Film Appreciation

Study Material- Film Appreciation
Semester- V
Course Code – BJ (MC) 309
Faculty – SP Singh
Assistant Professor
Department of Journalism & Mass Communication
Kasturi Ram College of Higher Education, Narela
Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

FILM
APPRECIATION
COURSE CODE: BA (JMC) 309 L: 4 T/P: 0 CREDITS: 4

External Evaluation: 75 Marks Internal Evaluation: 25 Marks Total Marks: 100
Objective of the Course

On completion of this course, the student should be able to:
 describe film as a medium of communication
 describe the evolution of World Cinema
 explain the emerging trends in contemporary Indian cinema
 utilize knowledge gained to appreciate and review a film
Unit I: [Film as a Language] L: 12

1. Film as a Medium of Communication: Concept, Strengths & Limitations
2. Components of Film: Script, Light, Sound, Camera, Acting, Music, Editing
3. Visual Language: Shot, Scene, Sequence, Montage, Mise-En-Scene and Continuity
Unit II: [Landmarks in Cinema] L: 12

1. Various Movements in Cinema: Expressionism, Italian Neo Realism and French New Wave
2. Milestones and landmarks in World Cinema :Alfred Hitchcock, Dziga Vertov, Vittorio De Sica, Akira
Kurosawa and Satyajit Ray
3. Landmarks of Indian Cinema: Silent Era (Raja Harishchandra), Socials
(Mother India), Parallel Cinema (Ankur), Diaspora (Namesake)
Unit III: [Trends and Debates in Indian Cinema] L: 12

1. Emerging Trends in Contemporary Indian Cinema: Computer Generated
Imagery (CGI), Crossover and Experimental Cinema
2. Censorship: Need and CBFC standards
3. An Overview of Contemporary Indian Film Industry: Multiplex culture, Piracy and Statistics
Unit IV: [Film Appreciation] L: 12

1. Film Appreciation: concept, need, elements and Cinematic Language
2. Film Review: Critical Appreciation of Cinema as a text, Discourse and Narrative
3. Job Profile and Responsibilities of a Film Reviewer
Suggested Readings:
1. J., Saldi, R., &Manjula, S. (New Delhi). Indian Cinema through the Century.
2. Gazetas, A. (2000). An Introduction to World Cinema. Jefferson, NC: McFarland
3. Garga, B.D. (2008). So Many Cinemas: The Motion Picture in India, Eminence Designs.

4. Nowell-Smith, G. (1995). The Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford: Clarendon Press
5. Phillips, L. R., & Phillips, J. M. (1979). Film Appreciation. New York: Gordon Press.
Unit-1
Film as a medium of Mass Communication
When was the last time we spent without media. From the time we get up till we go to bed some form of
media is being a part of us. One of the very early and important aspects of communication began with the
research in mass media and its influence on public. Such kind of researches began in late nineteenth
century and 20th century. The Birmingham center undertook cultural studies analysis on audience. They
propagated the idea that the socio-economic life-situation of the audience, their education, class, caste,
gender, ethnic and language position had to serve as environment to understand the meaning they make of
the media products. In the 1990's Straut Hall redefined the "Media Product function" in terms of its being
a structure of dominance in culture. Today's society is one that is shaped and molded by the mass media.
Basically, culture is nothing more than a product of the mass media.
However there was significant change in this field of cultural studies in the year 1980s to 1990s, which
dealt with the complication of the model of culture as a site of hegemonic contestation between the
dominant and the subordinate group. The theories related to culture and communication have depicted
how the locations of distinct social groups affects their communication with the hierarchy of location (of
the social group) been categorized on the basis of color, class, genders and sexual orientation. This led to
the study of these minority groups differently. The revolution and upheaval in the sixties and seventies
included a vibrant sexual revolution aided by the feminist movement. It was one of the turning points for
the study of queer theory and culture. This change in the cultural studies in general and homosexuality in
particular came with the emergence of radical interpretation of queer theory which originated from gay
and lesbian studies as a post-modern interpretation of homosexuality. Prior to the coining of the term
queer theory, the study of deviant sexuality was called as "gay and lesbian studies".
1.1 MASS MEDIA
Mass media is a form of media which is addressed for large audiences (masses). It can be any form of
media, broadcast such as television or radio, films, print media such as newspapers, magazines, pamphlets
etc. In today's generation internet media can also be considered as mass media because most these
existing Medias use internet media to have an advantage of the available medium in many regions of the
world. This medium can be termed as the interactive media. "To understand mass media first and
important step is to understand communication". (Biagi, 1992)
Communication is defined as an act of sending or receiving or understanding messages or meaning when

delivered from one person to another. When communication is defined in relevance to mass media it can
be called as a centralized form of communication. "Wallace.C.Fortheringham - A process of involving the
selection, production, and transmission of signs in such a way as to help a receiver perceive a meaning
similar to that in the mind of the communicator". (Andal.N, 1998)

Communication through mass media is known as mass communication. Mass communication means
using a form of mass media to deliver messages immediately to a large group of people. Mass media
today has become one of the popular media as it focuses on the prominent stories which will be of interest
to the general public audiences. It is a huge industry as many people all over the world rely on it for some
purpose or the other. Mass media today has become one of the most critical parts of human societies.
Understanding mass media usually is a process of understanding a population and its culture. These are
the tools of large scale manufactures and the distribution of information and related messages. "Medium
is the message." (Marshall, 1964). This means that mass media are technologies but they are also
messages. Today's modern mass media have several functions similar to those fulfilled by the traditional
media in some ancient societies.
Western modern theorist such as Denis McQuail identified the three major functions of a mass media that
is 1) surveivallance of environment 2) interpretation of the information and 3) transmission of heritage.
But in today's generation mass media's major functions are information, entertainment, advertising and
development. (Dennis, 1998)
Though these may be the functions of mass media it does not necessarily mean that audience will
perceive mass media for the same reasons. In the book The Play Theory of Mass Communication,
William Stephenson argues that fun is both the greatest impact and also the public service of the mass
media. So for few mass media might be for time-fillers, for some to fulfill their psychological and social
needs, few for information and entertainment. This means that people will perceive media the way they
want and according to their likes.
Mass media in India has been a major aspect of the society. It's here that media is not consumed for one
particular purpose but it is consumed for all, such as information, television, controversies, news, gossips,
and chats, psychological or any other. Indian mass media industry has very well understood the societies
mind set and they accordingly produce the media products. It's only here where the traditional forms of
communication still exist and it also considered being a mass media, example: Folk media.
1.2 EFFECTS OF MASS MEDIA
Media effects mean different things to different people, for example for a psychologist effects will mean
psychological, for a socialist it will be social so in this way effects differs from person to person. Effects
can be classified in various types and gradations as short-term, long-term or deep, profound or superficial.
"Whoever says the first word to the world is always right said Joseph Goebbels, a mass communication
practitioner of odious capability." (Klapper, 1960) . Mass communication is highly effective in creating
attitudes on newly arisen or newly evoked issues and that the point of view first expressed will prevail
over later persuasive communication in the country. Media effects have been debated and researched for
decades together. The mass media has become such an important aspect and an everyday part of the
society that many fail to realize the immense impact created by it on the society, aspects such as political,
economic and cultural.
Mass media today make peoples mind more stereotype and ideological. They do not let people have their
own perception about the world rather they make public perceive what they think. For example the
transgender. Media's portrayal of transgender has always been comical, tragic or untouchables due to

which the society also disagrees to accept them as a part of them. This concept is called as the agenda
setting. Media creates an agenda and puts its straight into the public's head and does not allow them to
rethink over any of the information provided by it. The work by Harold Lasswell "World Outside and the
Picture Inside" which was the reason for the emerge of the theory agenda setting also says; what public
has in mind is totally different from the actual aspects. Walter Lippmann and Boas research on media says
that media was biased and subjective and not objective. But at the same time media has positive effects on
the societies also. Its only because of mass media the world has come closer and international and
national information are reaching every region of the world.
Media effects are in two ways 1) the individual effects and the societal effects. Today people spend more
time in interacting with mass media. "Of the approximately 40 hours per week of free time available to
average person, 15 hours or 38 percent are spent watching television said Robinson and Goodbey
1997:126." (Ryan & Wentworth, 1999). This is more time when compared to the other hobbies or outdoor
activities of a human being in their free time. Because people spend much of the time with mass media
there evolves an emotional involvement and those are often coined to be negative. As these individual
effects are difficult to show empirically. In this same way are the societal effects, where media impact is
straight on the society itself and our social world. But these societal effects are easier to see than the
individual effects.
Media effects can be both positive and negative effects. Media plays a major role in changing the public
opinions because they have major access to people and this eventually gives a lot of strength to media.
This strength can either be used in a positive way as in educating people or in an unconstructive way by
misleading the innocent people. Media has the power to transform the whole society especially in
developing countries it can become a "weapon of mass destruction". For example : 26/11 Bombay attack
media played both positive role in informing the society about second to second happenings of the attack
at the same time media also played a role of creating confusion for the government and helping the
terrorist with information. "Media men have access to people and they have an audience."
1.3 FILMS AS A FORM OF MASS MEDIA
"The motion picture today is the greatest medium of expression the world has ever known. [It is] capable
of giving life and form to all ideas, practical and emotional ...Its only limitation [is] human ingenuity-said
by John.F.Kennedy, A.S.C, 1930". (Sanders & Norris, 2001). John.F.Kennedy was an inventor and an
American cinematographer.
Another footprint in the sand of communication is after the invention of films. Cinema or film a form of
Mass Media has become a powerful tool since the day it was introduced to the world. Cinematographic
derived from the Greek word meaning movement and writing was invented by the Lumeire Brothers. In
1929, "The Lights of Newyork" the first talking film was screened. Cinema came to India in 1986, when
the film "Pundalik" directed by R.G.Torney and N.C.Chitra was released in 18th may. The film industry
has grown rapidly for the past years and has brought about a lot of changes in the society.
"Film Communication a process of transferring meanings or information's trough visual receptors". It is a

man who creates this form of communication." There exists a cognitive relationship between a filmmaker
and a viewer. Cinema is perhaps the mainstreams of all art forms and most accessed and most preferred
especially in India. Therefore, it is very important to understand how the country, its people and its

aspirations are represented in the cinema. Cinemas can be a form of art, entertainment, social document or
critique.
Film is a reflection of society for both the present and the past. Film and its innovation sometimes have to
catch up to society but sometimes it leads the society and culture too.
Lot of studies have been made on the impact of films on the societies culture but however there were a
significant changes in the field of cultural studies in the 1980s and the 1990s which dealt with the
complications of the model of culture as a site of hegemonic contestation between dominant and the
subordinate groups.
In today's system of movie making each of the six major studios makes less than 20 movies per year. The
rest comes from individual producers, investment, distributors, exhibition each handled by different
companies. Most of these independent movies are distributed by the six studios.
Film as one such form of mass media has a great impact on the societies in many ways. Film industry is
one of the most expensive and discovering industry in mass media. In true sense it is a dream industry.
Today movies are created by one group, funded by the second group, sold by the third group and shows
by the fourth group. The first group is producers, directors, second group are investors, third are
distributors and the final group the exhibitors.
Today's generation films have handled a lot of controversial topic has a main plot in this movies. Topics
such as religion, terror attacks, transgender, homosexuality, child labor, poverty etc. Movies have actually
brought to the world an idea about all the above through their stories and concepts. But at the same time
they idealize or generalize few things for the profit sake and public believes it and it finally becomes a
stereotype process.
This majorly happens in Indian cinemas as most of the stories relate to the audience, if not the story at
least segment of it will. Indian movies have a better impact on the audience compared to other movies
because it is only in this country people go to the theatre as a practice, habit , sometimes even for
information.
Components of a Film
Script
Screenwriting, also called scriptwriting, is the art and craft of writing scripts for mass media such
as feature films, television productions or video games. It is frequently a freelance profession.
Screenwriters are responsible for researching the story, developing the narrative, writing the script,
screenplay, dialogues and delivering it, in the required format, to development executives. Screenwriters

therefore have great influence over the creative direction and emotional impact of the screenplay and,
arguably, of the finished film. Screenwriters either pitch original ideas to producers, in the hope that they
will be optioned or sold; or are commissioned by a producer to create a screenplay from a concept, true
story, existing screen work or literary work, such as a novel, poem, play, comic book, or short story.
Fundamentally, the screenplay is a unique literary form. It is like a musical score, in that it is intended to
be interpreted on the basis of other artists' performance, rather than serving as a finished product for the
enjoyment of its audience. For this reason, a screenplay is written using technical jargon and tight, spare
prose when describing stage directions. Unlike a novel or short story, a screenplay focuses on describing
the literal, visual aspects of the story, rather than on the internal thoughts of its characters. In
screenwriting, the aim is to evoke those thoughts and emotions through subtext, action, and symbolism.
Several main screenwriting theories help writers approach the screenplay by systematizing the structure,
goals and techniques of writing a script. The most common kinds of theories are structural. Screenwriter
William Goldman is widely quoted as saying "Screenplays are structure".
The act of screenwriting takes many forms across the entertainment industry. Often, multiple writers work on
the same script at different stages of development with different tasks. Over the course of a successful career, a
screenwriter might be hired to write in a wide variety of roles.
Some of the most common forms of screenwriting jobs include:
Spec script writing

Spec scripts are feature film or television show scripts written on speculation of sale, without the commission
of a Film studio, production company or TV network. The content is usually invented solely by the
screenwriter, though spec screenplays can also be based on established works or real people and events. The
spec script is a Hollywood sales tool. The vast majority of scripts written each year are spec scripts, but only a
small percentage make it to the screen. A spec script is usually a wholly original work, but can also be an
Adaptation.
In television writing, a spec script is a sample teleplay written to demonstrate the writer's knowledge of a show
and ability to imitate its style and conventions. It is submitted to the show's producers in hopes of being hired
to write future episodes of the show. Budding screenwriters attempting to break into the business generally
begin by writing one or more spec scripts.
Although writing spec scripts is part of any writer's career, the Writer‘s guild of America forbids members to
write "on speculation". The distinction is that a "spec script" is written as a sample by the writer on his or her
own; what is forbidden is writing a script for a specific producer without a contract. In addition to writing a
script on speculation, it is generally not advised to write camera angles or other directional terminology, as
these are likely to be ignored. A director may write up a shooting script himself or herself, a script that guides
the team in what to do in order to carry out the director's vision of how the script should look. The director
may ask the original writer to co-write it with him or her, or to rewrite a script that satisfies both the director
and producer of the film/TV show.

