CONTENTS

1.ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

2. INTRODUCTION
3. THEORY
4. APPARATUS REQUIRED
5. CONSTRUCTION
6. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ALTERNATOR
7. USES OF AC GENERATOR
8. POWER RATING OF ALTERNATOR
9. EFFICIENCY
10. MACHINE LOSSES
 lNTRODUCTlON
An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
A generator forces electric current toflow through an external circuit. The source of
mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, waterfalling
through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a
hand crank, compressed air, or any other source of mechanical energy. Generators
provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids.
Most of the electrical power used aboard Navy ships and aircraft as well as in civilian
applications is ac. As a result, the ac generator is the most important means of
producing electricalpower . Ac generators, generally called alternators, vary greatly in
size depending upon the load to which they supplypower. For example, the
alternators in use at hydroelectric plants, such as Hoover Dam, are tremendous in
size, generating thousands of kilowatts at very high voltage levels. Another example is
the alternator in a typical automobile, which is very small by comparison. It weighs
only a fewpounds and produces between 100 and200 watts ofpower, usually at a
potential of 12 volts. Many of the terms and principles covered in this chapter will
.
befamiliar to you. They are the same as those covered in the chapter on de
generators You are encouraged to
referback, as needed,. and to refer3-2 to any other source that will help you master the
subjectof this chapter No one source meets the complete needs of everyone.

BASICAC
GENERATORS
.
Regardless of size, all electrical generators, whether de or ac, depend upon the
principle of magnetic induction An emf is induced in a coil as a res ult of (1) a coil
cutting through. a magneticfield, or (2) a magnetic field cutting through a coil. As long
as there is .
relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage will be induced in
.
the conductor That part of a generator that produces the magnetic field is called the
. is called the armature For relative
field. That part in which the voltage is induced
motion to. take place between the conductor and the magnetic field, all . generators
must have two mechanical parts- a rotor and a stator The Rotor is the part that
Rotates;
the Stator is the part that remains Stationary In a de generator, the armature is aluxujs
the rotor In alternators, the armature may be either the rotor or stator
 THEORY
• The strong magnetic field is produced by a current flow through the field
coil of the rotor.

• The field coil in the rotor receives excitation through the use of slip rings
and brushes.

• Two brushes are spring-held in contact with the slip rings to provide
the continuous connection between the field coil and the external
excitation circuit.

• The armature is contained within the windings of the stator and is

connected to the output.

• Each time the rotor makes one complete revolution, one complete cycle of
AC is developed.
• A generator has many turns of wire wound into the slots of the rotor.

• The magnitude of AC voltage generated by an AC generator is dependent

on the field strength and speed of the rotor.

• Most generators are operated at a constant speed; therefore, the generate

voltage depends on field excitation, or strength.
APPARATUS RE UlRED
4pcs. - 1 cm x 2cm x Scm ceramic magnet

lpce. - Magnet wire 200ft spool

lpce. - Miniature Incandescent Lamp, 1.SV

25mA.
lpce. - Cardboard strip, 8cm x 30cm

1pee. - Large nail, 8cm long or more

1. - Knife or sandpaper to strip the wires

lpce. - tape to hold wire down

Optional: hand drill or electric drill to spin it

(hand drill is best)
 Construct ton
Construction wise, an alternator generally consists of field poles placed on the
rotatingfixture of the machine i.e. rotor as shown in thefigureabove. Once the
rotor or the field poles are made to rotate in the presence of armature
conductors housed on the stator, an altemating3 <p voltage represented by aa'
bb' cc' is induced in the armature conductors thus resulting in the generation of
3<p electrical power. All modern day electrical power generating station use this
technology for generation of 3<p power, and as a result the alternator or
synchronous generator has become a subject of great importance and interestfor
power engineers of late.

-- Rotor field

b'

An alternator is basically a type of a.c generator also known as synchronous

generator, for the simple reason that the field poles are made to rotate at
synchronous speed Ns = 120 fl Pfor effectivepower generation. Where f
signifies the alternating current frequency and the P represents the number of
poles. In most practical construction of alternator, it is installed with a stationary
armature winding and a rotating field unlike in the case of DC generator
where the arrangement is exactly opposite. This modification is made to cope
with the very high power of the order of few 100 Mega watts produced in an
ac generator contrary to that of a DC generator. To accommodate such
high power the conductor weigh and dimension naturally has to be
increased for optimum performance. And for this reason is it beneficial to
replace these high power armature windings by low power field windings,
which is also consequently of
much lighter weight, thus reducing the centrifugal force required to turn the
rotor and permitting higher speed limits.
There are mainly two types of rotor used in construction of alternator,
1. Salient pole type.
2. Cylindrical rotor type.
Salient Pole Type
The salient pole type of rotor is generally used for slow speed machines having
large diameters and relatively small axial lengths. The pole in this case are
made of thick laminated steel sections riveted together and attached to a rotor
with the help ofjoint. An alternator as mentioned earlier is mostly responsible for
generation of very high electrical power. To enable that, the mechanical input
given to the machine in terms of rotating torque must also be very high. This high
torque value results in oscillation or hunting effectof the alternator ors ynchronous
generator. To prevent theseoscillati.onsfromgoing beyond bounds the damper
winding is provided in the pole faces ass hown in the figure. The damper
windings are basically copper bars short circuited at both ends are placed in
the
holes made in the pole axis's. When the alternator is driven at a steady speed, the
relative velocity of the damping winding with respect to ma infield will be zero.
But as soon as it departs from the synchronous speed there will be relative
motion between the damper winding and the ma infield which is always rotating
at synchronous speed. This relative difference will induce current in them which
will exert a torque on thefieldpoles in such a way as to bring the alternator back
to synchronous speed operation.
The salient features ofpole field structure has the following specialfeature-

