CHAPTER-5

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
The synchronous electrical generator (also called
alternator) belongs to the family of electric rotating
machines.
Other members of the family are the direct current(dc)
motor or generator, the induction motor or generator.
What is common to all the members of this family is
that the basic physical process involved in their
operation is the conversion of electromagnetic energy to
mechanical energy, and vice versa.

1
 Cont…
 A.C generators or alternators(as they are called)
operate on the same fundamental principle of
electromagnetic induction as d.c generators.
 They also consists of armature winding and
magnetic field winding.
 In their case standard construction consists of
armature winding mounted on stationary element
called stator and field windings on rotating
element called rotor.

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 Advantage of stationary armature(AC generator)
 The out put current can be led to directly from fixed
terminals on the stator(or armature winding)to the
load circuit with out having to pass it through brush
contact.
 It is easer to insulate stationary armature winding for
high a.c voltage which may have a high a value as
30kv or more.
 Saving space and weight.
 Because the output windings are now stationary they
are no longer subject to high centrifugal forces and
can therefore be larger.

3
 Cont…
 By having the output windings on the outside of the
machine there is more room for good insulation and
higher voltages can be used.
 With the output windings on the outside of the
machine they are more easily cooled and can
therefore carry larger currents.
 These advantages mean a larger output can be
obtained from a smaller machine.

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 Description of AC Generators
 A generator which produces alternating current is
called an ac generator.
 Currently the term ALTERNATOR is widely used in
place of ac generator.
 The term alternator is obtained by combining parts of
the two words alternating and generator.
 Usually the word alternator is used for small ac
generators.

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Similarities Between an Alternator & a DC Generator
Both, alternators and dc generators, have rotating
parts and stationary parts.
Both convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
Difference Between an Alternator & a DC Generator

Alternator DC generator
Has rotating field and Has rotating armature and
stationary armature. stationary field.
Output is taken from the Output is taken from the
stationary part(armature). rotating part (armature).
Brushes and commutators Brushes and commutators
are not required. are used to collect the output

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 Principle of Operation

 The operation of a synchronous generator is based on

Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, and in an
ac synchronous generator the generation of emf's is
by relative motion of conductors and magnetic flux.
 These machines can be used as either motors or
generators but their predominant use is in generation.
 There are a number of sources of energy used to turn
the prime mover
(a) Gas (b) Steam
(c) Nuclear (d) Hydro
(e) Wind (f) Photovoltaic
(g) Wave
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 Principle of Operation
 In constructing a synchronous machine a point to note is that the
stator is fixed and the poles rotate.
 There are two categories of Synchronous machines depend on design
of rotor
(1) Those with cylindrical rotors
(2)Those with salient or projecting poles

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Principle of Operation

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 Principle of Operation
 Its characteristic feature is that
the armature rotates through a
stationary magnetic field, and the
generated AC is brought to the
load by means of slip rings and
brushes.
 The revolving-armature
alternator is found only in
alternators of small power rating
and is not generally used. This is
because a rotating armature
requires slip rings and brushes to
conduct the current from the
armature to the load.

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Cont…

11
 Principle of Operation
 The revolving-field type
alternator has a stationary
armature and a rotating
magnetic field.
 The generated voltage can be
connected directly to the load
without having to pass across
the slip rings and brushes.
 The voltage applied to
generate the rotating field is a
small DC voltage (called a
“field excitation” voltage)

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How a Hydroelectric Power System Work?

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How a Hydroelectric Power System Work?

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 TYPES OF ALTERNATORS
 Alternators may be classified according to their field excitation
as:-
- Direct connected direct current generator
- Transformation and rectification from the ac system.
- Integrated brushless type.
 Another type of classification is based on the type of rotor and
stator used.
1. The revolving armature
- Is similar to the dc generator.
- It uses brushes and slip rings.
2. The revolving field
- Output is taken from the stator
- No slip rings and brushes are
required.
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Still another type of classification is based on the
number of phases
– Single phase alternator
– Two phase alternator
– Three phase alternator
Single Phase Alternators
– Based on the number of poles, two or more
windings are connected in series.
– The coils are connected in series in such a manner
that the voltages add up.
– This type of alternator doesn’t have wide practical
application.