Spec writing is also unique in that the writer must pitch the idea to producers. In order to sell the script, it must
have a killer title, good writing, and a great logline. A logline is one sentence that lays out what the movie is
about. A well written logline will convey the tone of the film, introduce the main character, and touch on the
primary conflict. Usually the logline and title work in tandem to draw people in, and it is highly suggested to
incorporate irony into them when possible. These things, along with nice, clean writing will hugely impact
whether or not a producer picks up the spec script.
Commissioned screenplay
A commissioned screenplay is written by a hired writer. The concept is usually developed long before the
screenwriter is brought on, and often has multiple writers work on it before the script is given a Green Light.
Feature assignment writing

Scripts written on assignment are screenplays created under contract with a studio, production company, or
producer. These are the most common assignments sought after in screenwriting. A screenwriter can get an
assignment either exclusively or from "open" assignments. A screenwriter can also be approached and offered
an assignment. Assignment scripts are generally adaptations of an existing idea or property owned by the
hiring company,[2] but can also be original works based on a concept created by the writer or producer.
Rewriting and script doctoring

Most produced films are rewritten to some extent during the development process. Frequently, they are not
rewritten by the original writer of the script.[3] Many established screenwriters, as well as new writers whose
work shows promise but lacks marketability, make their living rewriting scripts.
When a script's central premise or characters are good but the script is otherwise unusable, a different writer or
team of writers is contracted to do an entirely new draft, often referred to as a "page one rewrite". When only
small problems remain, such as bad dialogue or poor humor, a writer is hired to do a "polish" or "punch-up".
Depending on the size of the new writer's contributions, screen credit may or may not be given. For instance,
in the American film industry, credit to rewriters is given only if 50% or more of the script is substantially
changed.[4] These standards can make it difficult to establish the identity and number of screenwriters who
contributed to a film's creation.
When established writers are called in to rewrite portions of a script late in the development process, they are
commonly referred to as script doctors. Prominent script doctors include Christopher Keane, Steve Zailian,
William Goldman, Robert Towne, Mort Nathan, Quentin Tarantino and Peter Russell. Many up-and-coming
screenwriters work as ghost writers.
Television writing
A freelance television writer typically uses spec scripts or previous credits and reputation to obtain a contract
to write one or more episodes for an existing television show. After an episode is submitted, rewriting or
polishing may be required.
A staff writer for a TV show generally works in-house, writing and rewriting episodes. Staff writers—often
given other titles, such as Story editor or producer—work both as a group and individually on episode scripts
to maintain the show's tone, style, characters, and plots.
Television show creators write the television pilot and bible of new television series. They are responsible for
creating and managing all aspects of a show's characters, style, and plots. Frequently, a creator remains

responsible for the show's day-to-day creative decisions throughout the series run as show runner, head
writer or story editor.
Writing for daily series
The process of writing for soap operas and telenovelas is different from that used by prime time shows, due in
part to the need to produce new episodes five days a week for several months. In one example cited by Jane
Espenson, screenwriting is a "sort of three-tiered system".
a few top writers craft the overall story arcs. Mid-level writers work with them to turn those arcs into
things that look a lot like traditional episode outlines, and an array of writers below that (who do not
even have to be local to Los Angeles), take those outlines and quickly generate the dialogue while
adhering slavishly to the outlines.
Espenson notes that a recent trend has been to eliminate the role of the mid-level writer, relying on the senior
writers to do rough outlines and giving the other writers a bit more freedom. Regardless, when the finished
scripts are sent to the top writers, the latter do a final round of rewrites. Espenson also notes that a show that
airs daily, with characters who have decades of history behind their voices, necessitates a writing staff without
the distinctive voice that can sometimes be present in prime-time series.
Writing for game shows
Game shows feature live contestants, but still use a team of writers as part of a specific format. This may
involve the slate of questions and even specific phrasing or dialogue on the part of the host. Writers may not
script the dialogue used by the contestants, but they work with the producers to create the actions, scenarios,
and sequence of events that support the game show's concept.
Video game writing

With the continued development and increased complexity of video games, many opportunities are available to
employ screenwriters in the field of video game design. Video game writers work closely with the other game
designers to create characters, scenarios, and dialogue.
Basic lighting: the three-point lighting setup
The most basic lighting in film is the three-point lighting setup. Lighting from three directions shapes
your subject and sets them apart from their background.

Film lighting basics: Amelie (2001), shows cinematographer Bruno Delbonnel using the three-point
lighting setup.
To achieve this, your film lighting equipment needs to face your subject from three directions: front, back
and side (generally).
KEY LIGHT
The key light is the light that registers most prominently in your frame. So, when you look at the image of
Amelie above, you‘ll see that the screen-right portion of her face is brightest. That‘s the key light.
FILL LIGHTS
Quite simply, fill lights fill in the shadows of your frame. You‘ll notice that the screen-left portion of
Amelie‘s face is in shadow, but with her features still plainly visible. That is a fill light at work.
BACK LIGHT
The back light gives an edge light to the rear portion of your subject. Often, the backlight shoots down
from a higher angle. You can see that Amelie has a light contour along her shoulders and the nape of her
neck.
You‘ll generally want to flank your camera with your key and fill lights, spaced about 60 degrees on an
axis from your camera.

Basic lighting techniques: Back, Key, and Fill lighting arranged around a camera.
The cinematic types of lighting in film
Every cinematographer is an artist who makes creative decisions on how to guide the viewer‘s eye within
the frame using lighting equipment. Their applications are broad, but their creative interpretation is what
makes their lighting cinematic (or not).
Aperture recently published a helpful guide that shows examples of the kinds of decisions
cinematographers make every day. They include:
 Which props and scene elements should be emphasized
 Whose perspective we‘re seeing the scene through, and how much light they should be able to see
 How characters differ from one another in a frame
 Which emotions are being expressed through harshness of light, or its color
Each of these decisions are then realized technically by planning and executing lighting setups to create
the desired effect. But the cinematographer must dream up what these effects will be before setting up any
lighting equipment.
Soft film lighting
When talking about how a scene should feel emotionally, one thing that is referenced by
cinematographers frequently is how hard or soft the lighting should be.

The hardness or softness of light concerns how large a light source is, and how it affects shadows on your
subject.
Soft film lighting in a day exterior from Harris Savides’ cinematography in Restless
HIRE KEY LIGHT
This is an effect created by heightening the key light and using fill lights generously. This keeps the
lighting bright and balanced in your frame, creating almost no shadow. This balances the lighting from
object to object in your frame -- which is known as your lighting ratio.
High key film lighting in The Hobbit
DIFFUSED OVERHEAD LIGHTING
You can soften a light source with diffusion materials like gels or Chinese lanterns to reduce shadows.
This is great for conversation close-ups.

A Chinese lantern lights this close-up in The Quiet. Cinematography by M. David Mullen.
Hard film lighting
Conversely, smaller light sources, including bright sunlight, will heighten the shadows on your subject.
Conservatively, this should be avoided. But it can also create dramatic effects, as was popularized in the
classic film noirs, which featured suspicious and volatile characters.
Hard lighting creates harsh shadows in Blade Runner's film lighting.
KICKER LIGHT WITH SOFT FILL
In this effect, the back light hits the side of your subject‘s face. It can create an angelic rim of light, while
a very soft fill light keeps the face gently illuminated.

An angel-to-be receives an angelic kicker light in North fork. Cinematography by M. David Mullen.
LOW KEY LIGHT
Low key lighting refers to minimizing, or eliminating, the fill light your shot so that it is intentionally
shadowy. This can create dramatic, suspicious, or even scary effects.
Among the types of lighting in film, low key lighting is great for extracting mystery from the shot.
Motivated lighting
When cinematographers light a set, they always ask themselves where, within the scene, the light comes
from.
They might, for example, choose to take the practical lights that are already in a location and elevate their
effect. This is motivated lighting.
Oscar-winning cinematographer Roger Deakins is known for the motivated lighting choices. Consider
this shot from his work on The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford:
Donuts.

Motivated lighting from carried lanterns in The Assassination of Jesse James
As you can see, the lighting in this scene is motivated by the lanterns carried by the actors. When
motivated lighting is done right, the audience is unaware of the artifice at work.
Lanterns create motivated light sources that sell the lighting choices in The Assassination of Jesse James.

PRACTICAL SET LIGHTING
A practical overhead bulb lights the subjects in this wide shot from The Quiet, cinematography by M.
David Mullen
Often times, using existing lamps and light sockets around the set can be used to light a scene. This is
referred to as practical lighting, and is particularly useful when you need to reveal wide portions of the
set, or move around it in longer takes.
This was the case in the diner scene in Moonlight. In an interview for TIFF Originals, DP James Laxton
spoke about how he used practical set lighting to keep his location visible in wide frames.
In essence, he swapped out the bulbs in the existing light sources around the diner to make them stronger.
Since the scene reveals wide portions of their location, he relied on the practical sources, with some of
LED light mattes brought in as well for additional soft, balanced light.
Practical lighting techniques at work in James Laxton’s cinematography in Moonlight

Natural film lighting
Natural film lighting refers to using and modifying the light that is already available to you at your
location.
Before you shoot, you can take your camera to the location to see how well the natural light holds up.
You can decide from there how what additional lights you might need, or how you might adjust the light.
For example, you can use bounce boards for reflecting the light, or black flags for blocking it out.
Cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki maximized natural film lighting on Alejandro Inarritu‘s The
Revenant. His interview with GoldDerby is a wonderful primer on finding and controlling available light
in outdoor shooting locations.
Emmanuel Lubezki’s Oscar-winning cinematography in The Revenant created beautiful imagery with
natural film lighting.
For example, he speaks about using Magic Hour, or the soft light created by the sun at the end of the day,
for specific moments. And, further, he talks about how the selection of locations, and how they appear at
different times of the day, created appropriate moods for the shoot.
It required a great deal of flexibility and preparation, but the results are stunning.
Sound
―Sound‖ refers to everything we hear in a movie — words, sound effects, and music. Sound is used in
film to heighten a mood, provide us with information about the location of a scene, advance the plot, and
tell us about the characters in the story.
There are two categories of sound in film: Diegetic and Non-Diegetic. Diegetic Sound
refers to all those audio elements that come from sources inside the world we see

on the screen, including dialogue, doors slamming, footsteps, etc. Non-Diegetic Sound refers to all those
audio elements that come from outside of the ctional world we see on screen, including the musical
score and sound effects like the screeches in the shower scene in Psycho.
How do Sound Effects help to Shape a Film?
Sound effects can be used to add mood or atmosphere to a lm by creating a

soundscape that accents or adds another layer of meaning to the images on the screen. Pitch, tempo, and
volume may be altered to indicate how the filmmaker expects the audience to respond to a given noise.
For instance, high-pitched sounds, including screams or squealing tires, help to create a sense of anxiety,
while low-pitched sounds, including the sounds of waves or the swinging of a door, can be used to create
a sense of calm or mystery. Perhaps the most interesting use of sound in a movie is the very absence of it:
silence. At key points in a film, directors may use silence in much the same way that they would use a
freeze frame. Both tend to arrest the audience‘s attention to highlight some action or change in story
direction. Silence can be used to build up a scene‘s intensity
or to foreshadow impending doom.
In recent years, special sound effects have been added to movies in order to heighten the lm experience.
Many of these sound effects, including explosions, phaser blasts, wind, and animal sounds are drawn
from computer sound effects libraries and are added to a lm after the movie has been shot. Besides
creating louder and more dramatic movies, these effects have tended to draw more attention to movie
sound. With advancements in surround sound, sound effects have developed a more ―directional‖
element, appearing to come from a specic place or direction. This directional quality of sound
(alongside elements such as echoes) enhances a three-dimensional sense of space in the movie.
How Does Music Help to Shape a Film?

If we step back and think about it, music is one of the most peculiar conventions in
movies. No one questions that music should be a part of movies because we‘ve all
grown used to the idea that, in a movie, when two people kiss, we should hear music in the background.
Or when the platoon attacks the beach, a symphony should provide the inspiration behind their assault. Of
course, no one has a soundtrack accompanying their real lives. But in movies we not only accept this
convention, we demand it.
Music can be used for a number of effects in a movie. The most obvious way music
scores are used is to guide the emotional response of the audience. They provide
clues, or, in most cases, huge signposts, that tell audiences how the lmmaker
wants them to react to a given scene.
Some directors play against our expectations and use music in ways we might not
expect. Stanley Kubrick shocked audiences when he used ―Singin‘ in the Rain‖ as
the backdrop to a horrible rape scene in A Clockwork Orange (1971). Music can also provide an overture
for a movie when it‘s used as the backdrop for the opening credits. The brassy theme music composed by
John Williams for Star Wars is one famous and often-parodied example.
In some instances, directors use music to foreshadow upcoming events. In horror

movies, for example, the score is often used to build up tension and suspense just
before the monster attacks one of its victims. Finally, music can be used to shape the ethnic or cultural
context of a film.
How Does the Spoken Word Help to Shape a Film?

In addition to giving voice to the characters in a movie, two of the more interesting

ways the spoken word can shape a movie are through voice-overs and by providing
subtext to a scene.
Voice-overs are typically used in documentary films, although they occasionally

turn up in fiction lms such as the original Blade Runner (1982), to provide
background to a story or to help move a story from one set of events to another.
Used well, voice-overs can be unobtrusive. Used poorly, voice-overs can often seem
like ―the voice of god‖, bringing forth wisdom audiences are supposed to accept
unquestioningly. For this reason, some lmmakers refuse to use voice-overs in their films to let
audiences have more freedom in determining what the meaning of the film is.
We all know from our own personal conversations that there is often a subtext to
the words we hear. Subtext means there is an implicit meaning standing behind the
language we actually he ar. In lm, actors use this element of language to shape a
scene without actually saying what they mean. Similarly, some actors are known for their distinctive
voices which have helped dene the characters they play. Marilyn Monroe is remembered for her high-
pitched breathyvoice, which gave a slightly ditzy feel to many of her chracters, while John Malkovich has
a distant, aloof, and direct manner of speech which helps to give a sinister edge to many of his best on-
screen performances.
Actor in a Film
An Actor is an artist; the most vital tool in the visual medium of Films, via whom the story and the
journey of a Film is articulated. A fitting analogy for an Actor could be a race car driver. While many
people and talents come together to create the racing team, like the engineers, the sponsors and the pit-
stop crew, it is ultimately the driver‘s performance that wins or loses a race, no matter how well-prepared
the team may have been.
It‘s the same when it comes to a Film. There could be great direction, compelling story and visuals,
soulful music; but all this can be a let down if the Actors do not do justice to their characters and to the
story. So what is the role of an Actor then? At the most basic level, it is to translate an engaging and
believable portrayal of the written character onto screen.
But in doing so, an Actor needs many tools too. And this is one skill set that is limitless. Even if someone
is a born Actor, his talent needs to be harnessed in a manner where either the Actor himself or the
Director can draw on that talent and manifest it in a winning performance.
Therefore an Actor needs to be a good listener observer, be able to take directions, be intuitive and must
possess a tangible acting range. It‘s a skill set that eludes most and not everyone can learn it by
themselves.
Editing
In films, we can see the importance of mise-en-scéne and cinematography quite easily because these
incorporate everything within the frame that we are focusing on. Does editing hold the same significance
as these factors? The characters, the colors, and the props are all bits of information that are relayed to us
directly through the mise-en-scéne and cinematography. Editing is defined as ―the process of selecting

and joining film footage and shots‖ — Timothy Corrigan and Patricia White, The Film
Experience, 168. It is essentially taking different manifestations of cinematography and mise-en-scéne
and putting them together. Knowing this, editing takes on paramount importance as it pieces together
shots and footage in meaningful ways using cuts, transitions, and other things.
Editing can be broken down into different elements. Each element creates meaning in its own way by
changing the way that the film is experienced by an audience. A cut is ―the join or splice between two
pieces of film‖ (Corrigan and White, 168). Cuts are the simplest and most common forms of editing and
consists of many different types that create feelings about the film or assert an idea. Transitions are the
join of two separate pieces of film with the use of some embellishment that also adds meaning to the film.
This video talks about different types of cuts and transitions.
Another element of editing is the continuity style. Although it is not necessary or guaranteed, many films
use a continuity style in order to orient space and time. They do this to give their film verisimilitude,
which ―is the quality of fictional representation that allows readers or viewers to accept a constructed
[world] as plausible‖ (Corrigan and White, 180). By having spatial and temporal patterns, the film
becomes something that is believable when we are watching it. A common use continuity editing is the
eyeline match. A character is shown looking somewhere off-screen, then the camera cuts to another shot
with a new subject. As viewers, we assume that the character was looking at what we saw in the second
shot. Based on this edit, we can form spatial relationships between characters and objects as well as ideas
about the significance of the character‘s glance. In this clip from Star Wars: Episode 1, Obi-Wan Kenobi
looks at his lightsaber off screen, then it cuts to his lightsaber. This mixed with his obvious desperation,
we form an idea that he is planning to do something with the lightsaber to get out of his current situation,
which he does.
Editing‘s relationship with time is also important for creating meaning in a film. For example, sometimes
the scenes of a movie will not be shown in chronological order of the story. When this occurs, typically
there will be some sort of external cue through editing. Flashbacks might dissolve in simulating a
character‘s memory. Some sequences in films are not explicitly located in any part of the story timeline.
This ambiguity is sometimes used on purpose for descriptions, psychological depth, and others. Duration
also plays a part in the audiences viewing experience. A film tells a story that has its own timeline but is
shown only in the runtime of the film. The length of the story and the length of the movie are almost
never the same lengths, therefore it is important in editing to manipulate the duration to make the story
flow and feel like its happening in its own timeline. This is affected by pace and rhythm. How often
movie cuts can be measured by the average shot length (ASL). ASL helps determine the pace of films.
Films take on different paces depending on what type of film they are or what kind of feeling they want to
give off.
All of these elements put together are very subtle and go unnoticed when discussing the important parts of
a film. However, editing creates so much meaning that basically none of the films you see today can exist
without it. Not only is it necessary to put together films that we see, it is important in commanding the
way that the viewer is seeing the film and interpreting it. What do you think is more important as a
viewer, things like mise-en-scéne and cinematography or editing? As time has passed, the ASL of films
has dropped.