1. They have a large horizontal diameter compared to a shorter axial length.

2. The pole shoes cover only about 2;srd of pole pitch.
3. Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current Zoss.
4. The salient pole type motor is generally used for low speed operations of
around 100 to 400 rpm, and they are used in power stations with hydraulic
turbines or diesel engines.
 Rotor

) t ( rrt ~-l I ()I •

The cylindrical rotor is generally usedfor very high speed operation and is
employed in steam turbine driven alternators like turbo generators.

The cylindrical rotor type machine has uniform length in all directions, giving a
cylindrical shape to the rotor thus providing uniform fl u.x cutting in all directions.
The rotor in this case consists of a smooth solid steel cylinder, having a number
of
slots along its outer periphery for hosing the field coils.
The cylindrical rotor a ltemators are generally designed for 2-pole type giving very
high speed of N, = (120 x j}/P = (120 x 50) I 2 = 3000 rpm.
Or 4-pole type running at a speed of N, = (120 x !) I P = (120 x 50) I 4 =
1500 rpm. Where f is the frequency of 50 Hz.
The a cylindri.ca.lrotor synchronous generator does not have any projections
coming out from the surf ace of the rotor, rather central polar area are provided
with slotsfor housing the field windings as we can see from the diagram above.
The working principle of alternator is very simple. It is just like basic principle of
DC generator. It also depends upon Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
which says the current is induced in the conductor inside a magnetic field when
there is a relative motion between that conductor and the magnetic field.
For understanding working of alternator let's think about a single rectangular turn
placed in between two opposite magnetic pole as shown above.

Say this single turn loop ABCD can rotate against axis a-b. Suppose this loop
starts rotating clockwise. After 90° rotation the side AB or conductor AB of the loop
comes in front of S-pole and conductor CD comes in front of N-pole. At this position
the tangential motion of the conductor AB is just perpendicular to the magnetic
flux lines from N to S pole. Hence rate of flux cutting by the conductor AB is
maximum here and for that flux cutting there will be an induced current in the
conductor AB and direction of the induced current can be determined by Fleming's
right hand rule. As per this rule the direction of this current will be from A to B.
At the same time conductor CD comes under N pole and here also if we
apply Fleming right hand rule we will get the direction of induced current and it
will be from C to D.
Now after clockwise rotation of another 90° the turn ABCD comes at vertical
position as shown below. At this position tangential motion of conductor AB and
CD is just parallel to the magnetic flux lines; hence there will be no flux cutting
that is no current in the conductor. While the turn ABCD comes from horizontal
position to vertical position, angle between flux lines and direction of motion of
conductor, reduces from 90° to 0° and consequently the induced current in the
tum is reduced to zero from its maximum value.

After another clockwise rotation of 90 ° the turn again come to horizontal posit ion
and here conductor AB comes under N-pole and CD comes under S-pole, and
here if we again apply Fleming's right hand rule, we will see that induced
current in conductor AB, is from point B to A and induced current in the conductor
CD is from D to C.

As at this position the turn comes at horizontal position from its vertical position,
the current in the conductors comes to its maximum value from zero. That means
current is circulating in the close turn frompoint B to A, from A to D, from D to
C and from C to B. Just reverse of the previous horizontal position when the
current was circulating as A- B - C - D - A.
While the turn further proceeds to its vertical position the current is again
reduced to zero. So if the turn continues to rotate the current in the turn
continually
alternate its direction. During every full revolution of the turn, the current in the
tum gradually reaches to its maximum value then reduces to zero and then again
it comes to its maximum value but in opposite direction and again it comes to zero.
In this way the current completes one full sine wave form during each 360°
revolution of the turn. So we have seen how an alternating current is produced in
a turn is rotated inside a magneticfield. From this, we will now come to the actual
working principle of alternator.
Now we cut the loop and connect its two ends with two slip rings and stationary
brush is placed on each slip ring. If we connect two terminals of an external load
with these two brushes, we will get an alternating current in the load. This is our
elementary model of alternator.