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Single Phase Alternators

A single-phase alternator has all the

armature conductors connected in series

The stator is two pole. The winding is

wound in two distinct pole groups, both
poles being wound in the same
direction around the stator frame

The rotor also consists of two

pole groups, adjacent poles being
of opposite polarity

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 Single Phase Alternators

The two poles of the stator winding

are connected to each other so that the
AC voltages are in phase, so they add.

As the rotor (field) turns, its poles will induce AC

voltages in the stator (armature) windings. Since one
rotor pole is in the same position relative to a stator pole
as any other rotor pole, both the stator poles are cut by
equal amounts of magnetic lines of force at any time. As
a result, the voltages induced in the two poles of the
stator winding have the same amplitude or value at any
given instant. 18
Cont…

19
Two Phase Alternators
It has two single phase windings which are
insulated from each other.
The windings are physically displaced 900 apart.
When one winding cuts maximum flux, the other
cuts no flux.
Thus, the output voltage will have 900 phase
difference

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 Three Phase Alternators
This is the most widely used VB

type of a/c alternators.

120O VA
It has three single phase 120 O

120O
windings which are physically
displaced 1200. VC

The voltage waveforms A B C

generated across each phase V
O
are drawn on a graph phase- L
displaced 120 degrees from T
each other. A
G
E

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 Three Phase Alternators
Generation of ac is based on the principles of
electromagnetic induction.
A conductor is placed in varying magnetic field.
The magnetic field can be obtained either from a
permanent magnet or an electromagnet.
The output voltage is of sinusoidal waveform
The a/c alternator is a three phase unit.
It has three single windings on the stator.
The field (rotating part) is called the rotor.
Ac generators can have two or more number of poles.

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 Three Phase Alternators with three phase load

In both cases the output waveform and frequency remain the same

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 Three Phase Alternators
 The three phases are independent of each other.
 One point from each winding can be connected to form a
neutral and thus make a wye connection.
 The voltage from this point to any one of the line leads will
be the phase voltage. The line voltage across any two line
leads is the vector sum of the individual phase voltages.
The line voltage is 1.73, (3 ), times the phase voltage.
 Since the windings form only one path for current flow
between phases, the line and phase currents are equal.
 The wye connection supplies increased line voltage at a
value of line current equal to phase current.

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 Three Phase Alternators
 A three-phase stator can also be connected so that the
phases form a “delta” connection.
 In the delta connection the line voltages are equal to
the phase voltages, but the line currents will be equal
to the vector sum of the phase currents.
 Since the phases are 120 degrees out of phase, the
line current will be 1.73, (3 ), times the phase
current. Both "wye" and the "delta" connections are
used in alternators.
 For equal output power, the delta connection supplies
increased line current at a value of line voltage equal
to phase voltage. 25
THREE PHASE ALTERNATORS
 The stator winding can be connected either in WYE or
DELTA
A
WYE CONNECTION
B
VL = 1.73VPH C

I L = IPH T h re e P h a s e S T A R

DELTA CONNECTION
C o n n e c te d

VL = VPH A
IL = 1.73IPH

PH = PHASE VALUE C B

Three Phase
L = LINE VALUE DELTA Connected

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 Three Phase Alternators
 The frequency of the AC generated by an alternator depends
upon the number of poles and the speed of the rotor.
 When a rotor has rotated through an angle so that two
adjacent rotor poles (a north and a south) have passed one
winding, the voltage induced in that one winding will have
varied through a complete cycle of 360 electrical degrees.
 A two pole machine must rotate at twice the speed of a four-
pole machine to generate the same frequency.
 The magnitude of the voltage generated by an alternator can
be varied by adjusting the current on the rotor which
changes the strength of the magnetic field

