ALTERNATORS

PART_I.

An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form
of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a
stationary armature. Occasionally, a linear alternator or a rotating armature with a stationary magnetic field is
used. In principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator, but usually the term refers to small
rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines.
An alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic field is called a magneto. Alternators in power
stations driven by steam turbines are called turbo-alternators. Large 50 or 60 Hz three-phase alternators in power
plants generate most of the world's electric power, which is distributed by electric power grids.

TYPES OF ALTERNATOR
1. Synchronous Generator. The rotating and stationary parts of an electrical machine can be called as rotor and
stator respectively. The rotor or stator of electrical machines acts as a power-producing component and is called
as an armature. The electromagnets or permanent magnets mounted on the stator or rotor are used to
provide magnetic field of an electrical machine. The generator in which permanent magnet is used instead of coil
to provide excitation field is termed as permanent magnet synchronous generator or also simply called as
synchronous generator. Synchronous generator is driven at constant speed.

2. Induction generator. Also called synchronous generator is a type of alternating current (AC) electrical
generator that uses the principles of induction motors to produce power. Induction generators operate by
mechanically turning their rotors faster than synchronous speed. Its p.f. is usually leading and connected in
parallel with a synchronous generator in order to supply power for lighting loads.

3. Induction Alternator. It generates voltage at higher frequency (500 Hz– 10,000 Hz). It is used to supply power
to induction furnace in order to heat and melt metal.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ALTERNATOR AND GENERATOR

1. In an alternator, electricity is produced when a magnetic field spins inside the stator (windings of wire).
On the other hand, the armature or the windings of wire in a generator spin inside a fixed magnetic field to
generate electricity.
2. Alternators conserve energy by using only the energy that is needed. Generators use all the energy that is
produced.
3. Alternators produce voltage when needed and generators produce voltage at all times.
4. Alternators generate a higher output than generators.

Features AC Generator DC Generator

Function Generates AC output. Generates DC output.

In the alternator used in ac In the dc generator, the emf

generator, the generated ac is generated in the armature windings
Output brought to the load unchanged by is converted from ac to dc by means
connections means of slip rings. of the commutator.

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
 Types of AC generators are
rotating armature alternator and
rotating field alternator. Single
phase AC generator produces 25
KW or less. Single phase They are classified into excitation of
generates power at specific their fields viz. permanent magnet
voltage. Polyphase generates two type, separately excited type, self
Types or or more AC voltages usually two, excited type, shunt/series type,
classifications three or six phases. compound type

• It is simple in construction.
• More powerful three phase • Lots of devices depend on DC
generators can be constructed. current for their operation.
• It is very easy to distribute AC • At given voltage, DC current is
voltage with the help of powerful compare to equivalent AC
Advantages transformers. current.

• The electricity Grid requires • It will have more complex

fine co-ordination to ensure that
all the generators are in phase
with each other.
• AC current is more dangerous
compare to equivalent DC
Disadvantages current due to electric shock.
construction with split ring
commutator.
• Sparking occurs in gap of
commutator which wastes energy.
• It is more difficult to distribute DC
in efficient manner.

AC GENERATOR BACKGROUND

The commercial birth of the alternator (synchronous generator) can be dated back to August 24, 1891. On
that day, the first large-scale demonstration of transmission of ac power was carried out. The transmission
extended from Lauffen, Germany, to Frankfurt, about 110 miles away. The demonstration was carried out during
an international electrical exhibition in Frankfurt. This demonstration was so convincing about the feasibility of
transmitting ac power over long distances, that the city of Frankfurt adopted it for their first power plant,
commissioned in 1894.
It is interesting to note that although tremendous development in machine ratings, insulation components,
and design procedures has occurred now for over one hundred years, the basic constituents of the machine have
remained practically unchanged.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF AC GENERATOR

AC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The AC Generator’s input
supply is mechanical energy supplied by steam turbines, gas turbines and combustion engines. The output is
alternating electrical power in the form of alternating voltage and current.
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which states that
electromotive force – EMF or voltage – is generated in a current-carrying conductor that cuts a uniform magnetic
field. This can either be achieved by rotating a conducting coil in a static magnetic field or rotating the magnetic
field containing the stationary conductor. The preferred arrangement is to keep the coil stationary because it is
easier to draw induced alternating current from a stationary armature coil than from a rotating coil.

