NUCLEAR STABILITY

Lecture # 2
Binding energy per nucleon
Binding energies are usually reported per nucleon to facilitate the comparison between various
binding energies. Binding energy per nucleon B’ is the binding energy of a nucleus divided by
its mass number. The binding energy can be given by KJ/mol or MeV/nucleons. which is
calculated using the following formula.
Total binding energy B.E
B = =
Mass number A

In the periodic table of elements, the series of light elements from hydrogen up to sodium is
observed to exhibit generally increasing binding energy per nucleon as the atomic
mass increases. This increase is generated by increasing forces per nucleon in the nucleus, as
each additional nucleon is attracted by other nearby nucleons, and thus more tightly bound to
the whole.
➢ The binding energy per nucleons used to determine the stability of the nucleus. Larger the
binding energy per nucleon, the greater the work that must be done to remove the nucleon
from the nucleus, the more stable the nucleus.

➢ Nuclear binding energy is also used to determine whether fission or fusion will be a
favorable process. For elements lighter than iron-56, fusion will release energy because the
nuclear binding energy increases with increasing mass. Elements heavier than iron-56 will
generally release energy upon fission, as the lighter elements produced contain greater
nuclear binding energy.

Nuclear Binding energy Curve

The binding energy curve is obtained by dividing the total nuclear binding energy by the
number of nucleons. The binding energy per one nucleon curve is not linear.
There is a peak in the binding energy curve in the region of stability near iron and this means
that either the breakup (fission) of heavier nuclei than iron or the combining (fusion) of lighter
nuclei than iron will yield energy.
The reason the trend reverses after iron peak is the growing positive charge of the nuclei. The
electric force has greater range than strong nuclear force. While the strong nuclear force binds
only close neighbors the electric force of each proton repels the other protons.
➢ The region of increasing binding energy is followed by a region of relative stability
(saturation) in the sequence from magnesium through Iron. In this region, the nucleus has
become large enough that nuclear forces no longer completely extend efficiently across its
width. Attractive nuclear forces in this region, as atomic mass increases, are nearly
balanced by repellent electromagnetic forces between protons, as the atomic
number increases.
Finally, in elements heavier than Iron, there is a decrease in binding energy per nucleon as
atomic number increases. In this region of nuclear size, electromagnetic repulsive forces are
beginning to overcome the strong nuclear force attraction. At the peak of binding energy, Iron-

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56 is the most tightly bound nucleus (per nucleon). This is the approximate basic reason why
iron is very common metal in planetary cores.

Figure: Nuclear binding energy curve. This graph shows the nuclear binding energy (in MeV)
per nucleon as a function of the number of nucleons in the nucleus. Notice that iron-56 has the
most binding energy per nucleon, making it the most stable nucleus.

Important features of the graph:

• Excluding the lighter nuclei, the average binding energy per nucleon is about
8 MeV.
• The maximum binding energy per nucleon occurs at around mass number A
= 50, and corresponds to the most stable nuclei. Iron nucleus Fe56 is located
close to the peak with a binding energy per nucleon value of approximately
8.8 MeV. It’s one of the most stable nuclides that exist.
• Nuclei with very low or very high mass numbers have lesser binding energy
per nucleon and are less stable because the lesser the binding energy per
nucleon, the easier it is to separate the nucleus into its constituent nucleons.
• Nuclei with low mass numbers may undergo nuclear fusion, where light
nuclei are joined together under certain conditions so that the final product
may have a greater binding energy per nucleon.
• Nuclei with high mass numbers may undergo nuclear fission, where the
nucleus split to give two daughter nuclei with the release of neutrons. The
daughter nuclei will possess a greater binding energy per nucleon.

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 ❖ There is a peak at iron-56 on the nuclear binding energy curve. The rationale for this peak
in binding energy is the interplay between the coulombic repulsion of the protons in the
nucleus, because like charges repel each other, and the strong nuclear force, or strong
force. The strong force is what holds protons and neutrons together at short distances. As
the size of the nucleus increases, the strong nuclear force is only felt between nucleons
that are close together, while the coulombic repulsion continues to be felt throughout the
nucleus; this leads to instability and hence the radioactivity and fissile nature of the
heavier elements.

Binding energy per nucleon generally increases from small atoms to atoms with mass number
around 56. Thus, fusing atoms to form medium-size atoms (nuclear fusion) release energy.

Binding energy per nucleon generally decreases from atoms with mass number around 56 and
larger. Thus, splitting larger atoms to form medium-sized atoms (nuclear fission) also releases
energy.

Example-1:
Calculate the binding energy in KJ/mol nucleons for silver 107 which has a mass of
106.90509 g/mol.
Solution
To calculate the binding energy of nuclide, we need to find the mass defect.