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 Three Phase Alternators
 A two pole alternator produces one electrical cycle for
each complete mechanical rotation.
 A four pole alternator will produce two electrical cycles
for each mechanical rotation because two north and two
south poles move by each winding on the stator for one
complete revolution of the rotor.
 f = (nRotor)(p/2)/60 = (nRotorp)/120
where nRotor is the speed of the rotor in revolutions per
minute, p- is the number of poles, f -is the electrical line
frequency produced by the alternator.
 The speed of the rotor must be divided by 60 to change
from revolutions per minute to revolutions per second 28
 Three Phase Alternators
 In an alternator the output voltage varies with the load.
 There are two voltage drops.{ IR & IXL }.
 The IXL drop is due to the inductive reactance of the
armature windings.
 Both the IR drop and the IXL drop decrease the output
voltage as the load increases.
 The change in voltage from no-load to full-load is called
the “voltage regulation” of an alternator.
 A constant voltage output from an alternator is
maintained by varying the field strength as required by
changes in load.
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 AC Generators Construction

 Parts of AC Generators
• Main Generator
• Exciter Generator or Pilot Exciter

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 Generally a synchronous generator must have at least 2 components:

a) Rotor Windings or Field Windings

- Salient Pole
- Non Salient Pole
b) Stator Windings or Armature Windings
 The rotor of a synchronous generator is a large
electromagnet and the magnetic poles on the rotor can
either be salient or non salient construction.
 Non-salient pole rotors are normally used for rotors with
2 or 4 poles rotor, while salient pole rotors are used for 4
or more poles rotor.

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Cont…

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 How DC source supplied to field circuit?
 A dc current must be supplied to the field circuit on the
rotor. Since the rotor is rotating, a special arrangement
is required to get the dc power to its field windings.
The common ways are:
a) Supply the dc power from an external dc source to
the rotor by means of slip rings and brushes.
b) Supply the dc power from a special dc power
source mounted directly on the shaft of the
synchronous generator.

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 Cont…
 Some problems with slip rings and brushes:
- They increase the amount of maintenance required
on the machine, since the brushes must be checked
for wear regularly.
- Brush voltage drop can be the cause of significant
power losses on machines with larger field currents.
 Small synchronous machines – use slip rings and
brushes.
 Larger machines – brushless exciters are used to
supply the dc field current

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 A brushless exciter
 Is a small ac generator with its field circuit mounted on
the stator and its armature circuit mounted on the rotor
shaft.
 The 3-phase output of the exciter generator is rectified
to direct current by a 3-phase rectifier circuit also
mounted on the shaft of the generator, and is then fed to
the main dc field circuit.
 By controlling the small dc field current of the exciter
generator (located on the stator), we can adjust the field
current on the main machine without slip rings and
brushes.
 Since no mechanical contacts occur between the rotor
and stator, a brushless exciter requires less maintenance.
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A brushless exciter

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A brushless exciter
 A brushless exciter circuit : A small 3-phase current is
rectified and used to supply the field circuit of the
exciter, which is located on the stator. The output of
the armature circuit of the exciter (on the rotor) is
then rectified and used to supply the field current of
the main machine.
 To make the excitation of a generator completely
independent of any external power sources, a small
pilot exciter can be used.

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Pilot exciter
 A pilot exciter is a small ac generator with permanent
magnets mounted on the rotor shaft and a 3-phase
winding on the stator.
 It produces the power for the field circuit of the
exciter, which in turn controls the field circuit of the
main machine.
 If a pilot exciter is included on the generator shaft,
then no external electric power is required.

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Pilot exciter

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 The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator
 Synchronous generators are by definition
synchronous, meaning that the electrical frequency
produced is locked in or synchronized with the
mechanical rate of rotation of the generator.
 A synchronous generator’s rotor consists of an
electromagnet to which direct current is supplied.
The rotor’s magnetic field points in the direction the
rotor is turned.
 Hence, the rate of rotation of the magnetic field in the
machine is related to the stator electrical frequency
by:
fe=Nm P
120 40
 The Internal Generated Voltage of a
Synchronous Generator
- Voltage induced is dependent upon flux and speed of
rotation, hence from what we have learnt so far, the
induced voltage can be found as follows:
EA=K
Where EA =Induced voltage
K= Machine constant()
 = Speed of rotation

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The Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator
 The voltage EA is the internal generated voltage
produced in one phase of a synchronous generator.
 If the machine is not connected to a load (no
armature current flowing), the terminal voltage will
be equivalent to the voltage induced at the stator
coils.
 This is due to the fact that there are no current
flow in the stator coils hence no losses. When
there is a load connected to the generator, there
will be differences between EA and V .