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
The various parts of an AC generator are:

Field
The field consists of coils of conductors that receive a voltage from the source and produce magnetic flux. The
magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to produce a voltage. This voltage is the output voltage of the AC
generator.

Armature
The part of an AC generator in which the voltage is produced is known as an armature. This component
primarily consists of coils of wire that are large enough to carry the full-load current of the generator.

Prime Mover
The component used to drive the AC generator is known as a prime mover. The prime mover could either be a
diesel engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.

Rotor
The rotating component of the generator is known as a rotor. The generator’s prime mover drives the rotor.

Stator
The stator is the stationary part of an AC generator. The stator core comprises a lamination of steel alloys or
magnetic iron to minimise the eddy current losses.

Slip Rings
Slip rings are electrical connections used to transfer power to and fro from the rotor of an AC generator. They
are typically designed to conduct the flow of current from a stationary device to a rotating one.

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
Possible Construction of an Alternator
1. Stationary Field (as stator) and Revolving Armature (as rotor)
2. Stationary armature (as stator) and Revolving field (as rotor) – more preferable arrangement
Advantages:
a. Output current is delivered to the load without passing it through brush contacts.
b. Easier to insulate stationary armature winding for high AC voltage.
c. Armature winding can be easily braced to prevent deformation which could be produced by mechanical
stresses.
d. Easily insulated slip rings which transfer low voltage, low power dc field circuit.
Rotating Armature Generator

In the rotating armature AC generator as illustrated in Figure 1, the stator provides a stationary
electromagnetic field. The rotor, acting as the armature, rotates in the field, cutting the lines of force and producing
the desired output voltage. The output voltage is taken from the rotor by the slip rings and brushes. One slip ring
is attached to each end of the rotating loop. The brushes make sliding electrical contact with the slip rings. The
generator's AC output voltage can be transferred from the slip rings through the brushes to an external circuit.

FIGURE 1. Rotating Armature

Rotating armature AC generators are typically used in applications involving small amounts of power.
With larger amounts of power, a great deal more current flow occurs through the slip rings and brushes. It is
difficult and expensive to build slip rings and brushes to carry large amounts of current. Therefore, most large
AC generators are rotating field generators.

Rotating Field Generator

The rotating field AC generator as illustrated in Figure 2 is by far the most widely used generator. In this
type of generator, direct current from a separate source is passed through windings on the rotor by means of slip
rings and brushes. This maintains a rotating electromagnetic field of fixed polarity (similar to a rotating bar
magnet). The rotating magnetic field of the rotor extends outward and cuts through the armature windings
embedded in the surrounding stator. As the rotor turns, alternating voltages are induced in the windings because
magnetic fields of first one polarity and then the other cut through them. Because the output power is taken from
stationary windings, the output may be connected through fixed terminals. The advantage in this type of
construction is that larger amounts of currents can be handled because there are no sliding contacts and the whole
output circuit is continuously insulated.

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
 FIGURE 2. Rotating Field

Slip rings and brushes are adequate for the DC field supply because the current level in the field is much
smaller than in the armature circuit.

ADVANTAGES OF HAVING STATIONARY ARMATURE

1.) The output current can be led directly from fixed terminals on the stator to the load circuit without
passing through the brush contacts.

2.) It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding of high ac voltages which may have as high a value as
30 kv or more.

3.) The sliding contacts are transferred to the low voltage, low power dc field circuit which can, therefore
easily insulated.

4.) The armature windings can be more easily braced to prevent any deformation which could be produced
by the mechanical stresses set up as a result of short circuit current and the high centrifugal forces
brought into play.

5.) The armature winding is cooled more because the stator case core can be made large enough and with
many air passages or air ducts for force air circulation.

6.) The armature winding is more complex than the field and can be constructed more easily on stationary
armature.

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
Polyphase Generators

Most electric power is generated and distributed as three-phase rather than single-phase power for the
following reasons:

• The cost of transmission is less than for the same voltage and power in a single-phase system.

• A three-phase generator has a 180% greater capacity than a single phase generator of the same physical size.

• Single-phase voltage and power is easily available from a three-phase system by merely tapping any two of
the power
leads.