Silver 107 has 47 protons and 60 neutrons.

107
Ag47 → 471p1 + 601n0

Δm = [(47) (mass of 1p) + (60) (mass of 1n)] – mass of 107Ag]

Δm = [(47) (1.00783 g/mol) + (60) (1.00867 g/mol)] – 106.90509 g/mol]

Δm = 0.98312 g/mol.

ΔE = (9.8312 × 10−4Kg) (2.998 × 108 m/s)2 = 8.836 × 1013 J

Eb/molecules = [8.836×1013J107 mol nucleons] × (1 KJ)(103 J) = 8.258 × 108 KJ/mol

nucleons

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Nuclear Stability
What is the nuclear stability? A nucleus is stable if it cannot be transformed into another
configuration without adding energy from the outside. Of the thousands of nuclides that exist,
about 250 are stable. Nuclear stability means that nucleus is stable meaning that it does not
spontaneously emit any kind of radioactivity (radiation). On the other hand, if the nucleus is
unstable (not stable), it has the tendency of emitting some kind of radiation, i.e., it is
radioactive.
Therefore, the radioactivity is associated with unstable nucleus:
Stable nucleus – non-radioactive
Unstable nucleus – radioactive
Keep in mind that less stable means more radioactive and more stable means less radioactive.

• Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons, which attract each other through the nuclear
force, while protons repel each other via the electric force due to their positive charge. These
two forces compete, leading to various stability of nuclei. There are only certain combinations
of neutrons and protons, which forms stable nuclei.

We want to know why there is a radioactivity. What makes the nucleus a stable one? There are
no concrete theories to explain this, but there are only general observations based on the
available stable isotopes. It appears that neutron to proton (n/p) ratio is the dominant factor in
nuclear stability.
This ratio is close to 1 for atoms of elements with low atomic number and increases as the
atomic number increases. Then how do we predict the nuclear stability? One of the simplest
ways of predicting the nuclear stability is based on whether nucleus contains odd/even number
of protons and neutrons:

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• Nuclides containing odd numbers of both protons and neutrons are the least stable means
more radioactive.
• Nuclides containing even numbers of both protons and neutrons are most stable means less
radioactive.
• Nuclides contain odd numbers of protons and even numbers of neutrons are less stable than
nuclides containing even numbers of protons and odd numbers of neutrons.
In general, nuclear stability is greater for nuclides containing even numbers of protons and
neutrons or both.
Example
Based on the even-odd rule presented above, predict which one would you expect to be
radioactive in each pair?

Nuclear Stability Curve:

It has been found that the most stable isotope for each element has a specific number of
neutrons in its nucleus. Plotting a graph of the number of protons against the number of
neutrons for these stable isotopes generates what is called the Nuclear Stability Curve:

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A plot of the number of neutrons versus the number of protons for stable nuclei reveals that the
stable isotopes fall into a narrow band. This region is known as the band of stability (also called
the belt, zone, or valley of stability).

Figure: This plot shows the nuclides that are known to exist and those that are stable. The
stable nuclides are indicated in blue, and the unstable nuclides are indicated in green. Note
that all isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 are unstable. The solid line
is the line where n = Z.

Note that the number of protons equals the number of neutrons for small nuclei. But notice also
that the number of neutrons increases more rapidly than the number of protons as the size of
the nucleus gets bigger so as to maintain the stability of the nucleus. This is because larger
nuclei have more proton-proton repulsions and require larger numbers of neutrons to provide
compensating strong forces to overcome these electrostatic repulsions and hold the nucleus
together.

The nuclei that are to the left or to the right of the band of stability are unstable and exhibit
radioactivity. They change spontaneously (decay) into other nuclei that are either in, or closer
to, the band of stability. These nuclear decay reactions convert one unstable isotope (or
radioisotope) into another, more stable, isotope.

The straight line in Figure represents nuclei that have a 1:1 ratio of protons to neutrons (n:p
ratio). Note that the lighter stable nuclei, in general, have equal numbers of protons and
neutrons. For example, nitrogen-14 has seven protons and seven neutrons.

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Heavier stable nuclei, however, have increasingly more neutrons than protons. For example:
iron-56 has 30 neutrons and 26 protons, an n:p ratio of 1.15, whereas the stable nuclide lead-
207 has 125 neutrons and 82 protons, an n:p ratio equal to 1.52.

Radioactivity
The unstable isotopes lie above or below the Nuclear Stability Curve. These unstable isotopes
attempt to reach the stability curve by splitting into fragments, in a process called Fission, or
by emitting particles and/or energy in the form of radiation. This latter process is called
Radioactivity.
Radioactivity can be classified as natural radioactivity and artificial radioactivity. The
natural radioactivity is spontaneous emission of radiation from heavy elements of greater
atomic number. It is self-disintegration and irreversible process.
Artificial radioactivity is the phenomenon by which light elements could be made artificially
radioactive. Sometimes it is called induced radioactivity.
Isotopes of an atom can be stable or unstable (radioisotopes). A nucleus is unstable if it contains
too many neutrons and/or protons. The unstable nuclei will try to become more stable by
ejecting particles. The process of ejecting the particles is called radioactivity.

Radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process in which an unstable nucleus will
disintegrate into a more stable configuration by the emission of alpha-particles (helium nuclei),
beta-particles (electrons) and/or gamma radiation (short-wavelength electromagnetic waves).

During its unpredictable decay this unstable nucleus spontaneosly and randomly
decomposes to form a different nucleus (or a different energy state – gamma decay), giving
off radiation in the form of atomic partices or high energy rays. This decay occurs at a constant,
predictable rate that is referred to as half-life. A stable nucleus will not undergo this kind of
decay and is thus non-radioactive.

Here are three basic modes of radioactive decay:

• Alpha decay - represents the disintegration of a parent nucleus to a daughter through the
emission of the nucleus of a helium atom. Alpha particles consist of two protons and two
neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus. Because of its very
large mass (more than 7000 times the mass of the beta particle) and its charge, it heavy
ionizes material and has a very short range.

Many nuclei with mass numbers greater than 200 undergo alpha (α) decay, which results in the
emission of a helium-4 nucleus as an alpha (α) particle, 4α2. The general reaction is as follows;

The daughter nuclide contains two fewer protons and two fewer neutrons than the parent. Thus
α-particle emission produces a daughter nucleus with a mass number A−4 and a nuclear charge

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Z−2 compared to the parent nucleus. Radium-226, for example, undergoes alpha decay to form
radon-222:

Because nucleons are conserved in this and all other nuclear reactions, the sum of the mass
numbers of the products, 222 + 4 = 226, equals the mass number of the parent. Similarly, the
sum of the atomic numbers of the products, 86 + 2 = 88, equals the atomic number of the parent.
Thus, the nuclear equation is balanced.

• Beta decay or β decay - represents the disintegration of a parent nucleus to a daughter

through the emission of the beta particle. Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed
electrons or positrons emitted by certain types of radioactive nuclei such as potassium-40.
The beta particles have greater range of penetration than alpha particles, but still much
less than gamma rays. The beta particles emitted are a form of ionizing radiation also known
as beta rays. The production of beta particles is termed beta decay.

Nuclei that contain too many neutrons often undergo beta (β) decay, in which a neutron is
converted to a proton and a high-energy electron that is ejected from the nucleus as a β particle:

The general reaction for beta decay is therefore

Although beta decay does not change the mass number of the nucleus, it does result in an
increase of +1 in the atomic number because of the addition of a proton in the daughter nucleus.
Thus, beta decay decreases the neutron-to-proton ratio, moving the nucleus toward the band of
stable nuclei. For example, carbon-14 undergoes beta decay to form nitrogen-14:

Once again, the number of nucleons is conserved, and the charges are balanced. The parent and
the daughter nuclei have the same mass number, 14, and the sum of the atomic numbers of the
products is 6, which is the same as the atomic number of the carbon-14 parent.

Positron β+ Emission: Because a positron has the same mass as an electron but opposite
charge, positron emission is the opposite of beta decay. Thus, positron emission is
characteristic of neutron-poor nuclei, which decay by transforming a proton to a neutron and
emitting a high-energy positron:
Because a positron has the same mass as an electron but opposite charge, positron emission is
the opposite of beta decay. Thus, positron emission is characteristic of neutron-poor nuclei,
which decay by transforming a proton to a neutron and emitting a high-energy positron:

Nucleons are conserved, and the charges balance. The mass number, 11, does not change, and
the sum of the atomic numbers of the products is 6, the same as the atomic number of the parent
carbon-11 nuclide.

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• Gamma decay. Gamma decay or γ decay represents the disintegration of a parent nucleus
to a daughter through the emission of gamma rays (high energy photons). Gamma rays are
electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) of an very high frequency and of a high
energy. They are produced by the decay of nuclei as they transition from a high energy
state to a lower state known as gamma decay. Most of nuclear reactions are accompanied
by gamma emission.

