energy conversion

chapter one: electrical machinery generalization

ROTATING ELECTRICAL MACHINES

- Converting energy from one form to another.

 TWO FREQUENTLY USED TYPES

 GENERATORS
- mechanical energy to electrical energy.
 MOTORS
- electrical energy to mechanical energy.
 TWO NOT OFTENLY USED TYPES

 ROTARY CONVERTERS
 FREQUENCY CONVERTERS

PRIME MOVER

- a mechanical machine that drives or rotates the electric generator when it is operating.
- A constant speed machines
- It can be a
o Steam turbines
o Gas engines
o Electrical motors
o Water wheel
o Synchronous motor
o Hand operated cranks

Generator action can only take place when, and only when, there is relative motion between
conducting wires and magnetic lines of force.

TORQUE

- It is developed when an electric motor is in operation, it is supplied with electrical energy

- Tendency to produce rotation.

 If the rotating element of the motor is free to run, it will do so and thereby cause mechanical rotation of
itself and its application.

ROTATING ELECTRICAL GENERATORS TWO IMPORTANT PARTS

1. An even set of electromagnets and permanent magnets.

2. Laminated steel core.
- Containing current carrying wires (armature winding).

 IN DC GENERATOR
- Armature winding is mechanically rotated through the stationary magnetic field created by the
electromagnets or permanent magnets.

 IN AC GENERATOR
- The electromagnets or permanent magnets and their accompanying magnetic fields are rotated
with respect to the stationary armature winding.
  IN THE DC MOTOR
- Current is sent into the armature winding.
- The armature winding is placed inside a set of radially supported magnet poles.

ROTARY CONVERTER

- Electrical energy of one form is changed into electrical energy of another form.
- Usual arrangement is to change ac energy into dc energy, although the reverse is sometimes done.

 SINGLE ROTATING MACHINE

- The input (ac energy for example) is first converted into mechanical energy, so that the
rotating part functions as an electric motor.
- The resulting rotation then cause the machine to become a generator, thereby converting
mechanical energy into dc energy.

 Ac energy input first produces motor action, that is mechanical energy.

 The mechanical motion of the revolving element then develops generator action, causing it to deliver
dc energy.

BRUSHES

- From which direct current is “delivered” to the external load.

FREQUENCY CONVERTER

- Function is to change ac electrical energy at one frequency into an ac electrical energy to another
frequency.

 TWO ROTATING MACHINES

- In usual arrangement for such a change of frequency, TWO ROTATING MACHINES are
directly coupled together.

 One of them operates as an ac motor when connected to an ac source having a given

frequency.
 While the other, “driven”, machine functions as an ac generator to deliver electrical
anergy at some other frequency.

Every type of rotating electrical machine there is always an actual conversion of

energy from one from to another.

ARMATURE WINDING

- The armature winding of all types of motors and generators, whether of direct or alternating current,
are always found on laminated steel core of the magnetic permeability.
- The current in the armature windings of all motors and generators whether of direct or alternating
current, is always alternating.
- Alternating voltages are always generated in the windings of ac and dc generators.

 IN THE AC GENERATOR
- the generated alternating electromotive force (EMF) is transmitted directly to the load.

 IN THE DC GENERATOR
- the generated alternating EMF is first rectified by a commutator and its brushes, that is, changed
to direct current, before it is transmitted to its load.

 THE AC MOTOR
- receives its energy directly from an ac source and, without any change whatever in form, uses it
as alternating current in its winding to develop torque.

 IN THE DC MOTOR
- direct current is delivered to the brushes that flows as alternating current in the armature winding
after passing through the brushes and commutator.
FILED POLES

- The electromagnets used in all dc generators and motors, in ac generator, and in one type of ac motor
are very simple in construction.

 There are always even number of them in a given machine, each one consists of a laminated steel
core, of rectangular cross section, surrounded by one or more copper coils.
 One face of the steel core is concentric with the laminated armature core and has a larger cross-
sectional area than the portion around which the copper coil of wire is placed.

 SHOE
- Spread-out portion of the pole core, permits the magnetic flux to enter the armature core over a
wider area than would be possible with a core having straight sides.