Having understood the very basic principle of alternator, let us now have an
insight into its basic operational principal of a practical alternator. During
discussion of basic working of alternator, we have considered that the magnetic
field is stationary and conductors (armature) are rotating. But generally in
practical construction of alternator, armature conductors are stationary and field
magnets rotate between them The rotor of an alternator or a synchronous
generator is mechanically coupled to the shaft or the turbine blades, which on
being made to rotate at synchronous speed N, under some mechanicalforce
results in magnetic flux cutting of the stationary armature conductors housed on
the stator. As a direct consequence of this flux cutting an induced emf and current
starts toflow through the armature conductors whichfirstflow in one direction for
the first half cycle and then in the other direction for the second half cyclefor each
winding with a de.finite time lag of 120° due to the space displaced arrangement
of 120° between them as shown in the figure below. These particular
phenomena results in 3cp power flow out of the alternator which is then
transmitted to the distributions tations for domes tic and industrial us es.
 Different Stages of Generation. of Electricity

Mechanical energy
output

AC voltag:e applied
to motor coil t:hrough
snp r~ngs.

Mechantcall energy I
I
AC voltage
input is converted output
through intol electrlca . slip
rings and energy. ,
brushes,

•
Generator
Voltage.•
applied to
motor.
 Usages ofAC generator
1. Aircraft auxiliary power generation, wind generators, high speed gas
turbine generators.

2. Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) drive systems, automotive

starter genera tors.

3. An ac generator, or 'altemator', is used to produce ac voltages

for transmission via the grid system or, locally, as portable
generators.

4. An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and

an engine (prime mover) mounted together to form a single piece of
self• contained equipment. The engines used are usually piston
engines, but gas turbines can also be used. And there are even hybrid
diesel-gas units, called dual-fuel units. Many different versions of
engine• generators are available - ranging from very small
portable petrol powered sets to large turbine installations. The primary
advantage of engine-generators is the ability to independently
supply electricity, allowing the units to serve as backup power
solutions.

5. The main advantage of AC is ease of power distribution. It is more

efficient to use high voltage to distribute power, but it is not safe to
have high voltage at home. It is easy to step up (and step down) AC
voltage using a transformer.

6. Motor vehicles require electrical energy to power their

instrumentation, keep the engine itself operating, and recharge their
batteries. Until about the 1960s motor vehicles tended to use DC
generators with electromechanical regulators. Following the historical
trend above and for many of the same reasons, these have now been
replaced by alternators with built-in rectifier circuits. 7. All of our
household appliances run on ac current. Ex: Refrigerator, washing
 Power rating o alternator
Power rating of alternator is defined as the power which can be delivered by an
alternator safely and efficiently under some specific conditions. Increasing load,
increases losses in alternator, this leads to temperature rise of the machine. The
conductor and insulator parts of the machine have some specific over heating
withstand limits. The power rating of an alternator is so specified, that at that
maximum load, the temperature rise of different parts of the machine does not
cross their specified safe limit.

The copper losses i.e. PR loss varies with armature current and core losses vary
with voltage. The temperature rise or heating of alternator depends upon
cumulative effectof copper losses and core losses. As there is no role of power
factor upon these losses, the rating of alternator generally given in VA or KVA
or MVA. In other word, as the losses of alternator are independent of electrical
power factor, hence power factor does not come into picture while power rating
of an alternator is calculated or estimated. Although losses of alternator depends
upon its KVA or MVA rating but actual output varies with electrical power
factor.

The electrical output of an alternator is product of power factor and VA and

output is expressed in KW. Sometimes alternators are also rated by its power
instead of VA rating. That time electrical power factor of the alternator must be
specified too.

In addition to KVA rating, an alternator is also rated with voltage, electric

current, frequency, speed, number of phase, number of poles, field ampere,
excitation voltage, maximum temperature rise limit etc.

~----- Le iency alternator

o
Expression for Instantaneous e.m.f. Produced:
Let position of the coil at any time t. It makes angle q with vertical If w is
uniform angular speed of the coil.
 Thenq= wt
Bis the strength of magnetic field n is the number of turns in the coil and an area
of the coil then magnetic flux with the coil in this position are given by:
f = nBA Cos q = nBA Cos wt.
Differentiate w. r. t. time
= nBA (-Sin wt) w

= -nBA w Sin wt
e = - (-nBA w Sin wt)

Maximum value of e. m.]. say Ea

e = Ea Sin wt.

• Efficiency of an AC generator is the ratio of the useful power output to the

total power input.

• Because any mechanical process experiences some losses, no AC generators

can be 100 percent efficient.

• Efficiency of an AC generator can be calculated using Equation.

• Efficiency =(Output /Input )x 100

 Machine Losses
1. Winding Losses (Copper Losses).

• I2R stator loss

• I2R rotor Zoss

*Eddy and circulating current loss in winding (parasitic currents induced in

the winding).
2. IronLosses.

• Mainly stator losses due to hysteresis loss and eddy current Zoss in stator
laminations

3. Parasitic Eddy Losses.

• Induced currents in all metallic components (bolts, frame, etc.)

• Friction and windage Zoss

• Losses in fans, rotor and stator cooling vents

• Losses in bearings

4. Exogenous Losses.

• Losses in auxiliary equipment

• Excitation

• Lubrication oil pumps H2 seal oil pumps

• H2 and water cooling pumps

And soon ...

Iso-phase or lead losses
 BlBLlOG

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