Visual Language
The Persisting Vision: Reading the Language of Cinema
Martin Scorsese
In the film The Magic Box, which was made in England in 1950, the great English actor Robert Donat
plays William Friese-Greene—one of the people who invented movies. The Magic Box was packed with
guest stars. It was made for an event called the Festival of Britain. You had about fifty or sixty of the
biggest actors in England at the time, all doing for the most part little cameos, including the man who
played the policeman—that was Sir Laurence Olivier.
I saw this picture for the first time with my father. I was eight years old. I‘ve never really gotten over the
impact that it had. I believe this is what ignited in me the wonder of cinema, and the obsession—with
watching movies, making them, inventing them.
Friese-Greene gives everything of himself to the movies, and he dies a pauper. If you know the full story
of his life and its end, the line in the film about the invention of the movies—―You must be a very happy
man, Mr. Friese-Greene‖—of course is ironic, but in some ways it‘s also true because he‘s followed his
obsession all the way. So it‘s both disturbing and inspiring. I was very young. I didn‘t put this into words
at the time, but I sensed these things and I saw them up there on the screen.
My parents had a good reason for taking me to the movies all the time, because I had been sick with
asthma since I was three years old and I apparently couldn‘t do any sports, or that‘s what they told me.
But my mother and father did love the movies. They weren‘t in the habit of reading—that didn‘t really
exist where I came from—and so we connected through the movies.
And I realize now that the warmth of that connection with my family and with the images on the screen
gave me something very precious. We were experiencing something fundamental together. We were
living through the emotional truths on the screen, often in coded form, which these films from the 1940s
and 1950s sometimes expressed in small things: gestures, glances, reactions between the characters, light,
shadow. These were things that we normally couldn‘t discuss or wouldn‘t discuss or even acknowledge in
our lives.
And that‘s actually part of the wonder. Whenever I hear people dismiss movies as ―fantasy‖ and make a
hard distinction between film and life, I think to myself that it‘s just a way of avoiding the power of
cinema. Of course it‘s not life—it‘s the invocation of life, it‘s in an ongoing dialogue with life.
Frank Capra said, ―Film is a disease.‖ I caught the disease early on. I felt it whenever I walked up to the
ticket booth with my mother or my father or my brother. You‘d go through the doors,…
Shot in a Film
Types of Shots Framing Shots

1. Wide shot (WS)- used to establish the location or setting, sets the stage, and can also be used to
introduce action, shows the whole scene, orientates the viewer
2. Full shot (FS)- frame a person from head to toe or completely frame an object. A full shot is used either
to establish or follow a character.
3. Medium shot (MS)- frame a person from the waist up. A medium shot is used to provide new visual
information or show a closer view of the action. It also adds visual variety in editing.
4. Three quarter shot (3/4) - frame a person from the knees up. This shot is a variation between the
medium and full shot and provides visual variety.
5. Long shot (LS) - are full shots, but show the person at a greater distance.
6. Head and shoulder shot (H & S) - frames a person from the chest up. The head and shoulders shot
provides a closer view of a character and can be used as a listening or reaction shot. This is the standard
framing for most interviews where there are two subjects engaged in conversation.
7. Close-up (CU) - head shot, just above the shoulders. This shot is used to provide a more intimate view
of a character or show expression. The close-up can also be used as a listening or reaction shot, or to show
the details of an object.
8. Extreme close-up (XCU) - frames a head shot from the tip of the chin to the middle of the forehead, or
any other equivalent space on an object, animal, etc. This shot shows drama or tension in a character‘s
face or allows the viewer to see specific details on an object.
9. Two shot (2-SHOT) - frames two people in a full shot. This can be expanded to include however many
people are framed in the shot (three shot, four shot, etc.)
10. Medium shot (MED 2-SHOT) - frames two people in a medium shot and can be expanded to a
medium three shot, four shot, etc.
Framing Faces
1. Rule of thirds - position the eyes about one third of the way from the top of the frame
2. The eyes are the centre of attention in face shots.
3. Headroom should be consistent for the same-sized shots.
4. The closer the shot, the less headroom there will be; crop out the top of the head rather than the chin if
cropping is necessary.
5. Profile shots are flat on screen.
6. Always give space in the direction of people‘s looks and movement.

Camera Movements
1. Tilt - camera tilts in sync with a moving object
2. Pan - camera goes from one object or subject to interest to another
3. Zoom - camera pulls in or out to reveal information
4. Dolly - is a long continuous shot which requires the camera and operator to move physically on a cart
to complete the full range of motion.
Other Shots
1. Introductory Shot - shoot at least one sequence of your subject doing other things, when added to the
final edited video, it makes the person seem much more interesting.
2. Cutaways - happens when an interviewer appears on the screen nodding wisely as the person being
interviewed carries on talking.
3. Wallpaper Shot - any shot used to fill the screen while a narrator is talking.
4. Inserts - tiny sections of close-up action used to illustrate specific points - like a finger dialling a
telephone - which would get lost in a wider view.
5. Jump Cuts - Two shots that follow each other but don‘t follow the logical order of the story, or don‘t
make apparent sense. Used to take the viewer into another scene or piece of action which might be going
on at the same time as you main action.
6. B-roll Footage - adds texture, not main elements, ―beauty shots‖
Shooting Angle
The angle is also another variation to be considered:
1. Eye Level - used most of the time, shoot at eye level whether standing or sitting, short or tall.
2. Low Angle - camera is well below the main part of interest of the subject and is aimed up, exaggerates
height, power or authoritativeness, consider your background - probably ceiling, sky or foliage.
3. High Angle - camera is will above the main interest and is aimed down, reduces apparent height, makes
subject appear small, weak, or insignificant, creates dramatic impact.
4. Over-the-Shoulder - used when shooting conversation between two people, speaker‘s full face is shown
while camera is aimed over the shoulder of the listener
Sequence

In film, a sequence is a series of scenes that form a distinct narrative unit, which is usually connected
either by unity of location or unity of time. For example a heist film might include an extended
recruitment sequence in which the leader of the gang collects together the conspirators, a robbery
sequence, an escape sequence, and so on. Each of these sequences might further contain sub-sequences;
for example the robbery sequence might consist of an entry sequence, a safe-cracking sequence, and so
on.
The sequence is one of a hierarchy of structural units used to describe the structure of films in varying
degrees of granularity. Analysed this way, a film is composed of one or more acts; acts include one or
more sequences; sequences are divided into one or more scenes; and scenes may be thought of as being
built out of shots (if one is thinking visually) or beats (if one is thinking in narrative terms).
The sequence paradigm of screenwriting was developed by Frank Daniel.
Montage
Montage is a technique in film editing in which a series of short shots are edited into a sequence to
condense space, time, and information. The term has been used in various contexts. It was introduced to
cinema primarily by Sergei Eisenstein, and early Soviet directors used it as a synonym for creative
editing. In French the word "montage" applied to cinema simply denotes editing. The term "montage
sequence" has been used primarily by British and American studios, and refers to the common technique
as outlined in this article.
The montage sequence is usually used to suggest the passage of time, rather than to create symbolic
meaning as it does in Soviet montage theory.
From the 1930s to the 1950s, montage sequences often combined numerous short shots with special
optical effects (fades, dissolves, split screens, double and triple exposures dance and music. They were
usually assembled by someone other than the director or the editor of the movie.
Mise-en-scène
The arrangement of everything that appears in the framing – actors, lighting, décor, props, costume – is
called mise-en-scène, a French term that means ―placing on stage.‖ The frame and camerawork are also
considered part of the mise-en-scène of a movie. In cinema, placing on the stage really means placing on
the screen, and the director is in charge of deciding what goes where, when, and how. David A. Cook, in
his book ‗A History of Narrative Film‘, points out how a mise-en-scène is formed by all the elements that
appear ―within the shot itself, as opposed to the effects created by cutting.‖ In other words, if it‘s on the
screen and if it‘s a physical object recorded by the camera, then it‘s part of the mise-en-scène.
Even though many professionals are involved in its creation, the director is the one who oversees the
entire mise-en-scène and all of its elements. Not just that, but during the early stages of pre-production,
the director or his AD sits down with set designers, prop masters, location managers, costume designers,
and scenic artists to determine the look and feel intended.

In some instances, the mise-en- scène is designed to evoke emotions that permeate the whole movie. For
example in the German expressionist film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), distorted shapes and
claustrophobic scenery are implemented to disturb the audience and enhance the horror.
Mike Nichols‘ The Graduate (1967) has been praised by its amazing, colorful, and multi-layered visual
design. For this reason, the following segments will shed light on many scenes from The Graduate but
also from other pictures.
Continuity and Montage. There are two basically different approaches to editing,
CONTINUITY EDITING and MONTAGE THEORY.
We will take a look at both techniques in the following.
CONTINUITY EDITING (also, CLASSICAL CONTINUITY)
Continuity refers to the way shots go together to create a seamless chain of events. Some strategies
already need to be observed during the shooting of footage for good continuity. After recording the raw
material, editing techniques provide further means for binding scenes together smoothly. In direct
contradiction to montage theory, continuity editing aims at hiding (or at least minimizing) the shift from
one cut to the next, in effect making the edit as "transparent" as possible. This strategy has several
component parts, the principal ones being:
• Shots which carry an action across a cut (match on action cuts), from Alfred Hitchcock's "Vertigo". This
example also contains eye-line match cuts after the match on action cut.
• Camera set ups which observe the action from alternating points of view (angle, reverse angle

• Cuts which are "led" by a character's on-screen actions. For example, if character "A" looks off-screen
and a direct cut to character "B" ensues, the effect is that character "A" is looking at character "B";
sometimes called eye-line matches
• Rigorous respect for the Action Line (180 degree rule), assuring continuity of the direction of screen
action: Every shot has the potential to suggest to the audience that a location has changed. The 180
degrees rule ensures the audience that the whole action (e.g. a conversation) takes place in the same
location and during the same short period of time. The rule is based on an imaginary action line (line of
movement or line between characters). For a fluid continuity, the camera should never cross this line of
action in any shot:
Jump Cuts:
If the camera moves less than 30 degrees in between shots, then the resulting edit jumps abruptly from
one shot to the other (almost as if one piece of tape had been cut out in between these shots). To avoid
this effect, make sure to move the camera more than 30 degrees on one side of the action between shots

Movement:
Try to edit on movement, it maintains continuity and flow of action the best. If there is movement in the
image, it is important to keep the direction of the movement between edits. For example, if an object
moves from left to right and exits the screen on the right, then the same object should appear in the
following shot from the left. An interesting psychological phenomenon while watching a video or a
movie is the idea of "moving to a place" and "coming from a place". Normally, a movement from the left
to the right is interpreted as progress, moving forward, to a place, whereas a movement from the right to
the left is considered to be a movement of return from somewhere.
Other elements that could help in the continuity of a project are: edits based common prominent elements
in shots (such as a strong color, a strong graphical element or a clear compositional element, e.g. the line
of the horizon). Light is also an important factor in continuity - the less the light situation changes (even
light temperature) the more fluid the edits look. Sometimes, sound can be used to keep the continuity.
However, this should be only considered if none of the visual techniques work.
All the above-featured strategies to maintain continuity are based on hard cuts (i.e. no transitions).
Although you do not need to observe the above rules in your own projects, you should at least know when
to use them and why to break them!
MONTAGE THEORY (also, SOVIET MONTAGE)
Basically a theory, which develops the proposition that it is through editing that film finds its greatest--
and most unique--powers of expression. This premise is based on the dialectical relationship between two
shots, "A" and "B", in a cut. By putting shot "A" in juxtaposition (and in opposition) to shot "B" the result
is not a sum of the two, but a new idea which might be called "C". Obviously, there has to be significant
involvement on the part of the audience to make the dialectical relationship effective.

This effect is also callec Kuleshov Effect (named after the Russian film theoretician Lev Kuleshov). As
mentioned above, it is based on the mental tendency of viewers to attempt to figure out how filmed shots
fit together, even if the shots are totally unrelated. Around 1919, Kuleshov began a series of editing
experiments, which led to a startling discovery (in what has become known as the "Mozhukhin
Experiment"). In separate sequences, shots of various objects (a bowl of soup, a smiling child, and a dead
body), were juxtaposed against identical archive clips of a famous actor (Ivan Mozhukhin). The audience
reads a different meaning into Mozhukhin's expression with each combination. This discovery
demonstrated the power of editing to alter the perception of the subject, in this case, the actor's emotions
and thoughts. The experiment also, implicitly, advanced the verisimilar acting style as the ideal for film;
purportedly, Mozhukin was praised by the audience for his subtle acting abilities.
On the following page are some still images of the original experiment:
The following series of stills was taken from Dziga Vertov's film "The Man with the Movie Camera". We
see how Vertov applied the Kuleshov Effect to create ambiguity: the audience interprets the first scene,
shot in an official building, based on the following scenes. The couple can be seen as either reporting the
death of a family member, reporting their wedding or the birth of a new family member:

In another experiment, Kuleshov spliced together another series of shots, which had been filmed entirely
out of sequence and in different times and places: a waiting man, a walking woman, a gate, a staircase,
and a mansion. The audience read spatial and temporal 'sense' into the sequence, deciding that they saw
the man and the woman meeting in front of the gate at the same time. This demonstrated the viewer's
essential role in creating a film's continuity and advanced the notion that a filmmaker creates a 'fictive
space', with the freedom to shoot out of sequence and join together unrelated shots. Kuleshov used these
discoveries to advance the theory of montage as the central device of cinema, later adapted by Sergei
Eisenstein and Vsevelod Pudovkin.
Unit-2
German Expressionism in Cinema
German expressionism was an art movement that began life around 1910 emerging in architecture, theatre
and art. Expressionism art typically presented the world from a subjected view and thus attempted to
show a distorted view of this world to evoke a mood or idea. The emotional meaning of the object is what
mattered to the artist and not the physical.
German expressionism was an art movement that began life around 1910 emerging in architecture, theatre
and art. Expressionism art typically presented the world from a subjected view and thus attempted to
show a distorted view of this world to evoke a mood or idea. The emotional meaning of the object is what
mattered to the artist and not the physical reality. While already making waves in the art world,
expressionism would really come into its own when expressed in cinema.
What is Expressionism in Cinema?
Expressionist films would use atmospheric lighting, asymmetrical camera angles and highlight many
objects and characters with the use of high contrast between dark and light. The plots that featured in