A three-phase AC generator is designed to produce three-phase AC power by building more coils in the stator
around the rotor. The three coils are equally spaced 120° apart around the inside of the stator. The armature
coils are wired so that the generator has three separate output voltages that differ in phase by 120 degrees.

Simplified Three-Phase AC
Generator

Voltage Output of a Three-Phase

Generator

DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION

● STATOR FRAME
● In DC machines, the outer frame (or the yoke) serves to carry the magnetic flux, but in alternator, it is
not meant for that purpose. Hence, it is useful for hiding the armature stamping and winding in
position. Low speed large diameter alternators have frames which because of ease of manufacture, are
cast in sections. Ventilation is maintained with help of the holes cast in the frame itself. The provision
of radial ventilating spaces in the stampings assists in cooling the machine.

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
 ● STATOR CORE
● The armature core is supported by the stator frame and is built up of laminations of special magnetic
iron or steel alloy. The core is laminates to minimize loss due to eddy currents. The lamination are
stamped out in complete rings (for small machines). The laminations are insulated from each other
and have spaces between them for allowing the cooling air to pass through. The slots for housing the
armature conductor lie along the inner periphery of the core and are stamped out at the same time
when lamination are formed.

TYPES OR ARMATURE SLOTS

1. WIDE OPEN
● Wide open type slot (also used in DC machines) has the advantage of permitting easy installation of
form wound coils and their easy removal in case of repair. But it has a disadvantage of distributing the
air gap flux into bunches or tufts that produce riffles in the wave of generated emf.
2. SEMI - CLOSED
● Semi – closed type flux is better in this respect, but do not allow the use of form- wound coils.
3. WHOLLY CLOSED
● Wholly closed type slots or tunnels do not disturb the air gap flux but (i) they tend to increase the
inductance of the windings (ii). The armature conductors have to be threaded through, thereby
increasing initial labor and cost of winding and (iii). They present a complicated problem of end
connections hence they are rarely used .

● ROTOR

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
TYPES OF ROTORS

● SALIENT POLE
In salient pole type of rotor consist of large number of projected poles (salient poles) mounted on a
magnetic wheel. The projected poles are made up from laminations of steel. The rotor winding is
provided on these poles and it is supported by pole shoes.

● Salient pole rotors have large diameter and shorter axial length.
● They are generally used in lower speed electrical machines, say 100 RPM to 1500 RPM.
● As the rotor speed is lower, more number of poles are required to attain the required frequency.
Flux distribution is relatively poor than non-salient pole rotor, hence the generated emf waveform
is not as good as cylindrical rotor.
● Salient pole rotors generally need damper windings to prevent rotor oscillations during operation.

● Non-salient pole rotors are cylindrical in shape having parallel slots on it to place rotor windings. It is
made up of solid steel. Sometimes, they are also called as drum rotor.
● They are smaller in diameter but having longer axial length.
● Cylindrical rotors are used in high speed electrical machines, usually 1500 RPM to 3000 RPM.
● Windage loss as well as noise is less as compared to salient pole rotors.
● Their construction is robust as compared to salient pole rotors.
● Number of poles is usually 2 or 4.

● Damper windings are not needed in non-salient pole rotors.

● Flux distribution is sinusoidal and hence gives better emf waveform.
EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2
1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
 ● Non-salient pole rotors are used in nuclear, gas and thermal power plants.

● Damper Windings
- Most of the alternators have their poles – shoes slotted
for receiving copper bars of a grid or damper winding
(also known as Squirrel – cage winding). The copper
bars of a circuited at both ends by heavy copper rings.
These dampers are useful in preventing the hunting
(momentary speed fluctuations) in generators and are
needed un-synchronous motors to provide the starting
torque.

“Damper windings also tends to maintain balanced 3 – phase

voltages under unbalanced loads conditions due to harmonics effects. “

HARMONICS

Prime Movers for all Alternators

The following are the various prime movers used for alternators:
1. For Large AC Generator
a. Steam Turbine
b. Gas Turbine
c. Hydraulic Turbine
d. Internal Combustion Engine
2. For Small AC Generator
a. Internal Combustion Engine

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
SPEED AND FREQUENCY OF AC GENERATOR

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. An alternator has six poles and operates at 1200 rpm, (a) What frequency does it generate? (b) at what
speed must the machine be operated if it is to have a frequency of 25 cycles? (c) 50 cycle?