42
 Cont…
 These differences are due to
a) Distortion of the air gap magnetic field by the current
flowing in the stator called armature reaction.
b) Self inductance of the armature coil
c) Resistance of the armature coils
d) The effect of salient pole rotor shapes.
 We will explore factors a, b, and c and derive a machine
model from them. The effect of salient pole rotor shape
will be ignored, and all machines in this chapter are
assumed to have non salient or cylindrical rotors.

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 Cont…
 Refer to the diagrams below, showing a two-pole
rotor spinning inside a 3-phase stator.

44
Cont…

45
Cont…

46
Cont…

47
The full equivalent circuit is shown below:

48
Cont…

49
Cont…

50
Phasor Diagram of a Synchronous Generator

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 Cont…
 For a given phase voltage and armature current, a larger
internal voltage EA is needed for lagging loads than for
leading loads. Thus, a larger field current is needed to
get the same terminal voltage because EA= kФω
because ω must be kept constant to keep constant
frequency.
 Alternatively, for a given field current and magnitude of
load current, the terminal voltage is lower for lagging
loads and higher for leading loads.

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 Power and Torque in Synchronous Generators
 A generator converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy, hence the input power will be a
mechanical prime mover, e.g. diesel engine, steam
turbine, water turbine or anything similar.
 Regardless of the type of prime mover, the rotor
velocity must remain constant to maintain a stable
system frequency.

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The power-flow diagram for a synchronous generator is
shown:

54
Cont…

55
 Cont…
 Simplifying the phasor diagram, an assumption may be
made where by the armature resistance RA is considered
to be negligible and assuming that load connected to it is
lagging in nature.
 This gives a phasor diagram as shown

56
Cont…

57
Cont…

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 Measuring Synchronous Generator Model Parameters

 There are basically two tests of synchronous generator

parameters
- Open circuit test
- Short circuit test
Open circuit test
Steps:
1) Generator is rotated at the rated speed.
2) No load is connected at the terminals.
3) Field current is increased from 0 to maximum.
4) Record values of the terminal voltage and field
current value.
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 Open circuit test

To obtain the open circuit characteristics the machine is

driven at rated speed without the load. Readings of the line-to-
line voltage are taken for various values of field current. The
voltage, except in very low voltage machines, is stepped down
by the means of a potential transformer.
60
Open circuit test

61
Cont…

62
Short circuit test
Steps:
 The machine is driven at approximately synchronous
rated speed and measurements of armature short
circuit currents are made for various values of field
currents usually up to and above rated armature
current(Adjust field current).
 The three terminals of the armature are short circuited
(Short circuit the terminals).
 Measure armature current or line current as the field
current is increased.

63
 Short circuit test
a.c.
A
ZZ
FL Zs Armature
Ea Circuit
FieldRegulator

short circuit
DC F
Source Zs Ea Zs
Z Ea
L
A
Field Current

64
 Short circuit test

In conventional synchronous machines the short circuit

characteristics is practically linear because the iron is
unsaturated up to rated armature current.
65
 Cont…
 Notes: During the short circuit analysis, the net
magnetic field is very small, hence the core is not
saturated, hence the reason why the relationship is
linear.
 SCC is essentially a straight line. To understand why
this characteristic is a straight line, look at the
equivalent circuit below when the terminals are short
circuited.

66
Cont…

67
Cont…

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When ac generators operate in parallel:-
 The phase sequence of the generators must be the
same.
 The output voltage of each generator must be equal.
 The output frequency of the generators must be equal.
 Reasons for operating in parallel:
a) Handling larger loads.
b) Maintenance can be done without power disruption.
c) Increasing system reliability.
d) Increased efficiency.

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 Reading Assignment
 The Equivalent Circuit ,power and torque of a salient pole
Synchronous Generator

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THANK YOU !!

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