German expressionism were usually occupied with madness, identity of one‘s self and insanity. When all
these aspects were brought together the result was usually a dark film with plenty of subtext to them.
‘The Horror, The Horror’; World War One And Its Influence
The atrocities of World War One started to manifest themselves in German cinema through the horror
genre. German cinema throughout the war and indeed post war was dominated by horror films, titles such
as The Golem and The Golem and the Dancing Girl proved very popular with the German public. As the
full extent of the war and its horrors came to light, the horror genre took an even darker turn when
expressionism began to seep in.
World War One left Europe in ruins, as many empires collapsed leaving its subjects to wonder what the
future would hold. Defeat for Germany was devastating as the country was left in financial destitute,
causing great grief for its citizens. The people of Germany began to feel resentment towards its leaders for
bringing untold misery upon them. Trepidation and malaise set in on the German public with regards to
their future.
Fear began to manifest itself in the expressionism art movement. After the war, expressionism found its
way to the new medium of cinema, which presented artists with a chance to work with a moving canvas
i.e. the screen.
Expressionism‘s foray into the medium of cinema is perhaps the first film movement; Surrealist, French
New Wave and Italian Neo-Realism are other notable movements that cinema experienced in the 20th
century. It should be noted, that no manifesto was drawn up for expressionism unlike the French New
Wave and the surrealist movement.
Expressionism In Cinema
German cinema of the 1920‘s was dominated by expressionism from screenplays, to set designs, the
shadow of the art movement was impossible to escape. This led to German cinema becoming one of the
most exciting national cinemas in Europe and indeed the world, as Hollywood was still finding its feet
with the relatively new medium.
Innovations in special effects, set designs and lighting are just some of the techniques that expressionism
brought to cinema during the 1920‘s. Due to the high concepts expressionism art portrayed many
directors, cameramen, and lighting technicians were forced to seek out new techniques in order to
bring these concepts to the screen.
Expressionism reached its zenith by the mid 1920‘s in Germany, with many production companies
releasing multiple titles weeks apart from one another. Every second film made in Germany at this time
contained elements of expressionism with in them.
The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920)
Released in 1920, The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari has been labelled the quintessential example of German
expressionist cinema. The most striking aspect of director Robert Wiene’s horror masterpiece is the style
and tone of the film, which left the German public both horrified and enthralled. Today contemporary
critics and audience alike are still hypnotised by the set designs and tone of Dr. Caligari. The plot

follows the dark and twisting story of the mysterious Dr. Caligari (Werner Krauss) who uses a
somnambulist (Conrad Veidt) to commit murder in the villages he visits.
The world in which Wiene presents to us in Dr. Caligari is one of darkness and uncertainty. To achieve
this darkness, set designer Hermann Warm decided to paint much of the background props as supposed
to constructing them. This in turn gives the film an unnatural feel.
The streets of the town spiral off into the distance essentially heading nowhere. The buildings and
surrounding landscape are crooked, with many of these features abruptly cutting off into sharp
angles. Warm’s approach to the design of the film gives it a fairy-tale feel in the vein of a Brothers
Grimm tale.
Director Wiene chose to have shadows painted onto the set instead of creating it with light. Many scenes
contain unnatural shadows that sprawl out across the set and engulf the characters. The use of artificial
shadow and the jagged buildings give the look that the town could collapse in on itself at any moment.
As the film progresses, the horrid landscape of Holstenwall town can be seen as a representation of the
characters psyche. Due to the film being a silent one, expressionistic art is a perfect way of projecting
these themes due to the lack of dialogue.
To add to this nightmare world, characters present themselves as something they are not. The narrative
of Dr. Caligari is also fragmented, which feeds into the feeling that all is not right in this world. It is
truly a world of paranoia and fear that Wiene presents to us.
Many film academics have pointed out how Dr. Caligari can be read as Germany‘s post-war anxiety
which isn‘t only visible in the plot but also in the design and tone of the film. In a nutshell Dr. Caligari is
a perfect example of expressionism at work in cinema and shows why it works so well in silent film.

Nosferatu (1922)
Released in 1922, F.W. Murnau’s Nosferatu: A Symphony of Horror is another prime example of
expressionism at work in cinema. Murnau’s film is a retelling of Bram Stoker’s classic horror
novel Dracula. Famously the characters names were changed because the production company failed to
gain the rights for a film adaptation.
Heirs to Stoker’s estate sued the production company, with a judge ruling all copies
of Murnau’sadaptation to be destroyed. A copy survived, leading the film to become one of cinemas
most renowned pieces of work. The eerie story of the vampire Count Orlok‘s (Max Schreck) voyage to
find Ellen Hutter (Greta Schroder) a woman he has become obsessed with, has become one of cinemas
most recognised stories.
Murnau’s approach to the expressionist style in Nosferatu is certainly more subtle than Dr. Caligari.
Whilst the plot is rooted in fantasy, the landscape and setting of the Nosferatu is a scenery that the
audience will recognise. It is within these realistic settings that Murnau expresses some beautiful
expressionist scenes.
The surrounding forest of Count Orlok‘s castle is eerie and unsettling, it doesn‘t seem to contain much
wildlife. When Thomas Hutter arrives at Orlok‘s castle, the scene is one of dilapidation and loneliness.
The castle is run down and is crooked upon the hill it sits on. Inside the grounds of the castle, shadows
can be seen immersing most of the court-yard. Hutter walks through a crooked arch way that is engulfed
in shadow too meet the mysterious Count Orlok who awaits on the other side.
Nosferatu (1922) – source: Film Arts Guild
The most iconic scene in Nosferatu is a pure exercise in expressionistic art and an excellent example on
the use of shadow in expressionism films. The scene that portrays the shadow of Count Orlok creeping up
the stairs is a prime example of the use of shadows. It further compliments the sense of impending doom

which flows throughout the film. This scene has been imitated and parodied right up until the present day
but the original still has power to chill.
A post-war subtext can be found flowing through Nosferatu, as many academics have alluded too. When
Count Orlok arrives in the town of Wisborg to seek out Ellen, death arrives to small town. The locals
believe it is a plague that has been unleashed on them, not realizing that Count Orlok is to blame for the
recent deaths. Murnau shows use scores of rats which conjure up images of disease and death, which can
be seen as a metaphor for the horrors of the war.
While two very important German expressionism films are explored in this article, the country produced
many more that could easily be used as an example. Fritz Lang released his seminal expressionist
science-fiction epic Metropolis in 1927. The film which has been not only being hailed as one of the
greatest science-fiction films of all time, but also one of Germany‘s best films.
F.W. Murnau directed another classic in the genre‘s canon in Faust, which is a retelling of the classic
German folk tale. The Student of Prague by director Henrik Galeen is also regarded as another high
point in the expressionism era of German cinema.
The Émigré
By the late 1920‘s the Nazi party began to gain control of a fragile and weary Germany. Just like the
character of Dr. Caligari, the Nazi party manipulated the German public into a situation not many
understood. The rise of the Nazis‘ caused many in the German film industry to flee to Hollywood over
fears of persecution due to their religious faith.
The influx of German directors, actors and lighting technicians into American cinema caused many of its
productions to take on an expressionist feel. The true nature of the influence of expressionism wouldn‘t
be felt for another few years. Many young Hollywood directors (with German cameramen etc.) began to
display many motifs of expressionism within their films.
F.W. Murnau upon arriving in America went to work for Fox Studios. In 1927 he directed Sunrise: A
Song of Two Humans, the film contained the unmistakable style of expressionism with its lavish sets and
story telling The film was a massive success with critics and the public alike.
At the dawn of the 1930s the gangster genre became very popular with cinema audiences throughout
America. With real life mob bosses such as Al Capone imitating movie stars and becoming celebrity, it is
no wonder why the genre was so popular,
The genre produced some of cinema‘s classic crime films such as Scarface and Little Caesar. Both films
contain expressionist camera work to add to the dangerous and violent world these characters inhabit.
While both films were directed by American directors, the influence of expressionism within them is
impossible to miss.
The Legacy
The horror genre as a whole owes a debt to the German expressionist films of the 1920‘s. While many of
its motifs can be seen in today‘s horror films such as shadows and eerie settings, the Universal horror
films of the 1930‘s are perhaps the best films to display the expressionist influence. Todd Browning’s

Dracula contains all the hallmarks of expressionist film making. James Whale’s classic take on
the Mary Shelley novel Frankenstein is another prime example of this expressionist tone that was
featured in American horror films of the 1930‘s.
Nosferatu (1922) – source: Film Arts Guild
The genre of film noir began life in American cinema in the early 1940‘s, its two biggest influences were
expressionism and hard-boiled crime fiction. Many of the authors of hard-boiled fiction would go on to
write screenplays for many of the most important films in the genre‘s canon. Raymond Chandler one of
hard-boiled fiction‘s innovators, co-wrote the screenplay for Double Indemnity along with director Billy
Wilder.
Just like German expressionism, film noir is noted for its striking visuals and atmosphere. Noir films
utilise the use of shadows to add to the pessimistic view of the world it portrays, just like expressionism
done decades before it. Complex characters, fragment plots and dangerous women are all motifs found in
the genre of noir.
Robert Siodmak’s The Killers is a perfect example of noir at work, as the film unfolds in a flashback as
told by a narrator. The film is also shot in a beautiful expressionist style which adds to the mystery at the
heart of the film.
Conclusion
The importance of German expressionism on cinema is immense. From direction to the technical aspect
of film making, its footprints can been seen all over cinema. One of the most celebrated films of all time
contains many expressionist motifs. Orson Welles’ Citizen Kane is an ode to expressionist film making,
with many of its most famous scenes displaying this and its fragmented plot.
Even today the shadow of German expressionism is still casting a shadow over film making. The films
of Tim Burton are highly influenced by it, and he constantly refers back to expressionism in his work.

The popular comic book films of the past decade also show signs of expressionism, Sin City being the
prime example. It may be nearly a hundred years old but expressionism is still inspiring directors and
screenwriters alike.
Italian Neo Realism
In 1905, the first Italian studios were built, owned by two of the largest production companies, Cines and
Italia, both of which made successful costume dramas, for instance The Last Day of Pompeii (1913), The
Fall of Troy (1910), and Cabiria (1914).Cabiria is a story of a slave girl. It took 6 months to shoot the film
in studios and on location. The film is noted for technical innovations such as dolly and crane shots. Its
success in the US inspired DW Griffith and Cecil B De Mille to launch big-budget productions.
World War I and competition from the US put an end to the large-scale productions. Ironically, it was the
Fascist regime under Mussolini that revived Italian cinema. Mussolini (1883-1945), unlike Hitler or
Stalin, did not aim at total control over the content or style of the Italian commercial cinema. For
propaganda reasons, Mussolini preferred documentary films and newsreels produced by LUCE: L‘unione
cinematografica educativa. The fascist regime viewed Hollywood as its model and saw cinema more as
entertainment than as propaganda. Thus, during Fascism the industry remained relatively free to pursue
filmmaking without facing interference from the government.
In the 30s, Italian cinema was dominated by ―White Telephone‖ films, in other words, flimsy films about
the wealthy. However, there were exceptions, such as, What Scoundrels Men Are! (1932), the first Italian
film to be shot entirely on location. In 1935, the Fascist regime founded a major film school: the Centro
Sperimentale di Cinematografica. In 1937, Mussolini inaugurated a film complex: Cinecitta. A journal
Cinema was also launched during this period. In 1942, Alessandro Blasetti made Four Steps in the Cloud,
a film that anticipated Neo-Realism by using humble characters and ordinary backgrounds. Another
significant film by Blasetti was 1860, which was a patriotic drama. In The Siege of Alcazar (1940),
Augusto Genina celebrates the defense of the fortress in Toledo during the Spanish Civil War by Franco‘s
fascists. The film is in the style of a fictional documentary called documentario romanzato. The fictional
documentary style generally meant adding a love story to adventure or war stories. This kind of hybrid
plot became a typical part of postwar neorealist cinema. The most significant documentaries shot for the
Italian armed forces were Men on the Bottom (1940) by Francesco de Robertis and many fictional
documentaries by Roberto Rossellini. Another important name of this period is Leo Longanesi, a
journalist and staunch supporter of Mussolini. He gave the motto: ‗Mussolini is always right!‖ Longanesi,
like Caesare Zavattini after him, advocated extremely simple realistic films without elaborate sets. With
the fall of Mussolini and the end of the war international audiences were suddenly introduced to Italian
films through the works of Rossellini, De Sica, and Visconti. Italian directors now combined the desire
for cinematic realism with social, political or economic themes that would not have worked under the
regime.
Italian neo-realism: The 40s

Neo-realism generally refers to films of working-class life, delineating their living conditions and often
set in abysmal poverty. This movement tapped into a particular transition in Italian life, and became a
vehicle for filmmakers interested in vivid description of history and society. The underlying message in
the films is that in a better society wealth would be more evenly distributed. Often, these films would be
based on true incidents, and used newsreel footage. They were shot on actual locations and used
nonprofessional actors. The plot and the characters were used as a vehicle for ideas. There was an
emphasis on source sounds and avoidance of heavy musical scores. In the late 1940s, neo-realism‘s
influence spread to Hollywood: actual locations, city as an important character and long takes to bring
about a touch of verisimilitude, in addition to using nonprofessional actors who added veracity to the
films. The movement influenced the films of Satyajit Ray, Akira Kurosawa in Japan and directors in
Germany, Spain and Eastern Europe.
The first neo-realist film
Ossessione (based on James M. Cain’s novel The Postman Always Rings Twice, 1942) by Luchino
Visconti is regarded as the first neo-realist film. Visconti was aided by some of the young writers of
Cinema, who helped Visconti turn the novel into a classic work of neo-realism film starring Massimo
Girotti and Clara Calamai.
Major Italian Neo-realists
Roberto Rossellini (1906-1977)
 Rossellini was named ―the father of modern film‖ by Cahiers du cinema. Along with Jean Renoir, he
was the most influential name among the international filmmakers. His first three films are The White
Ship (1941), A Pilot Returns (1942) and The Man with the Cross (1943), however, it was Roma, Citta
Aperta (Rome, Open City; 1945), which is regarded as one of the first major works of Italian neo-realism,
which cemented his position. The film weaves together a variety of stories of Romans during the
Occupation of Italy by the German forces. It was shot on locations with non-professional actors.
Rossellini‘s next film, Paisan (1946) contains six vignettes from the liberation of Italy, a chronicle of
1943-46, and was followed by Germany, Year Zero (1947). Germany, Year Zero is a devastating tale of
defeat and solitude, and in one of the scenes a recording of a Hitler speech echoes over the apocalyptic
landscape. Together, these three films provide us with great commentary on the then contemporary social
issues, at a time of political movements of global importance. Rossellini declared, ―I‘m not a pessimist; to
perceive evil where it exists is, in my opinion, a form of optimism‖. After a spate of neo-realist films,
made several films with Ingrid Bergman, and numerous documentaries on and about Italy. Subsequently,
Rossellini made a departure from the neo-realists, and made Stromboli (1950) with Ingrid Bergman, and a
comedy, Francis God‘s Jester, in the same year. He went on to make five other films with Bergman, now
his wife, including Europa‘51 and Viaggio in Italy. The landscape plays an important role in Viaggio, and
the cities of Naples, Capri, and Pompei are portrayed with great detail. A tireless innovator, Rossellini
successfully used the zoom in much of his later works. Soon he started working on a documentary India
(1958), at the invitation of the Prime Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.