2. What is the maximum speed at which the field of a six poles alternator can be operated to develop 60
cycles? 25 cycles? 50 cycles?

3. What is the speed of a 100 kw, 230 volt, three phase, four pole, 60 Hz alternator?

ARMATURE WINDING FOR ALTERNATOR

- The type of winding most generally used in alternators is very similar to the DC lap winding. In DC
armatures it will be recalled that the coils are connected together at the commutator; in AC armatures
they are joined together by merely connecting the proper coil ends in the correct sequence.

Two general arrangements of coil are employed:

1. Half – coiled or single layer
2. Whole – coiled or double layer winding.

𝑛=

1. Coil Span (𝑌𝑠 )

𝑌𝑠 =

2. Distance between Phases (3 phase, positive sequence)

- 120 degrees each
- (AB – BC – CA)

𝑋 𝑌𝑠 120 ∗ 𝑌𝑠
= →𝑋=
120 180 180
Example
1. 36 slots, 4 poles, 3 phase alternator, double layer winding

2. 90 slots, 6 poles, 3 phase single layer winding

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
COIL PITCH AND PITCH FACTOR

COIL PITCH
● The distance between the two sides of a coil.

FULL PITCH
● When this is exactly equal to the distance between centers two adjacent poles, 180 electrical
degrees, the coil is said to be full pitch and the winding is full pitch. Under this condition the
generated voltages in both coil sides are exactly in phase.

FRACTIONAL PITCH WINDING or SHORTED – PITCHED or CHORDED WINDING

● If the distance between the two sides of a coil is less that 180 electrical degrees, the coil is said to
be fractional pitch and the winding.
● The fractional pitch winding are more generally used than those that are full pitch because their
generated voltage can be made to approximate a sine wave more easily and the distorting
harmonics may be reduced, or even eliminated in this way.
● When fractional pitch winding are employed, however, the generated voltages in the two sides of
the coil are not in phase with each other, so that the resultant coil voltage is less than it would be
in the full pitch winding.

REASONS FOR USING SHORTED – PITCHED WINDING

✔ They save copper of end connections

✔ They improved the waveform of the generated emf by reducing or totally eliminating distorting
harmonics
✔ They reduce the eddy current and hysteresis loss by eliminating high frequency harmonics.

Pitch Factor or Chording Factor or Coil Span Factor

● The ratio of the voltage generated in the fractional pitch coil to the voltage generated in the full
pitch coil.
● It may be defined as the ratio of the vector sum of the induced emf’s per coil. It is may also be
defined as the ratio of the emf’s of short pitch coil to emf’s of full – pitch coil.

Its value can be calculated by the equation:

EXAMPLE:

1. Calculate the pitch factors for the following windings:

a.) 36 slots, four poles, span 1 to 8;
b.) 72 slots, six poles, span 1 to 10
c.) 96 slots, four pole, span 1 to 12
5
d. ) 6 pitch

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
DISTRIBUTION OR BREADTH OR WINDING OR SPREAD FACTOR

- When several coils in group are connected in series, the total generated voltage by the group is not equal
to the voltage per coil multiply by the number of coils in the group. It is always less than this because the
coils are displaced from each other, which means that the voltage generated in the several coils are not in
phase with each other.
- The factor by which the generated voltage must be multiplied to obtain the correct value is called the
distribution factor; it is designated by the symbol 𝑘𝑑 .
- Distributing the winding in many slots has the effect of improving the shape of the voltage wave. The
value of 𝑘𝑑 is given by the equation;

EXAMPLE:

1. Calculate the distribution factor for a 36 slots, four pole three phase winding alternator.

2. A three phase alternator has 6 slots per pole per phase. Determine the distribution factor.

EFFECTS OF HARMONICS IN PITCH AND DISTRIBUTION FACTOR

a.) if the short pitch angle or chording angle is 𝑝0 degrees for the fundamental flux wave then its
value for different harmonics are

b.) similarly, the distribution factor is also different for different harmonics. Its value becomes

m represents the harmonics.

