N CI PLE OPERATI ON OF DC GEN ERATOR

Figure 4 .8 Righ t - hand rule t o det er m i ne t he direct ion of in duced em f.

Figure 4.10 Unidi rect ional curren t wav e sh ap e

Figure 4.1 1 Result ant cu rrent wav e sh ape

4.4. TYPES OF DC GEN ERATORS

Figure 4.1 2 sep arat el y excit ed dc m achin es

Figure 4.13 Series excit ed dc m achin e

Figure 4 .14 Shunt exci t ed dc m achin e

Com poun d Ex cit a t ion

4.5. EM F EQUATI ON OF DC GEN ERATOR

Num ber of revolu tion / second 

em f gen erat ed / conduct or   , volt

Num ber of parall el pat h a = 2

Num ber of conduct ors (in series) in one pat h 

Num ber of parall el pat h a = P

Num ber of conduct ors (in series) in one pat h 

Wh ere, a = 2 for wav e winding

Resi st ance of t h e feeders = 0 .1 

= 4 5.5  0.1 = 4.55 V

load of 10 0 A at 2 00 V. Th e ar m at u re r esist ance is 0.1  and t h e sh unt field

Load current , I L = 100 A

iii) Em f generat ed,

Ex a m ple 4 .3 A short sh un t com pound gen erat or su pplies 200 A at 10 0 V. The

. Find t he em f gen er at ed.

resist ance is 0 .05  an d t he shu nt fiel d resist an ce 50 . Fin d the speed of t he

m achin e wh en supplying 450 A at a t erm in al volt age of 250 V.

iii) Resist an ce of shun t field, Rsh = 5 5 

 119.28  234.2  0.07

4.6. ARM ATURE REACTI ON

Field Flux due to

Du e t o t his bru sh shift ( or forward, l eads) , t he ar m at ure conduct ors an d hence

4.7. COM MUTATI ON

Figure 4 .23 Com m ut at ion in Coil B

(i) resist ance com m ut at ion and

Figure 4.2 5 com pensat ing win din gs

4.8. CH ARACTERI STI CS OF DC GEN ERATORS

1. M a gne t iza t ion cha ra ct e r ist ic or ope n- circuit cha ra ct e ri st ic

3. I nt e rna l cha ra ct e rist ic – sh ows t h e r elat ion ship bet ween t he em f

Fi gure 4.2 7 Magn et izat ion curve or O.C.C.

4.9. VOLTAGE BUI LD- UP PROCESS I N SH UN T GEN ERATOR

Figure 4 .28 volt age build- u p process in self exci t ed dg generat or

Figure 4.2 9 schem at ic di agram of a shun t or self– ex ci t ed dc gener at or

4.10. EXTERN AL CH ARACTERI STI CS

4 .1 0 .4 . Com pound Gene ra t or

Field cu rren t , I sh 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1.0 1 .2 1.4 1 .6

Em f , Eg (V) 40 66 86 1 01 112 1 21 128 1 33

Th e m ach ine is connect ed as sh un t generat or an d dri ven at 50 0 rpm . Fin d

i) open circuit vol t age, wh en t he field circuit resi st ance is 94 ,

of 94 . An y poin t on t he fi eld resist ance line can be found ou t corresponding to a

Fi gu re 4 .3 5 Mag n et i zat io n cur ve f or exam p l e 4. 6

Ex a m ple 4 .7 The open circuit charact eri st i c of a dc generat or at rpm is as follows:

Field cu rrent , I sh ( A) 0.5 1.0 1 .5 2.0 2 .5 3: 0 3 .5

open circui t volt age, VOCC(V) 60 120 138 1 45 149 1 51 152

resist ance of shun t field circuit bei ng 60 . Calculat e,

i) t h e open circui t volt age,