Rossellini devoted the last twenty years of his life to making documentaries, many of which were for
television. Here he applied the techniques of neo-realism and psychological realism to illuminate the lives
of the great men in history. His last film was Italy: Year One (1974).
Vittorio De Sica (1901-74 )
 De Sica grew up in a lower middle-class district of Naples, and joined the stage. He began his career as
a leading man in light-hearted romantic films, but soon took to direction. This included a string of films
which reflected his social commitment, thereby challenging the escapist fare of Italian cinema in the
Fascist era. De Sica‘s Sciuscia (Shoeshine, 1947), scripted by the neo-realism theorist Cesare Zavattani
(also, the writer of Bicycle Thief), is an account of the shoeshine boys of the post-war Italy, and was shot
on real locations using non-professional actors. De Sica‘s Ladri Di Biciclette or The Bicycle Thief is
commonly regarded as the film that heralded Italian neorealism. An employed man, played by Lamberto
Maggioranni, is forced to steal a bicycle and is caught by a crowd. What makes the situation pathetic is
the fact that the man‘s bike, crucial to his job of bill-posting, is stolen. The film is characteristic of the
Italian neo-realism, with its use of non-professional actors and shooting on actual Roman locations. Its
influence can be felt on Satyajit Ray‘s Pather Panchali and films as recent as Children of Heaven (1999)
from Iran.
Federico Fellini (1920-93)
 The son of a commercial traveler, as a child, Fellini ran away from home to join the circus. Back in
Rome, he started his career as a cartoonist and illustrator. Fellini‘s early work reflects a preoccupation
with human weakness for illusion and loneliness. In La Strada (The Road; 1954), the film which won him
international recognition, Fellini unfolds a tale of travelling circus, a recurring milieu in his works. La
Dolce Vita (1960), an eloquent statement on life‘s excesses and the role of paparazzi in the modern times.
Featuring Marcello Mastroianni, Anouk Aimee and Anita Ekberg, it is a portrait of the decadent lifestyles
of the rich and the famous.
The plot centers on the exploits of a gossip journalist, played by Mastroianni, who covers the beat of
swinging Rome‘s party scene. Along with his companion, Maddalena (Anouk Aimee), Marcello travels in
the exclusive set of the rich and the bored, even as he looks for some meaning in his life. Fellini‘s next, 8
½ (1963), is a semiautobiographical account of an artist‘s creative process. The film traces a film director
Guido Anselmi‘s (or Fellini‘s, since it is partially based on the director‘s life) creative and personal life.
With a new project set to start and no script, the filmmaker has come to a dead end. Guido plumbs his
memories of childhood and his hidden desires for inspiration. One of his famous lines go, ―I have nothing
to say but I want to say it.‖ Originally titled A Beautiful Confusion, Fellini takes us through a
kaleidoscope of vivid (and often outlandish) images, hoping for his artistic rebirth.
Though there has been several interpretations offered for the film, the most satisfactory one is offered by
Fellini‘s long time friend and film writer, Tulio Kezich, ―His private universe, similar to the private
universe of any Italian male, is revealed here: the painful, oppressive parents…his wife and ―all the other
ladies‖; the circus of ambitions for his career; and the Catholic Church ─ merely a construction, or hope
for salvation. Guido is a director making a movie he can‘t focus on. At his side, there is a mean but not

stupid intellectual who pushes him toward an abyss of doubt and reveals his presumed creative
impotence‖ (Kezich 2006: 242). Fellini‘s cinematic partnership with actor Marcello Mastroianni is well
known. Fellini used the elegant actor as his onscreen persona in five films, including La Dolce Vita and 8
½.
No discussion of Fellini‘s can be complete without a mention of Giulietta Masina. A popular radio
actress, famous in Italy for her leading role in the Fellini-scripted soap Terzoglio (1942), Masina married
Fellini In 1943. Following their first movie together, Luci del varieta (1950), she had a small part as a
prostitute with a golden heart in La sceicco bianco (1952). Their partnership reached a peak with La
strada (1954), a fable about love, brutality and redemption that he wrote especially for her. Here Masina
plays an archetype, an epitome of innocence, and the film won the Oscar for best foreign film. Her next
major role was In Nights Of Cabiria (1957), Fellini's affectionate portrayal of Rome's lower class. Here,
playing a prostitute who survives on her dreams, Masina brings the same tragicomic intensity as she does
to La Strada.
Michelangelo Antonioni (1912-2007)
 Antonioni began his professional life as a critic, and was fired by Mussolini‘s regime for his leftist
views. Before turning into an independent director, he contributed to the screenplay of Rossellini‘s Un
pilota ritorna ( A Pilot Returns; 1942). His early films, such as the 1950 Chronicle of a Love Affair
(influenced by Visconti‘s Obsessione) and The Cry (1959), showed the influence of neo-realism, and
established his aesthetics of alienation.His other works include L‘Avventura (1960), L‘eclisse (1962),
Blow up (1966), and Zabriskie Point (an MGM production, 1970).L‘Avventura, often regarded as the first
modern arthouse film, shows little interest in a young woman‘s sudden disappearance , and instead
focuses on the lives and behavior of her friends.
In The Passenger (1975), there is a scene where Jack Nicholson‘s reporter sits in a state of anguish in the
middle of a desert, as his jeep breaks down. Through long, travelling shots Antonioni makes us
understand the loneliness of his protagonist.
Legacy of Italian Neorealism
Neorealism had a deep impact on the French New Wave, as evidence that films can be made without
huge production values and stars. Soon a second generation of Italian directors came into prominence and
they followed the neorealist model in their early films. Some of these names are: Pier Paolo Pasolini
(1922-75), Bernardo Bertolucci (1941-), Marco Bellocchio (1939- ), and Ermanno Olmi (1931-).
Pier Paolo Pasolini (1922-75)
 Widely respected as a poet, novelist and director, Passolin is one of the most controversial and
ambitious of filmmakers. His writings were scandalous and iconoclastic, and celebrated the low-lives of
the Italian society─pimps, hustlers, prostitutes, and thieves. The Gospel According to Matthew (1964)
was filmed in the district of Basilicata and its capital, Matera. Shot in a neo-realistic style (without a
screenplay), Passolini‘s Christ was a non-professional Spanish student of economics; and Mary at the
time of Crucifixion is Passolini‘s own mother, the director uses simple cameras and minimal sets. His

depiction of Jesus is more along the lines of a messiah for the countercultural times, and an angry young
man. Much of the dialogues in the film are in a debating style, where a question is answered with a
question or a parable. The director‘s anti-capitalistic views are clearly felt as Jesus often rebukes the rich
and the powerful, and condemn the materialistic society.
Bernardo Bertolucci (1940-)
 Bernardo Bertolucci started his career as Pier Paolo Passolini‘s assistant on Accatone; and later based
his film La commare secca (1962) on a script by Passolini. He gained recognition from Before the
Revolution (1964), which concerns a young man‘s inability to break away from his bourgeois values and
fully commit himself to Marxist ideals. The Conformist (1970), based on a novel by Alberto Moravia,
explores the psychology of a young man who is hired by Italian Fascists to assassinate his former
professor in France. The film is an amazing study of tussle between authority and rebellion.
French new wave
Do you know who is an author? Of course, you do. But do you know what is ―auteurism‘? Or what is
―auteur theory‖? Let us first understand that auteur is a French term for author. In film lexicon, however,
an ―auteur‖ is not a writer, but a director. We might ask how does a director become an auteur?
Well, it all began on March 30, 1948, when Alexander Astruc, a literary critic-cum-cineaste, published an
article, ―Le camera stylo‖, in L‘Ecranfrancaise, announcing a New Wave in cinema. Astruc based his
article on analogy, comparing a film director to a novelist, whereby a camera became a pen. The
comparison implied that cinema had a language of its own. The idea was clear: to elevate cinema to the
level of the other arts, and to emphasize on its personal and psychological value.
Francois Truffaut built on this idea a few years later when he wrote his celebrated ―A Certain Tendency in
the French Cinema‖ (1954), a theoretical essay that paved the way for the French New Wave. It ridiculed
the ―tradition of quality,‖ evident in films by the likes of Claude Autant-Lara and Jean Dellanoy, where
the script was paramount and the emphasis was on psychological realism and tasteful, artistic production
values. Together, Truffaut-Astruc challenged the conventional idea that film is a producer‘s medium,
causing the idea of politiques des auteurs to become a central concept of the Cahiers and the New Wave.
The nouvelle vague relied on a close relationship between criticism and filmmaking, that is, the films
were informed by manifestos by film critics who often became directors themselves. The Cahiers critics
formed their pantheon of important auteur-directors, including Jean Renoir, Robert Bresson, Jean
Cocteau, Max Ophuls, Jacques Tati, Jacques Becker, Alfred Hitchcock, Samuel Fuller, Howard Hawke,
Nicholas Ray, Jean Vigo, and so on. Though the auteur theory has been hotly debated since its inception,
it nevertheless, is an important tool to understand films through an understanding of the directors and
their body of works.
The first of the Cahiers critics to come up with a film was Chabrol with Le beau Serge (1958), followed
by Truffaut with The 400 Blows. Both films tackle the theme of coming of age, and were largely filmed
on location. Other films, such as Rohmer‘s Le signe dulion (1959) and Rivette‘s Paris nous appartient
(1960) followed; but it was with Godard‘s A bout de soufflé that the New Wave arrived with a bang. The

nouvelle vague officially lasted from 1959-60, but it had a lasting effect on later French and international
films in that particular auteur-centric cinema also developed in the United States, Germany, Great Britain,
Brazil, Japan, Poland, and the Czech Republic.
In the ensuing sections, you will learn a great deal about the nouvelle vague and its champions.
Film noir and the French New Wave
During World War II, American films were not screened in occupied (Vichy) France. This meant that
immediately after the War, there was a great demand for Hollywood products. Some of the much-
appreciated films were: The Maltese Falcon (1941), Citizen Kane (1941), Double Indemnity (1944) and
Laura (1944). Through these films, the French cinephiles recognized that a key event had taken place.
Most of these films were based on the popular novels by writers, such as Dashiell Hammett, Raymond
Chandler, James Cain, and many others. Film noir combined the hard-boiled prose of these writers with
European Expressionist cinematography, which immensely appealed to the Cahiers critics. We will learn
more about film noir in chapter 8, The Golden Age of Hollywood.
The first issue of Cahiers du cinema
In April 1951, the first issue of Cahiers du cinema appeared. The magazine‘s presiding figure was Andere
Bazin, who worked in the postwar French cine-club movement, and contributed to the Revue du cinema
and other journals. For Cahiers, Bazin and his associates hired young writers from cine-club newsletters,
the regulars of the Cinémathèque Francaise who later formed the nucleus of the French New Wave, for
example, Eric Rohmer, Jacques Rivette, Francois Truffaut, Claude Chabrol, and Jean-Luc Godard. They
favored Hollywood genre films over the ―quality‖ French cinema.
A striking feature of this group of writers was that they defended the films they loved and ripped apart the
ones they hated. They treated film criticism as a means of confrontation, where the goal was to change
how films were viewed and how they were made.
Within the next few years, the group‘s first films came out. Cahiers du cinema can be credited with
marking a permanent change in criticism and filmmaking.
The ―first‖ film of French New Wave Title: Bob Le Flambeur (1955) Director: Jean-Pierre Melville Cast:
Roger Duchesne, Isabelle Corey, Daniel Cauchy The Plot: A heist film, where the central character
assembles a gang of friends and experts to crack the safe of a casino. Did you know? The director Jean-
Pierre Melville played a cameo in Godard‘s Breathless. He went on to direct films such as Le Cercle
Rouge (1970) and Le Samourai (1967). Legacy: The film has influenced many directors: Stanley Kubrick
in The Killing, Paul Thomas Anderson in Hard Eight, Neil Jordan in The Good Thief, Quentin
Tarantino‘s Reservoir Dogs, and Lewis Milestone and Steven Soderbergh for their Ocean‘s series.
The French masters
Alain Resnais (1922- )
 Resnais studied film editing at France‘s first film school, IDHEC. After leaving college, he directed a
couple of documentaries, including the celebrated Night and Fog (1955), a highly evocative work on the
horrors of Auschwitz. Influenced by comics, graphic novels and the experimental works of the French

writer Marcel Proust and the German writer Franz Kafka, Resnais‘s works reflect homage to all three. In
fact, Resnais‘s films illustrate a crossover between the developments in nouveau roman (new novel) and
the nouvelle vague cinema.,
In his first film, Hiroshima mon amour (1959), based on a screenplay by the new wave author Marguerite
Duras, Resnais draws on the experience of his documentary short films. A French actress (Emmanuelle
Riva) is having an affair with a Japanese architect (Eiji Okada) in Hiroshima where she has come for a
film shooting. Resnais uses documentary footage of the 1945 bombing of the city, and as a matter of fact,
the film began as a documentary about Hiroshima and the bomb). A remarkable moment in the film
occurs when Riva looks at her lover (Okada) sleeping, his outstretched right hand twitching slightly. This
leads with a jolt to the memory of the twitching arm of her dying German lover, almost fifteen years
earlier, as she kisses his blood-soaked face. The near Proustian scene is a brilliant example of shock cut in
cinema.
Resnais‘s surrealist Last Year at Marienbad (L‘année derrière a Marienbad, 1961) is a film about loss and
regret. Students of literature would be familiar with the legend of the German writer Johann Wolfgang
von Goethe falling in love with a young girl at Marienbad. Rejected by her, he penned a personal poem
―Marienbad Elegy.‖
Resnais sets the scene in an elegant baroque castle, which has been converted into a luxury hotel. A
haven for the rich, the clientele spend their time with card games, theatre performance and strolling in the
Baroque garden outside. Based on a screenplay by the nouveau roman novelist Alain Robbe-Grillet, the
film is a puzzle involving three characters: A (Woman), X (her lover, or claims to be) and M (her husband
or even a figure of authority). The film is narrated by X, who tells A that they met last year, and were
lovers. A has, or at least claims to, no recollection of this affair; and pleads X to leave her alone. X recalls
a death, still A does not remember anything.
Marienbad‘s formidable reputation rests on its status as a puzzle that can never be solved, where the
director flouts all the traditional cinematic rules between subjective and objective points of view. Like in
most works of Resnais, the past weighs like a nightmare and memory plays havoc with the characters. A
poetic work, Marienbad enjoys its status as a touchstone of modernist cinema.
Resnais‘s other works include Muriel ou le Temps d‘un Retour (1963), Providence (1977), and Mon
Oncle d‘Amerique (1980). His most recent work is Wild Grass (2010), which is a tale of an old man‘s
now-or-never reckless adventure. The open-ended film deploys colour as an animating force. Based on
Christian Gailly‘s novel L‘incident, Wild Grass concerns the chance encounter of a man and a woman.
The inciting ―incident‖ is the theft of the woman‘s yellow handbag and the man‘s discovery of her red
wallet, which the thief has discarded. The film opened to positive reviews, and Resnais was particularly
appreciated for the use of music, the bold camera movements and the voiceover narration with its
constant shifts between first-and third-person address.
Francois Truffaut (1932-84)
 One of the most influential figures of the French New Wave, Truffaut was also the most commercially
successful of the post New Wave group. He was greatly influenced by the American B-film, film noir,