For fundamental harmonics,

For third harmonic,

For fifth harmonic

c.) frequency is also change. If the fundamental frequency is 50 hz, then other frequency will be;

EXAMPLE

1. An alternator has 18 slots per pole and the first coil lies in the slot 1 and 16. Calculate
the pitch factor for (i). Fundamental (ii). Third harmonic (iii). Fifth harmonic.

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
 2. Calculate the distribution factor for a 36 slots , four pole three phase winding alternator.
(i). Fundamental harmonics (ii). Third harmonic (iii). 5th harmonic

GENERATED VOLTAGE IN AN ALTERNATOR

The fundamental law of generator action maybe stated; an average one volt is generated in
one turn of wire if the flux passing through that turn changes at the rate of 100,000,000 Maxwells
per second.
Note that there is a flux change of ɸ maxwells through a coil as a latter moves a distance equal to
one half of a pole pitch, or more specially, the distance a coil must travel to generate ¼ of a cycle
of voltage.
An average of 1 volt is generated in one turn of wire f the flux passing through that turn
changes at the rate of 10 8 maxwells per second.

If the alternator is so designed that the flux – density distribution is sinusoidal, the so – called
effective value of the voltage, usually designed by the symbol E, is 1.11 times the average value.
𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆 = (𝐸𝐴𝑉𝐸 )(1.11), = 1.11
𝐸𝐴𝑉𝐸

𝐸 = 4.44𝑓ɸ𝑁 𝑥 10−8 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 (alternator generated voltage)

When using number of series conductor, the formula will be

𝐸 = 2.22𝑓ɸ𝑍 𝑥1 0−8 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 (Assume 2 conductors/turn)

ɸ
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑁 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑡
If the coil moves a distance a coil must travel to generate ¼ of a cycle of voltage. Since 1 cycle
occurs 1/f sec, the elapsed time for ¼ of a cycle will be 1/4f sec.
Therefore:
ɸ
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑁 𝑥 10−8 = 4𝑓𝑁ɸ 𝑥 10−8 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
1
( )
4𝑓

Star or Wye connected armature windings.

𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼∅

𝐸𝐿 = √3𝐸∅

Delta connected armature windings

𝐼𝐿 = √3𝐼∅

𝐸𝐿 = 𝐸∅
EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2
1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
EXAMPLE PROBLEM

1. Calculate the effective voltage in one phase of an alternator given the following
particulars: f= 60 cps; turns per phase N= 240; flux per pole =2.08x106 maxwells

CORRECTED VOLTAGE OF AN ALTERNATOR

The pitch factor and the distribution factor must be taken into account in the fact that they affect
the generated voltage of the alternator. Now the corrected emf equation for the alternator is given
by the equation:

EXAMPLES

1. A three phase, 16 pole alternator has a star connected winding with 144 slots and 10
conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb, sinusoidally distributed and the speed
is 375 rpm. Find the frequency, the phase and the line voltage. Assume full pitched coil.

2. Find the no load phase and line voltage of a star connected 3 phase, 6 pole alternator
which runs at 1200 rpm, having flux per pole 0.1 Wb sinusoidally distributed. Its stator
has 54 slots having double layer winding. Each coil has 8 turns and the coil is chorded by
one slot.

3. A four pole three phase, 50 Hz, star connected alternator (AC generator) has 60 slots,
with 4 conductor per slot. Coil are short – pitched by 3 slots. If the phase spread by 60
degrees, find the line voltage induced for a flux per pole of 0.943 Wb distributed
sinusoidally in space. All the turns per phase are in series.

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024
 4. A 3 phase, Y – connected, 2 pole alternator runs at 13600 rpm. If there are 500 conductor
per phase in series on the armature winding and the sinusoidal flux per pole is 0.1 Wb,
calculate the magnitude and the frequency of the generated voltage.

5. A 3 – phase, 10 pole alternator has 90 slots, each containing 12 conductors and the flux
per poles is 0.1 Wb, calculate the line emf when the phase are
a. Star – connected
b. Delta – connected

NEXT TOPIC: Alternator Part II (Characteristic of Loads)

Alternator Part III (Parallel Operations)

“The key to success is to focus on goals, not obstacles.”

EE – 406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES 2

1st Semester, S. Y. 2023 – 2024