 When the field structure is assembled for a stationary-field type of machine, the electromagnets are
bolted to a yoke ring so that they project radially inward toward the rotating armature.

 SALIENT POLE FIELD (construction)

- In the rotating-field type of machine driven be a slow-speed prime mover, the electromagnets are
bolted to a hub fastened to the shaft so that they project radially outward towards the stationary
armature core.

 NON-SALIENT POLE FIELD (construction)

- When the alternator is driven by a high-speed turbine, the field winding in a slotted core.

TYPES OF DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATOR

 Practically there are only two types of dc generator.

 They are distinguished by the way in which the flux is produced by electromagnets
 The type of generator is absolutely independent of the manner in which the armature winding is placed
on the armature core and connected to the commutator.
 A commutator being very definite limiting factor in the construction and operation of a dc generator.

 SHUNT GENERATORS
 Self-excited shunt generator
- If the excitation is produced by a single winding connected to its own positive and
negative brushes.

 Separately excited shunt generator

- The excitation is produced by a single winding connected to the positive and negative
bus bars fed by another dc generator.

 Although their operating characteristic differ slightly, self-and separately excited shunt regulators
are usually classified under the same heading, “shunt regulator”, because their field winding are
constructed and excited similarly.

 COMPOUND GENERATORS
- The second type of generator has two complete sets of field windings for excitation
purposes.

 SHUNT FIELD
- contains many turns of fine wire, has a comparatively high resistance, and, when
connected directly to the full-voltage source of a generator, will take a relatively low
current, entirely independent of the load or armature current.

 SERIES FIELD
- it contains very few turns of heavy wire, has extremely low resistance, and is excited by
the comparatively large load current.
  Both field windings are placed over one set of pole cores and act together to create
a common set of magnetic flux.
 The two types of compound generator differ only by the addition and omission of a
series field.
 It is quite possible to operate a compound generator as a shunt generator by
completely disconnecting the series field from the machine
 Or to change a shunt generator into a compound generator by properly winding a
series field directly over the shunt field and connecting it to operate with the latter.

 SERIES GENERATOR
- A generator contains a series field only
- Such machines are snot often used, but when they are, it is usually in conjunction with other
equipment such as shunt or compound generator and batteries.

VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC OF DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS

- The most important characteristic of a generator is its voltage behavior with respect to loading.

 NO LOAD
- When the armature of a machine is delivering no current to a consuming device.
- It will send a comparatively low value of current into its own shunt field if it is a self-excited
shunt generator.

 FULL LOAD
- If the armature is delivering rated (name-plate) current to one or more electrical consuming
devices.

 If a shunt generator is operating at full load at a given voltage (rated voltage, for example) and the
load is suddenly removed so that the machine is performing at no load, the voltage will always rise
above the full-load value.
 That is there will be a change in voltage between the full load and no load.
 A similar removal of the load on a compound generator may have almost any effect upon the voltage,
the change or lack of change depending upon several factors, the most important of which are the
number of series-field turns and the way in which the series field is connected with respect to the shunt
field.
 When full load is removed from a compound generator, the voltage may drop, remain constant, or rise.

SPEED OF DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS

 It is customary for a dc generator whether shunt or compound, to operate at speed that remains
substantially constant at all times.
 The speed of a generator is determined and controlled by the machine that drives it, that is, its prime
mover.
 If the prime mover is a constant-speed machine, the generator speed will be constant.
 For some reason, a dc generator is operated at a speed much higher or lower that intended by the
manufacturer, it will usually not perform with complete satisfaction unless corrective measures are taken
to forestall faulty operation.
 If the speed of a generator were to be increased without a change in voltage, it would be necessary to
weaken the field.

ALTERNATING-CURRENT GENERATORS

- Generally called, alternators.

- Are nearly always constructed so that the armature core and its winding are stationary while the field
poles rotate.
- Usually constructed to generate much higher voltages than are generators built for dc service.

 Note: this is just the reverse of the practice with dc generators.