and the works of Alfred Hitchcock and Jean Renoir. An early meeting with Andre Bazin transformed the
young delinquent into a passionate critic of cinema.
Les Quatre cents coups (The 400 Blows, 1959): Truffaut put all his ideas into practice while making his
first feature. The young protagonist, Antoine Doinel (Jean-Pierre Leaud), is a result of an unwanted
pregnancy─ like Truffaut. The boy lives in a match-box of an apartment in Paris with his mother and
stepfather. Faced with an indifferent mother and antagonistic teachers, Antoine seeks solace in the
company of his friend, stories by Balzac and cinema. Shot on real Paris locations, Truffaut pays homage
to the process of filmmaking when young Antoine rides in an amusement-park centrifuge which
resembles a zoetrope in its earlier avatars. Interestingly, the title literally means, ―raising hell.‖
One of the most heart-warming scenes in the film is where Antoine‘s otherwise distracted mother
embraces him like never before, showers him, tucks him in bed, and confides in him about her own
misfortunes. She promises him money if he scores top marks in English composition. Inspired, Antoine
reads Balzac and is so enamored that he makes a shrine for the writer and lights a candle. The shrine
catches fire and Antoine is at the receiving end of his father‘s temper, when the mother intervenes again.
She suggests they all go watch a film and it becomes the only happy night in Antoine‘s life, full of
laughter, music and ice cream. Next day, Antoine is reprimanded at school again, and is accused of
plagiarizing Balzac‘s writings in a composition ―the death of my grandfather.‖
Gradually sinking into delinquency, he is placed in a reform home. As the film draws to an end, Antoine
manages to escape from the reform school and runs towards the sea. Upon reaching it, he turns and looks
into the camera, as his image suddenly zooms in and freezes. The scene can be interpreted in different
ways, one of which is there is, after all, no escape for juvenile delinquents. The camera implicates
different social institutions for the irresolvable situation: society at large, family as a unit, parents, and the
education system. The shot can also be read as a call for help from the audience, thereby disrupting the
filmic spectacle.
The 400 Blows, dedicated to Andre Bazin, is considered one of the greatest films of the French New
Wave; and has crystallized Truffaut‘s reputation as a modern filmmaker.
Truffaut‘s second film Tirezsur le pianiste or Shoot the Piano Player (1960) was not a commercial success
when it first opened but has gained reputation as a classic over the years. It owes its popularity to a
confounding mix of genres: gangster, comedy, with elements of noir thrown in.
Jules and Jim (Jules et Jim, 1961): Adapted from a novel, this sensitive film is about two close friends,
Jules and Jim, who fall in love with the same woman, Catherine, are separated by World War I, and later
try to live together in a ménage a trois. The situation is made possible because Jules, married to Catherine,
would rather tolerate infidelity than lose either one of them. The crisis is brought about as Catherine,
realizing the hopelessness of their situation, one day shows up with her new motorcar. She invites Jim to
take a ride and tells Jules to watch them. She then drives straight off the edge of an unfinished bridge,
thus, killing both herself and Jim.
After directing ―Antoine et Colette‖ for the anthology film L‘Amoura vingtans (1962), Truffaut produced
Le Peaudouce (The Soft Skin, 1964). His alter-ego, Antoine Doinel─each time played by Jean-Pierre

Leaud, was revisited in Stolen Kisses (1968), Bed and Board (1970) and Love on the Run (1979). The
adaptation of Ray Bradbury‘s Fahrenheit 451 (1966) was Truffaut‘s first film in colour and English.
La Nuitaméricaine (Day for Night, 1973) is a personal account of the precarious relationship between life
and illusion and the off-screen upheavals between the members of the film production team. Starring
Truffaut himself as a film director, there is a moment where he, as a boy, steals a poster of Citizen Kane
from the front of a theater. The film won an Academy Award for Best Foreign Film, and is a glorious
tribute to filmmaking. If you watch Spielberg‘s Close Encounters of the Third Kind, you will be sure to
notice Truffaut in an acting part. Though accused by some of his contemporaries, Godard included, of
selling out to commercialism, Truffaut at heart always remained a film enthusiast, capable of enjoying a
wide spectrum of films, irrespective of boundaries.
Truffaut died of a brain tumour in 1984; he was fifty-two years old, and left behind twenty-one films.
Jean-Luc Godard (1930- )
 Born to a Swiss-French family in Paris, Godard started his career as a film critic. He wrote in Cahiers,
―The whole New Wave can be defined, in part, by its new relationship to fiction and reality.‖
A bout de soufflé (Breathless, 1960): ―Modern movies begin here,‖ says Roger Ebert. ―No debut film
since Citizen Kane in 1941 has been as influential.‖The plot in Breathless centres on Michel (Jean-Paul
Belmondo), a petty Parisian crook, who has just murdered a policeman. Anxious to flee the country, he
persuades his girlfriend Patricia (Jean Seberg) to accompany him. The title suggests ―at the end of breath‖
and true to the spirit of the title, the film races to the beat of the (anti) hero‘s on-the-run, edgy lifestyle.
The film‘s ending, like several aspects of the film, has an ambiguity to it. The dying hero, betrayed by his
girlfriend, looks at her, strikes poses and utters, ―C'est vraiment dégueulasse,‖ translated by a bystander
as, ―You are really a little bitch.‖ The expression can also mean, ―disgusting‖ or suggest a feeling of
nausea, famously invoked by the French philosopher, Jean-Paul Sartre. Patricia, at this point, turns her
head away from Michel, the camera and from the spectators. Few films have understood the existentialist
view of society, human condition, and cinema itself in a better way.
As a key film of the French New Wave, Breathless rejected the well-made traditional French cinema and
adapted an edgier and more experimental style. You would be surprised to know how many exponents of
French New Wave collaborated on Breathless: original story by Truffaut, production design by Chabrol,
and acting pats for the writer Daniel Boulanger, Jean–Pierre Melville as well as for Truffaut and Godard.
Notice how Michel (Belmondo) launches into monologue while driving along in his stolen car. Although
earlier too we had actors addressing the camera directly, for example, Groucho Marx and Bob Hope, but
in Breathless we find the screen as a space where private freedom could be indulged.
Breathless also made a star out of Jean-Paul Belmondo, a former amateur boxer. Like James Dean and
Marlon Brando, he became a role model for a generation. Jean Seberg, with her short hair, became a style
icon for the young girls of her time. Breathless has been that one film to which time has been extremely
kind. Enthusiastically received on its release, film critics celebrated its 60th anniversary in 2010 by
positive reviews and appreciation. An academic website, http://cinemagodardcinema.wordpress.com/, is
also devoted to active discussion of Godard and his works.

The film was remade with Richard Gere in 1983, and was set in Los Angeles. A debacle on all fronts, it
prompted Alan Resnais to comment, ―Richard Gere is a non-smoker. No one could act as well as
Belmondo with a cigarette in his mouth.‖
Godard‘s other important features include Le Petit Soldat (The Little Soldier, 1960), which was banned
by the French government for three years because it commented on the Algerian War; A Woman is a
Woman (1961), a musical; Contempt (1963), a defiant take on Alberto Moravia‘s novel with Fritz Lang,
Brigitte Bardot, and Michel Piccoli; Alphaville, a noir sci-fi; Pierrot le fou, a road film with Belmondo;
and My Life to Live.
Godard and ‘jump cut’
The jump cut involves an uncanny jolt in a film‘s progress, drawing the viewers‘ attention to disturbing
elision of time and space. A film might cut abruptly from one location to the next without any attempt to
employ those devices or matches of eyeline that are essential for continuity. It was the French pioneer
Georges Melies who first recognized that a jump cut could generate magical or comic effects if the
appearance of a subject filmed from a single vantage point was altered between shots.
Although Godard was not the first to use or think about the possibilities of a jump cut, modern use of the
technique has more or less come to be associated with him. Breathless, as a finished film was long by
thirty minutes and instead of cutting out whole scenes or sequences, Godard chose to trim within scenes,
thus creating the jagged cutting style.
Silent Era 9 (Raja Harishchandra)
he 3rd May of 1913 marked the event that changed the way India saw entertainment and popular
culture forever. Raja Harishchandra, the first full-length feature film ever made in India, paved

the way for other movie productions down the century. It was produced, directed and co-screen-
written by Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, whom we today respectfully call Dadasaheb Phalke.
Phalke, in fact spent his personal savings to make the film.
The film, Raja Harishchandra belonged to the silent genre of movies, ran for about 40 minutes,
and was made by an entirely Indian cast and crew. It was based on the mythological story of a
king who was so righteous and honest that he sacrificed his kingdom, wife, and son to keep a
promise to Rishi Vishwamitra. God eventually, impressed with his nobility and integrity, blessed
him with divinity and returned what he had taken from him.
Phalke chose his film's subject as Raja Harishchandra for mainly two reasons. First, it was one of
the most popular stories played on stage, and second because he was highly inspired by Raja
Ravi Verma's paintings of the story.
Since Raja Harishchandra, the landscape of Indian cinema has kept on expanding.
On the 104th year of the film, we bring to you some interesting facts about this first Indian
film:
 Raja Harishchandra, the first Indian feature film, was only four reels long. The run-time was
around 40 minutes and the production took seven months and 21 days to complete
 It was released on April 21 in 1913. It was first screened at the Olympia Theatre, Grant Road in
Mumbai where press representatives and other famous guests were invited to watch. Later, it had
a public release at the Coronation Cinema
 The film was directed by Dadasaheb Phalke, who is dubbed as the Father of Indian Cinema
 Dadasaheb Phalke set up a studio at Dadar Main Road in Mumbai. He created the sets for the
film inspired by Raja Ravi Verma's paintings on Hindu mythology
 The film depicts the story of the noble and righteous king Harishchandra, who sacrifices his
kingdom, his wife and eventually his children to honour his promise to sage Vishwamitra.
However, in the end, pleased by his high morals, the Gods return his glory, and bestow him with
blessings
 Marathi theatre actor Dattatraya Damodar Dabke played the character of Raja Harishchandra
 Phalke searched for a female actor to play Harishchandra's wife Queen Taramati. The
conservative society of British India barred women from performing in theatre or films. He
approached nautch girls but it yielded no result
 The role of queen Taramati in the film was played by a man. When Phalke was unable to find
women to act in films, he decided to cast a man for the role of queen Taramati. He choose
Annasaheb Salunke, a delicate-postured cook at a restaurant, to play the role. Salunke agreed. He
later went on to become a celebrated actor for female roles and a cinematographer
Here are a few firsts in Indian Cinema you probably didn't know:
Almost the first:
Although Raja Harishchandra takes the credit of being the first Indian film, Dadasaheb Torne's
film Shree Pundalik was released on 18 May 1912 in Bombay, one year before Raja
Harishchandra. However, Shree Pundalik was a recording of a play with a fixed camera and the
film's production was done in London, plus it had a British camera-person. This certainly takes
away the 'Indian' tag from Shree Pundalik.
Social Cinema (Mother India)

A defining film in the history of Bollywood, the Hindi film industry based in Bombay, Mehboob
Khan's ''Mother India'' (1957) is often said to have helped set the pattern for the nearly 50 years
of Indian film that has followed it. Filmed in the highly unstable Gevacolor process, this
nationalist epic is a sprawling, three-hour melodrama with plenty of time out for anomalous
musical numbers and situation comedy. Its central character is a peasant woman, Radha (Nargis),
whose determination to weather all forms of social and personal adversity without compromising
her honor becomes a symbol of India's own pride as an ancient culture and a new democracy.
The film is at once a sort of Indian ''Stella Dallas,'' which finds the heroine making sacrifice after
sacrifice on behalf of her family, and a ''Gone With the Wind''-style epic of social change.
When Radha is first married, she discovers that her mother has gone into debt with the heartless
local money lender, Sukhilala (Kanhaiyalal), to finance the lush festivities. But a marriage that
begins in debt is already in danger. Gradually Radha and her husband (Raaj Kumar) are forced to
sell off much of their land and cattle to finance the exorbitant interest the moneylender demands.
When the husband loses both arms in a farming accident and can no longer support his family, he
runs away in shame, leaving Radha with their two young sons. At this point ''Mother India''
shades into ''Mother Courage.''
Determined to bring her boys up properly, Radha works her fingers to the bone on what's left of
the farm. Although the evil moneylender is always skulking around, offering to take Radha as his
wife, she resists the insult to her honor and chastity. Through strength of will she brings her boys
into adulthood, producing the sober, responsible Ramu (Rajendra Kumar) and the impish,
irresponsible but irresistibly charming Birju (Sunil Dutt, who later married Nargis).
''Mother India'' opens today for a one-week engagement at the Walter Reade Theater in Lincoln
Center, where it is being shown in a print restored by the British Film Institute. The Indian
climate has clearly taken its toll on the delicate dyes of the color negative, and many of the film's
most spectacular effects can be imagined only from the fading traces left on the screen.

The film is mostly remembered for the fictional character Radha and Nargis‘s portrayal of the
same. She exemplifies courage and greater sacrifices throughout the film. She is even bribed by
Sukhilala, the money lender, to sell herself, however she refuses and chooses to face the dire
consequences instead. It was a unique experience for the audiences too for there never was a film
with a female protagonist before, and that too a woman who glorified womanhood.
There are many great scenes in the film. It was reported, the local villager willingly flooded his
500 acre land for the famous flood scene in the film. Sunil Dutt as Birju, the youngest son, shines
throughout with his unique charm and rebellious attitude. It is for his attitude, that he gets killed
in the end. He is killed by his own mother who refuses to let him take away a women‘s dignity.
In the shocking scene, Radha shoots him without a single doubt whatsoever.
Rajendra Kumar, Rajkumar and especially Kanhaiyalal as Sukhilala beautifully carried their
respective roles.
Parallel Cinema (Ankur)