Many nuclear decay reactions produce daughter nuclei that are in a nuclear excited state, which
is similar to an atom in which an electron has been excited to a higher-energy orbital to give
an electronic excited state.
Just as an electron in an electronic excited state emits energy in the form of a photon when it
returns to the ground state, a nucleus in an excited state releases energy in the form of a photon
when it returns to the ground state.
These high-energy photons are γ rays. Gamma (γ) emission can occur virtually instantaneously,
as it does in the alpha decay of uranium-238 to thorium-234, where the asterisk denotes an
excited state:

If we disregard the decay event that created the excited nucleus, then

or more generally,

Gamma emission can also occur after a significant delay. For example, technetium-99m has a
half-life of about 6 hours before emitting a γ ray to form technetium-99 (the m is for
metastable).
Because γ rays are energy, their emission does not affect either the mass number or the atomic
number of the daughter nuclide. Gamma-ray emission is therefore the only kind of radiation
that does not necessarily involve the conversion of one element to another, although it is almost
always observed in conjunction with some other nuclear decay reaction.

Additional important decay modes:

• Electron capture; is a process, in which a parent nucleus captures one of its orbital
electrons and emits a neutrino. Electron capture, known also as inverse beta decay is
sometimes included as a type of beta decay, because the basic nuclear process, mediated
by the weak interaction, is the same.

• Internal conversion; is an electromagnetic process, by which a nuclear excited state

decays by the direct emission of one of its atomic electrons. Internal conversion competes
with gamma emission, but in this case the electromagnetic multipole fields of
the nucleus do not result in the emission of a gamma ray, instead, the fields interact directly

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 with atomic electrons. In contrast to beta decay, which is governed by a weak force,
the electron is emitted from the radioactive atom, but not from the nucleus.

• Neutron decay; is a type of radioactive decay of nuclei containing excess neutrons

(especially fission products), in which a neutron is simply ejected from the nucleus. This
type of radiation plays key role in nuclear reactor control, because these neutrons are
delayed neutrons.

• Proton decay; is a rare type of radioactive decay of nuclei containing excess protons, in
which a proton is simply ejected from the nucleus.

• Spontaneous fission; Only very massive nuclei with high neutron-to-proton ratios can
undergo spontaneous fission, in which the nucleus breaks into two pieces that have different
atomic numbers and atomic masses. This process is most important for the transactinide
elements, with Z ≥ 104. Spontaneous fission is invariably accompanied by the release of
large amounts of energy, and it is usually accompanied by the emission of several neutrons
as well. An example is the spontaneous fission of 254CF98 which gives a distribution of
fission products; one possible set of products is shown in the following equation:

Once again, the number of nucleons is conserved. Thus, the sum of the mass numbers of the
products (118 + 132 + 4 = 254) equals the mass number of the reactant. Similarly, the sum of
the atomic numbers of the products [46 + 52 + (4 × 0) = 98] is the same as the atomic number
of the parent nuclide.

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Connection between Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay

The nuclei of radioisotopes are unstable. In an attempt to reach a more stable arrangement of
its neutrons and protons, the unstable nucleus will spontaneously decay to form a different
nucleus. If the number of neutrons changes in the process (number of protons remains), a
different isotope is formed, and an element remains (e.g. neutron emission).

If the number of protons changes (different atomic number) in the process, then an atom of a
different element is formed. This decomposition of the nucleus is referred to as radioactive
decay. During radioactive decay an unstable nucleus spontaneosly and randomly
decomposes to form a different nucleus (or a different energy state – gamma decay), giving
off radiation in the form of atomic partices or high energy rays.

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Nuclear reaction
A nuclear reaction is considered to be the process in which two nuclear particles (two nuclei
or a nucleus and a nucleon) interact to produce two or more nuclear particles or ˠ-rays (gamma
rays).
Thus, a nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another.
Sometimes if a nucleus interacts with another nucleus or particle without changing the nature
of any nuclide, the process is referred to a nuclear scattering, rather than a nuclear reaction.
Perhaps the most notable nuclear reactions are the nuclear fusion reactions of light elements
that power the energy production of stars and the Sun. Natural nuclear reactions occur also in
the interaction between cosmic rays and matter.
The most notable man-controlled nuclear reaction is the fission reaction which occurs in
nuclear reactors. Nuclear reactors are devices to initiate and control a nuclear chain reaction,
but there are not only manmade devices.
Notation of Nuclear Reactions
Standard nuclear notation shows the chemical symbol, the mass number and the atomic number
of the isotope. If the initial nuclei are denoted by a and b, and the product nuclei are denoted
by c and d, the reaction can be represented by the equation:

a+b→c+d

This equation describes neutron capture in the boron, which is diluted in the coolant. Boric acid
is used in nuclear power plants as a long-term compensator of nuclear fuel reactivity.

Instead of using the full equations in the style above, in many situations a compact notation is
used to describe nuclear reactions. This style of the form a (b, c) d is equivalent to a + b
producing c + d.
Light particles are often abbreviated in this shorthand, typically p means proton, n means
neutron, d means deuteron, α means an alpha particle or helium-4, β means beta particle or
electron, γ means gamma photon, etc. The reaction above would be written as 10B (n, α) 7Li

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