 Speed of rotation of the field must be kept absolutely constant.
 The voltage developed by an ac generator varies greatly with changes in load; as load increases, the
voltages tends to fall.
 This tendency for the voltage to fluctuate is an inherent one and cannot be corrected by the addition
of another field winding, a series field, as is done in dc generators.
  One of the most important reason for the use of ac generator in comparatively large power systems is
that alternating current can be transformed efficiently from one voltage to another by the use of
transformers.

 REGULATOR
- A device that tends to maintain the terminal voltage constant regardless if the load.

 TRANSFORMER
- Transforms one voltage to another.

 Voltages high as 2,300 4,600 6,600 and 13,200 are quite common in ac machine.
 Whereas 115, 230, and 600 volts have been standardized for dc systems, with 1,200 and 1,500-volt
service used occasionally in special installation such as interurban railways.
 200,000 kilowatt capacity of ac generators
 5,000 to 10,000 kilowatt would be considered very large for a dc generator.

 TWO REASONS WHY AC MACHINE CAN BE BUILT IN LARGE SIZE AND MADE TO DEVELOP HIGH VOLTAGES

1. NO COMMUTATOR IS REQUIRED
 A commutator being very definite limiting factor in the construction and operation of
a dc generator.

2. ARMATURE WINDING CAN BE PLACED IN A STATIONARY PART OF THE MACHINE

 The stator, where it is possible to provide good insulation strength for the high-voltage
winding.
 On the other hand, it should be stated that dc generator service is sometimes more economical and
satisfactory where there is a large concentration of load requiring the operation of dc motors.

TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS

 SHUNT MOTOR
- Armature and field winding are arranged in parallel to each other.
- If field winding is in a comparatively high-resistance of many turns of fine wire

 SERIES MOTOR
- Armature and field winding are arranged in series with each other.
- If field winding is in an extremely low-resistance of very few turns of heavy wire.

 COMPOUND MOTOR
- A machine that excited by a combination of a shunt field (many turns of fine wire) connected in
shunt with the armature and series field (few turns of heavy wire) in series with the armature.

 Note: particularly that it is the kind of excitation provided by the field, and nothing more, that differentiates
one type of motor from another; the construction of the armature has nothing whatever to do with the type
of motor.

 GENERAL OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS DISTINGUISH THE THREE TYPES OF MOTOR FROM ONE ANOTHER:

1. On the basis of the same horsepower and speed rating, series motor develops the highest starting
torque and the shunt motor the least, while the compound motor falls somewhere between the two.
2. The overload capacities follow the same general order as for starting torques.
3. The speed variation for changes in load are the least for the shunt motor, the greatest for the series
motor, and somewhat larger than the shunt motor for the compound machine.
4. Both the shunt and compound motors operate at a very definite stable speed when all mechanical
load removed, while the series motor is quite unstable and tends to operate at an extremely high, often
runaway, speed when mechanical load is removed.

 The speed of all three types of motor can be controlled quite readily and in essentially the same way.
  THREE METHODS THAT MAYBE EMPLOYED TO ALTER THE SPEED OF A DC MOTOR

1. By changing the flux through resistance control.

2. By changing the voltage across the armature through the resistance control.
3. By changing the voltage across the armature when the latter is supplied with power from a
separate voltage-controlled generator.

 The very fact that the speed of all types of dc motor can be controlled efficiently and simply is one
of the most important reason for the widespread use of these machines in preference to ac motor,
particularly when speed control is an essential requirement.

STARTING DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS

 STARTING PERIOD
- An extremely difficult period in the operation of dc motors.

 During this period, the machine must accelerate, often under heavy load conditions, and come up to
operating speed.
 Since the armature current (not the shunt-field current) is usually much higher than normal during this
starting period, arcing at the commutator is likely to be severe.
 Unless proper precautions are taken to prevent the destructive effects of such commutator burning as
well as the other electrical stresses, the motor will usually fail to operate satisfactorily and will often break
down after a number of starts.
 During the starting period, an external resistance must be added to limit the current in the armature
circuit.
o Where the current must pass between brush and commutator and where the serious effects of
poor commutation are likely to result.

 RHEOSTAT
- Variable resistor with two terminals.
- It is the external resistance added to limit the current in the armature circuit.
- It is used to control the electrical resistance of a circuit without interrupting the flow of current.