The obscure village Yellareddiguda, 25 kms from Hyderabad, stands awaiting director Shyam
Benegal‘s fade-in in Ankur (The Seedling). The year is approximately 1945. As drum beats grow
louder, a skein in the distance unwinds a procession of village pilgrims threading their way to a
shrine. They are an unsmiling stoic company, following an exaggerated young acrobat whose
virility is set in immediate contrast against the low caste deaf mute of the village – Kishtaya
(played movingly by Sadhu Meher). Kishtaya‘s young wife Lakshmi (Shabana Azmi in her
stunning debut) stands before the mother goddess and prays for a child.
When she conceives, it is after an illicit relationship with the sharp-eyed, sharp-nosed and sharp-
tongued Surya (Anant Nag), the landlord‘s son who arrives at Yellareddiguda with his
gramophone, cigarettes, film magazines, inbred arrogance and impotent fury. Surya‘s father had
put an end to Surya‘s squandering in the city, refused him graduate study, and arranges his
marriage to a child bride before exiling Surya to a landlord‘s life at Yellareddiguda. After the
news of Surya‘s misdemeanors in the village – including his affair with the lower caste Lakshmi
– reaches his father, there is a confrontation between the dominating father and his upstart son.
Surya‘s wife Saroj (Priya Tendulkar), is sent to the village to ensure stability. This is when
Surya‘s character is given more dimension than that of an overbearing bored brat throwing his
weight about. In essaying the weakness of Surya‘s character, Nag turns in a commanding
performance.
Like its name, here is a film that grows on you gradually, taking you into a world you and I
almost forgot: a world where chillies are pounded, goats are tethered, the poor live in huts and
the word of the landlord is law. Made way back in 1974 — for some 14 years before that Shyam
Benegal had taken the story to different producers before finding help from Blaze — ―Ankur‖, it
seems, was made the other day. There is a bewitching familiarity to the film that allows no rust
to settle; more like a family album that you open once every few years, dust and admire. Smiles
never fade. It is like yesterday never died.
On the surface, it is yet another landlord-mistress tale. However, the essence comes when one
goes beyond the surface. Then it becomes an indictment of the socio-economic order. Without
ever resorting to polemics, Benegal talks of social inequities, a world where the village landlord
with nothing more than a high school certificate is ‗mai-baap‘, a city boy who has the entire
village at his service: masseur and maid, barber and priest all minister to his needs and whims.
At one time the zamindar looked after his mistress giving her some cash, some crops and a plot
of land. Not so anymore. Now only one principle applies: show me the man, I will show you the
rule. Yet it is in such an atmosphere that the seedling (ankur) for change is laid. Again, it is done
without a sermon or a diatribe: advised strongly by the young landlord Surya (Anant Nag) to
abort his child to avoid infamy, Lakshmi (Shabana Azmi) merely asks, ―Must I alone feel the
shame?‖ Winds of change blowing in the quiet village!
Shot in a hamlet called Yellareddiguda near Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh, the film is replete
with symbolism. In the opening sequence we have a nat (acrobat) performing in front of a long
procession which includes the heroine seeking to propitiate the deity for fertility. All around we
have cows happily nibbling away, birds chirp in the background and the grass is green. Under
her feet though is an uneven field full of thorns, stone and mortar! The symbolism continues with
the introduction to the hero: one moment he is a happy young man who has cleared his school
exams, next moment as his father puts a brake on his ambition to study further, he stands behind
a window, its grills appearing more like the bars of a jail. Benegal explores fine details here: the

young man‘s plan is conveyed to the father by the mother — quietly, mother is shown to be the
bridge between a headstrong husband and a youthful son, a throwback to the age when a son did
not speak in the presence of his father. Similarly, even as the young man seethes at his father‘s
extramarital relationship, he is advised against voicing his opinion by his mother who feels she
can protect her space. Appropriately, she is winnowing all the while. She is the real stuff, the
chaff can just go away!
Similarly, when the young man, who is earlier shown sharing moments of camaraderie with his
city-bred friends, arrives in the village, he is greeted by a bleak house: no electricity, discoloured
walls, peeling plaster and soot-laden entrance. All is calm, all is quiet. No complaints, no
expectations. It is a timeless world with no signs of change. It is here that Govind Nihalani
brings all his expertise into play; his camera captures the unsaid: when the young landlord sits on
the chair, his maid, Lakshmi, sits on the floor. The corridor of their coexistence highlights the
gap in their social status. Similarly, when the young man deals with Police Patel, the latter, a
Muslim who speaks Dakhni Urdu, welcomes him by immediately giving up his smug posture. A
little later, when Surya gives a temple donation, he gives it with his left hand, not aware that all
such things are done with the right hand. The priest points out the anomaly. Much later in the
film, when Surya advises Lakshmi to leave the village, darkness envelops them even as the grass
appears verdant in the background.
Yet, Surya, himself is a harbinger of change: to the dismay of the pujari, he eats food cooked by
Lakshmi, who is the wife of Kishtiya, a kumhar (Sadhu Meher). There too lies a little tale.
Kishtiya is unemployed today because people no longer eat in earthen pots, preferring aluminium
utensils! Also, though Surya marries a girl yet to come of age — Priya Tendulkar in a debut role
— he agrees to bide his time till she grows up. Later, when his wife joins him, she quietly ousts
his mistress from the house! History repeats itself, with a difference though: his father had given
his mistress a plot of land to look after herself, Surya asks her to vacate the village itself.
On such quiet comments, little asides ―Ankur‖ grows to be a story of change in gender equations.
And a veiled criticism of private enterprise which leaves the multitudes behind. It is one-of-a-
kind cinema, Benegal‘s first foray into direction, Shabana‘s first released film, Anant‘s first film,
and the forging of a fruitful partnership between Benegal and Nihalani until the latter became a
director in his own right. Interestingly, Benegal had offered Shabana‘s part to Waheeda first.
Shabana, in turn, had met Benegal for the role wearing a sari against her customary western
attire. Suitably impressed, he asked her to wear the saris she was to use in the film throughout the
shooting. She learnt to pound chillies. And perfect a quaint Dakhni accent in her Urdu.
Result? The best of arthouse cinema, a film that won three National Awards, 45 international
awards. And a film that proved a precursor to a new wave of cinema. The best seed of them all.
Diaspora Cinema (Namesake)

The word "diaspora" is derived from the Greek worddiasperien. It denotes the dispersion of a
population group or community of people from their country of birth or origin. Overseas
diasporas or transnational communities are created by international migration, forced or
voluntary, and are motivated by economic, political, and colonial factors. During classical
antiquity, "diaspora" referred to the exodus andexileof the Jews from Palestine. Later historical
references to "diaspora" are associated with the slave trade and forced migration of West
Africans to the "New World" in thesixteenthcentury. Twentieth-centuryformations include the
Palestinian and Armeniandiasporas. More recent diasporas originate from the Caribbean, Latin
America, South and East Asia, and Central Europe. As a subject area and critical category of
study, diaspora has become a theoretical tool in film studies, ethnic studies, and cultural studies,
among other fields, and resonates in debates and critiques of migration, identity, nationalism,
transnationality, and exile.
The second half of the twentiethcentury, referred to by some demographers as "the century of
migration," is distinguished by the magnitude, direction, and composition of international
migration, with women now constituting nearly 50 percent of international migrants. Several
factors have accelerated the movement of people across borders: globalizing economic processes
linked to the internationalizationof capital and the labor market, the cumulative effects of
political instability caused by ethnic strife and civil wars, population pressures, environmental
degradation, human rights violations, and the decline of transportation costs. Taken together,
these factors, along with worsening poverty that compounds the already vast inequalities among
the world's 6.4 billion population, account for the "global migration crisis" at the beginning of
the twenty-first century. It has affected an estimated 175 million people, who now reside outside
their country of origin and whose destination increasingly is North America, Asia, and Western
Europe. Globalizationand geopolitics, along with the rise of transnational media, accelerate

diasporic formations. Constituting "new" and hybrid ethnicities, diasporas disrupt the cultural
and social practices of the societies they inhabit. They also contest accepted ideas about
Western modernityand nationhood, especially racialized constructions related to citizenship.
Directed by Mira Nair; starring Kal Penn, Tabu, Irfan Khan, Jacinda Barrett, Zuleikha Robinson
If you want to study the difference between Bollywood and serious Indian film-makers, endure
Vipul Shah's Namastey London, which opened here last week, and then enjoy Mira Nair's The
Namesake, which opens this week. Both are about social and cultural change in the Indian
diaspora, and the arranged marriages of lively, intelligent daughters. But Namastey London is an
overblown, escapist fantasy featuring caricatures and stereotypes, regularly breaking into song
and dance and far removed from everyday life.
The Namesake, adapted by Sooni Taraporevala from a book by the Pulitzer Prize-winning
novelist Jhumpa Lahiri, is about the hopes, disappointments, pains and consolations of life over
some 40 years as experienced by Ashima (beautiful Bollywood star Tabu), a Bengali girl who
marries an Indian scientist Ashoke, (Irfan Khan), settles in America and has two children. The
film is dedicated to two towering figures from India's alternative cinema, Bengali directors
Ritwik Ghatak and Satyajit Ray, to whom Nair, who has made such films as Salaam Bombay and
Monsoon Wedding , is a worthy heir.
The movie begins in 1974 with Ashoke reading Gogol's collected stories on a train while being
lectured on the need to travel the world by a middle-aged fellow passenger. There's a sudden
crash which Ashoke miraculously survives. Three years later, while a graduate student of fibre
optics in New York, he returns to India to marry Ashima. She never quite settles in the States,
spending much of her time among fellow exiles from the subcontinent, though she does make
friends with a fellow librarian when the family move upmarket and up the Hudson to fashionable
Nyack.
They have two children, a boy, Gogol (Kal Penn), and a daughter, Sonia (Sahira Nair), who grow
up to be bright, middle-class Americans. Gogol studies architecture at Yale and plans to marry
the daughter of rich Wasps. Sonia settles in California with a white American boy.
Though full of incident and sharp observation and extremely well-acted, this elliptical movie
constantly jumps several years in a single cut and the characters are on the thin side. The overall
feeling is of a six-hour mini-series cut down to 122 minutes for theatrical release.
Still, it is a considerable achievement, assured, moving, often very funny. Its title refers to Gogol
the writer and Ashima's son, and, at first, we think it is some sort of whim connected with
Ashoke's amazing survival. His son reacts against the name and, as a student, exchanges it for
Nick, which derives from his other name. But it transpires that Ashoke thinks the Russian
author's career and work reflect his own life of exile and disappointment, and he remarks that 'we

all come out of Gogol's "Overcoat"', an observation variously attributed to Dostoevsky, Tolstoy
and Turgenev. Anyway, the film sent me back to 'The Overcoat'.
Foucault‘s objective ―has been to create a history of the different modes by which in our
culture, human beings are made subjects‖ (Rabinow, p.7). This line reiterates the basis of
films, where characters or human bodies are also made into subjects within framed context,
propagating a histography of culture through the different genres of horror, comedy amongst
others, but more forcefully through Third World Cinema. In this respect The Namesake,
undeniably sheds some light on how culture affects the dislocated body but also moulds an
identity and thereby creating the sentiment of empathy with its spectators. This is a film
―culturally rooted‖ in Third Cinema which dwells amidst the complexities of the
intermingling of two cultures and a search for identity which eventually culminates in the
triumph of knowing, who you are.
The Namesake has been directed by Mira Nair and is based on the novel written by Jhumpa
Lahiri of the same title. The film would be categorised as Third Cinema which as per its
definition, involves ―a wider circle of the cinematic productions of Third World people
(retroactively defined as such), whether or not the films adhere to the principles of Third
Cinema and irrespective of the period of their making‖ (Shohat and Stam, p.28) but at the
same time it would also be called a diasporic film ―…which both build on and interrogates
the convention of Third Cinema‖ (Shohat and Stam, p.28). Diasporic films lead to ―Third
World‖ cinema being made and supported financially in the ―First World‖. In this sense we
can say that there has been an acceptance with regards to diasporic films, even if on a rather
minute scale. Initially though, post-colonial films like ―Road of Life (1980), Hour of the
Furnaces (1968)‖( Shohat and Stam, p.29) among many others dealt mainly with political
issues but The Namesake deals with the issues of the dislocated body as a result of those
same post-colonial effect of race and identity. The film revolves around a Bengali family
but Mira Nair takes a polycentric multiculturalist approach, rather than targeting a particular
group of people or a segment of society. The film tries to bind people together and speaks to
everyone irrespective of their cultural background within a reality that exists. We can say
that The Namesake is an experiential piece of work since it embodies the reality of Mira
Nair and Jhumpa Lahiri‘s lives, of also being part of a diaspora.
The story of The Namesake is set for the most part in America. Ashoke Ganguli who has

been studying in America for the past two years goes back to his hometown, Calcutta, India,
and marries a Bengali girl, Ashima. Together they head back to the USA and embark on
their new journey there. They eventually have a son Gogol and a daughter Sonia. The plot
revolves around this family and the intricacies that come with being first generation migrant
bound so much to their tradition and bringing up second generation American-Indians
perpetually conflicted by identity crisis. The Namesake‘s opening credit shifts continuously
from Bengali script to English presenting the ambiguous nature of the film‘s theme which is
that of cultural identity. This could either be seen as a crisis between east and west or a
harmonizing nature depicted through the mélange of both languages.
A large number of diasporic films ―explore the identitary complexities of exile- from one‘s
own geography, from one‘s own history, from one‘s own body- within innovative narrative
strategies‖ (Shohat and Stam, p.318). The Namesake does not deal with forced exile in the
literal sense but an existentialist choice that Ashoke and Ashima made, which nonetheless
depicts the same sentiments of being in exile which is strewn about all over the film through
the experience of isolation. In the beginning of the film, a contrast has been made between
India which has been shot in a very colourful décor with a crowd of family at the airport
bidding Ashima and Ashoke farewell and the consecutive scene portraying an almost
deserted like, snowy and grey America. The wintery atmosphere outside is reflected in the
couple‘s room which also seems very gloomy. This creates a stark difference setting the
tone for the film that Mira Nair has tried to create inorder to enhance this feeling of
loneliness one feels in a foreign land through strategic use of a fitting colour palette. It grips
the viewer and everybody can easily identify to this scene of loneliness which Walter
Benjamin had rightly said regarding ―…cinematic intelligibility in terms of ‗tactile
appropriation‘ and elsewhere he speaks to the viewer‘s ‗mimetic faculty‘ a sensuous and
bodily form of perception‖ (Sobchack, p.55), which is so true since one feels the loneliness
through the body, where you feel like just curling up your body in a cocoon to protect
yourself against the slicing loneliness while watching this scene. As we go through this
scene and relating back to Ashima‘s traditional ways, there is a part where she prepares
some cornflakes which is traditionally a very American food, but instead of pouring milk in
it, she puts chilli powder, this can come as a bit of surprise to the western audience. Having
the cornflakes this way is part of her cultural background and identity, for it is the only way
she has learnt to eat it. This scene on the other hand also reveals her first experience of being

in a new country to which she would have to adapt and learn certain rules of the road in
order to build her niche and fit in. Globally, very little is known about other cultures outside
of the western context, where most people naturally would not know that India has a dish
which is quite like cornflakes but is called chivda or chaat eaten with spice or massala .
Ashima would simply be seen here as defying what is accepted as ―normal‖. Another way of
translating this scene could be through the dependency theory, where there is an
unacceptance of the Eurocentric ways. The west blamed Third World nation‘s
underdevelopment due to the fact that they kept to their cultural traditions rather than
following in the latter‘s footsteps . Ashima also wearing her sari throughout the film shows
her firm relationship in keeping with her tradition and at the same time evolving and
learning what is best from her new environment.
Another equally important character in the film is that of Gogol, and as the name of the film
implies, The Namesake, Gogol has been named after the Russian, Nikolai Gogol, who was
Ashoke‘s favourite author. The story of Gogol Ganguli is that of an American-Indian boy
and his struggle in situating himself in between these two worlds where he is bound to a
hyphenated identity . He situates himself within a present culture but brings on the luggage
of another, where one is always more obvious then the other, for if Gogol is based simply on
the appearance, he would be termed as an Indian but if by his accent an American. It is
tautological but whereby any meaning leads to that same individual. Gogol‘s case is
complex, for he is American-Indian but has a funny Russian name which makes him the
centre of taunts. The Namesake tries to evade from that usual conflict of a person from any
diaspora who faces having a traditional name, which becomes hard to pronounce and
therefore the name is westernised. In the film Gogol‘s name is changed to Nikhil to make it
easier on the boy, but as one family friend in the film rightly remarks that the name would
be regressed as Nick, and that obviously happens later on. The actor playing Gogol in The
Namesake is known internationally as Kal Penn but his real name is actually Kalpen Suresh
Modi, who is American born like his character, and it seems in order to survive and be more
acceptable in Hollywood, he had to change his name as well. There is pun intended in the
closing credit of the film as well, through the list of the cast next to Gogol, Kal Penn is
written and next to Nikhil you have Kalpen Modi. As Gogol grows up and taking the name
of Nikhil, there is a distance that has been formed between his parents and himself. He is
living his own life, which at times is difficult for Ashima but she is constantly reminded by

Ashoke that ―this is America‖ and children do as they please. Amongst these conflicting
cultures at times, it becomes difficult for children to situate themselves. Nikhil ultimately
ends up dating a white American girl, Maxine, and feels closer with her family than his
own. Her family represents the mass and the culture he has been trying to emulate while
growing up. Even though he is very much accepted by them, he is introduced as the Indian
Architect to their friends and his name instead of being Nikhil is pronounced as Nikool.
Analysing this, there comes the issue of ―denial of difference and the denial of sameness‖
(Shohat and Stam, p.24). Here Maxine‘s family denies he is different but at the same time
denies he is similar to them. When Gogol takes Maxine home to meet his parents, he tells
her not to hold hands or touch him infront of his parents, because they are not used to these
public displays. It reflects his obeisance to the culture that he is trying hard to escape, which
could be seen as an unconscious acceptance of it as well and here his own denial of
difference and sameness. Quite often it happens that minority groups are so under scrutiny
that it makes them feel that being part of that minoritarian group is wrong, they are therefore
in a continuous rebellion with themselves in trying to prove they can be the ―other‖.
Althusser argued that ideology which asserts itself through cultural and social institutions
and practices ―hails or ―interpellates‖ us. Individuals do not exist prior to or apart from
systems of ideology-they are produced as effects of it . The recurrent theme of The
Namesake is about asserting ideology while building and assuming your identity without
refuting any aspect that makes you that unique individual person. When Ashoke passes
away in the film, it brings on a transformation in Gogol, he is guilt ridden for not always
being present for his parents and never quite understanding them or his culture. The scene
where he learns of his father‘s death is heart-wrenching, Gogol goes to a barber shop and
gets his hair shaved something that he saw his father do when he was younger, at the time of
death in the family. As he sits in the chair getting his hair cut, the scene goes in slow
motion, with a loud rap music in the background which adds to the weight of the scene. It is
two opposite things happening, sadness and a fast beat song which greatly impacts viewer
where we feel the loss, where we feel the emptiness. Just as Sobchack relates to The Piano,
we can say the same for this particular scene which carries on in the rituals being performed
for the funeral from The Namesake, we are ―… able to touch and be touched by the
substance and texture of images; to feel a visual atmosphere envelope us; to experience
weight, suffocation, and the need for air; to take flight in kinetic exhilaration and freedom

even though we are relatively bound to our theatre seats; to be knocked backward by a
sound to sometimes even taste and smell the world we see on the screen‖ (Sobchack, p.65).
Gogol goes through a meditative period in his life and so do we as viewers with this scene;
he comes to the realisation that he has to make peace with his cultural identity and accept
that fact that he is a product of neo-colonialism: striking a balance and not rejecting any bit
that makes him who he is.
The Namesake, is not a film that tries to be partial to any culture, in situating cultural
identity but it builds on what is presently the situation and presents it to viewers. People
unconsciously do impose oppressive misconceptions on societies that they do not know,
whether it be of the west or the east. This film is bathed in polycentric multiculralism, it
constantly praises American society and towards the end of the film, you see Ashima also
being broad minded about her daughter marrying a non-Indian guy. We are taught to see
further beyond groups and categories we identify to and just accept it and move forward.
She opened up to the country and accepted the way of life there but also never forgetting her
traditions and roots just as Gogol who was finally able to culturally situate himself.
Unit – III
The last ten years, the decade of economic liberalization, has transformed Indian cinema quite
thoroughly, though not beyond recognition. As a result, what seems to us to be the same old fare,
merely suitably repackaged for our times of globalization, is actually a new stuff in quite some
aspects. So what has changed? On the first hand there is a change in the celluloid economy
accompanied by different thematic form and content. There has been a remarkable change in the
means of production and consumption of cinema following the developments happened in
overall entertainment sector in recent times. A steep technological progress with advent of new
channels of reaching masses at affordable costs (e.g. spread of fast moving media like TV, VCD,
DVD and Internet) is redefining the very approach to the industry with far-reaching implications.
Of all, a major trend is evident from the fact that a growth number of small budget films are
frequenting in theatres with a rate unthinkable even in near past, Its striking prominence is
compelling a section of people to term it as another ‗‗new wave‘‘ of Indian Cinema. The trend
has not yet taken any definite shape to be marked as an era of Indian Cinema, so would better be
kept aside as a matter of debate. However it is worthwhile to note that there is a growing change

in the perception of the industry and its modus operandi, which can be linked to our continuing
socioeconomic changes.
The scope of this article is restricted to Bollywood productions that govern a major part of
contemporary Indian cinema culture. Bollywood is just a segment in the Indian cinema pie, not
the whole and certainly should not be equated to Indian cinema. However it is mostly
representational of the dominating film scenario of the nation in term of operating principles,
target and economical share. The reference to ‗Bollywood‘ is in many ways useful to describe a
specific set of industrial practices, a prevalent star system, ideas about genre and style and an
overall entertainment ethos. In Bollywood like Hollywood, producers are concerned with
relatively big budget films which will attract large audiences. But these amount to no more than
25 or 30 per cent of Indian films each year. The Indian film industry produced 973 films in 2004,
a third of those in Hindi (Bollywood). Since the late 1990s a significant change in Bollywood
production has taken place. New cinema building in India has attracted the affluent middle class
in the major cities, but these are also aimed at the NRI (‗non-resident Indian) market in UK and
North America. The NRI market is tiny in number (by comparison with the total Indian
audience) – perhaps 4 million – but ticket prices are much higher. ‗‗Khabi Khushi Kabhie
Gham‘‘ (or ‗‗3 KG‘‘) took $3 million in North America. It was this revenue that put the film into
profit given an Indian box office of 250 million rupees and a budget of 350 million rupees.
‗‗3KG‘‘ was a commercial success because of its appeal to the affluent sector of Indian society at
home and abroad. The unique status of the Bombay cinema, which established itself in the 1930s
is partly attributable to the development of Hindi as more common language across the nation
given its official stature. some 40 per cent of India's 1 billion plus population can enjoy a Hindi
film. Bombay cinema thus has a particular political significance in its use of language. If the
dialogue of Bombay cinema is artificial, so is much of the world it represents – indeed it is a
different self-contained world in nature. However in production terms, it is Chennai (Madras)
rather than Mumbai that is India's film capital. Chennai makes films in Tamil for a domestic and
overseas audience and also acts as a production centre for Telegu, Cannada and Malayalam
language films from the adjoining states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. The South is
the hotbed of Indian cinema with 60 per cent of all Indian screens located in the four Southern
states (Arthur Anderson Consultants studies). Bollywood and Southern cinema are in essence
different production contexts within ‗Indian popular cinema‘ framework and hare the common
profiles of stardriven big-budget studio system. Both cinemas share an approach to traditional
Indian forms and a range of uniquely Indian film conventions, not least the use of music and
dance. Outside of the four Southern states (of which Kerala bears a distinct identity from the
rest), regional production continues in other regional languages, including Bengali (which is
shared by West Bengal and Bangladesh market) and Marathi (outside Bollywood). Regional
films have a smaller potential audience and must usually contend with smaller budgets. Some
productions are strictly commercial, some have more of a cultural agenda. With the exception of
a small number of filmmakers who have achieved success on the international festival circuit,
few regional productions are seen outside states and also abroad. In the 1960s a third category of
Indian filmmaking began to emerge prominently following the establishment of the Film
Institute of India in Pune and with the support of the state funding through the Film Finance
Corporation (later the National Film Development Corporation) and under patronage of
Doordarshan. With this kind of support, a new sector opened up for films that were more socially
aware and formally owed more to aesthetics developed in international cinema. Some of the

filmmakers who worked in this new sector especially in the 1970s, used their own regional
languages (such as Adoor Gopalakrishnan in Malayalam, Mrinal Sen in Bengali) and some, the
more commercially orientated such as Shyam Benegal, Govind Nehalni worked in Hindi.
Benegal in particular was seen to produce films that were ‗parallel to Bollywood‘ using different
conventions. The New Cinema (conventionally termed as ‗art cinema‘) was most prolific up to
the early 1980s when the changes in Indian poliics and economics ushered in the greater
commercial imperative.
Nevertheless there are vestiges of the parallel cinema that can be traced through some
contemporary productions and we can still distinguish (though vaguely) three main streams of
Indian film-dominant popular Indian cinema in Hindi and the Southern languages which operate
in more or less identical norms, other ‗regional films‘ in general mainly restricted in profile due
to limited shares of audience, and a small number of ‗art-orientated‘ films. The so-called
contemporary ‗new wave‘ claims to place itself in between the first category mainstream cinema
and the third category art-oriented films. Though especially termed for only bollywood
productions, the similar trend of this middle approach is apparent in some regional cinema arena
too. For example, films by Rituporno Ghosh, Aparna Sen and others in Bangal brought a
welcome break from the sickening state of Tollywood industry. The new cinema grossly dwells
on the traits of a low budget production, restricted target audience, and diversified thematic and
formal treatment.
The emergence is not without a cause and in the least a simple benevolent endeavor to raise the
film appreciation standard of masses. Stung by the consistent string of magaflops, Bollywood's
dream merchants are desperately hunting for a new winning formula that will ensure box-office
bonanzas 96 per cent of the big budget movies made in the last couple of years have sunk
without a trace. Movies like ‗‗Legend of Bhagat Singh‘‘ cost between Rs. 15 cr. and Rs. 18 cr.
and barely recovered 15 per cent to 25 per cent of costs. A remarkably large number of film-
makers have concluded that the best way forward is to play safe and produce lowbudget films
that cost anywhere between Rs 1 and 5 cr. Many of these are targeted at niche audiences in the
metros. Alternatively, some filmmakers are going even further and making ‗crossover‘ movies in
English targeted at affluent urban dwellers and international NRI audiences. An extraordinarily
large number of production houses have opted for the ‗small is bountiful‘ strategy. Metalight
productions which made its mark with ‗‗Satta‘‘ shoot four low-budget films with each costing
less than Rs. 5 cr. Channel Nine Entertainment was launched to make films for less than Rs. 1 cr.
Inevitably, the success of low-budget films is changing the entire structure of the industry and
the types of films that are made. It is opening new possibilities like the one that was grabbed by
Percent Pictures, a newcomer to the movie industry. Its children's film ‗‗Makdee‘‘ made for
under Rs. 1 cr. has been a huge success. While a big budget film may cost around 15 cr. making
three small/medium budget films spreads the risk out as it is more likely to get one hit out of
three. Distributors are happier with this structure because if one of the movies flops the
production house can make up for it by offering a second at a discount. According to a recent
statement made by Shrinagar film's north India head, at least 90 per cent of small films provide
big money, by comparison the success of medium or big budget films is at best 50 per cent. Even
after success of mega budget film ‗‗Taal‘‘, Subhash Ghai produced low budget film ‗‗Jogger's
park‘‘, as part of a portfolio approach to movie making which distributes the investment among
small, medium and big budget films.

A major effort is being done for bringing down the cost at production stage for low budget films.
Efficient film factories have sprung up with 6-10 films on hand, all with varying budgets. A bulk
of them have been shot on tight schedules, at times with unknown scriptwriters and directors,
with money borrowed either at low interest rates overseas, or from Indian institutins. Invariably,
smaller budgets, less stock, recycled sets and tighter schedules mean months of pre-production
planning something which was previously unheard of in the industry. Kaleidoscope's
‗‗Saathiya‘‘, one of the successes of 2003, took 70 days to shoot, ‗‗Maqbool‘‘ was wrapped up in
50 days. Both films took under six months from concept to completion. Cost-cutting is achieved
by releasing less number of prints as well. Each print costs between Rs. 30,000 and Rs. 40.000.
For instance, Shringar made only 25 prints of ‗‗Mr and Mrs Iyer‘‘. By contrast, big films like
‗‗Kaante‘‘ had a staggering 500 prints. Many of these new ‗efficient‘ production companies like
Adlabs, Mukta Arts are also finding it worthwhile to integrate forward into distribution and
exhibition with their own chain of multiplexes. Interestingly there is no compromising on
publicity budgets which range from 15 percent to as much as 30 per cent of what is spent on
making the film, the same ratio as of big budget films. In short, the strategizing is conscious and
apparent across every phase, i.e. from conception to exhibition. One thing is evident from these
facts that film business is getting more planned and organized than ever before. Of late, there is
entry of big corporations in the industry which is by far dominated by illegal funding from
individual producers, lack of transparency, unrest and dysfunctional practices. In fact there have
been reservation in calling it as ‗industry‘ given with the uncontrollability and immeasurable
risks associated with it. The conventional finance houses (e.g. banks) have been mostly stayed
away from giving loan or investing in the projects, hence the opportunities for entering the
market remains unfavorable for most. While it is too early to gaze the exact benefit (and
drawback) of prospective corporatization, which is even speculative of foreign players entering
the market, it can be conductive to professionalism and scope for engaging a serious talent pool
with sustainable growth of the industry.
The crisis has not to do with its manufacturing economics only. Bollywood has run short of new
ideas and failed to keep pace with the audience in backdrop of its ongoing social changes. The
globalization of the world economy has expanded the geographical boundaries of many
industries including entertainment and people are exposed to more forms of entertainment
globally. The increasing discretionary rise in income and changing lifestyle of the affluent urban
middle class has divided the audience further. Low budget films have provided scope for trying
with different themes with minimal risk thus improving chance of striking a hit with audience.
Big budget films, burdened by a huge production cost, have to depend on a conventional winning
formula for reaching to large homogeneous audience, but that is proving disastrous often. The
market far from being homogeneous is widely segmented, so is its demands. ‗‗Audiences too are
craving for something different now and we are giving them what they want,‘‘ says Madhur
Bhandarkar, director of ‗‗Page 3‘‘ and ‗‗Chandini Bar‘‘. Unlike the past, no particular genre is
determining the overall trend of romance, action and family drama has been replaced by movies
with varied subjects. Quite a handful of films like ‗‗My brother Nikhil‘‘, ‗‗Hazaron Khwaishe
Aisi‘‘, ‗‗Black‘‘ displayed a creative strength not so common for a typical commercial cinema. A
new pool of young directors, technicians, scriptwriters and musicians, though still in a minority,
are trying to contribute to the fresh look on-screen. Unlike the past, when image-conscious
superstars played ‗nice guys‘, today's actors are not averse to playing shades of grey with roles
ranging from a common man to mafia don, psychotic killer, or a terrorist. One of the obvious

reasons is the spectator's change in perception towards stardom. These have imparted a new
dynamism in the creative aspects of filmmaking.
What has added to the viability of these niche films is the proliferation of multiplexes all over the
country and especially in metros. Multiplexes with their smaller auditoriums provide such films
an opportunity to be screened, which did not exist earlier. The average price per ticket in
multiplexes is Rs. 100-150 against a national average of nearly Rs. 30. That means it has far
more flexibility to mix and match shows, films, timings and prices ensuring better returns even
on average films. It draws crowd for its options under multiscreens, neat modern look. With
seating capacities of 100- 300 the viability of a single show improves for the exhibitor compared
to showing it on large 600-1,000 seating halls. The multiplexes make better economics for
everyone concerned in the film business. Exhibitors charge around Rs. 1.2 lakhs a week for a
small auditorium that seats 150 people. That compares with Rs. 5 lakh for a 350-seat hall. And,
since ticket prices are higher in multiplexes the exhibitor has enough cash to share with the
distributor. The multiplex system has also helped small producers clearly target their films. They
don't need to make films for a pan-Indian heterogeneous audience but for the niche affluent
audience who wants to see urbane slick cinema in particular. It eases out the job of deciding the
themes (formula) more precisely for a homogenous audience. Then there is battle between
television channels, which is helping in recovering the production costs effectively. In the last
few months the TV companies have been paying more than ever before for small screen rights.
TV with its high penetration is shaping the definition of home entertainment significantly and so
the film industry, as the large Indian middle class is the biggest consumer for both of these
entertainment sectors. Added to that the fact that the thriving international circuit is also keen on
movies with middleclass themes. Channel Nine Entertainment, which produced and distributed
films like ‗‗American Desi‘‘ and ‗‗Freaky Chakra‘‘ for instance, has recovered over 70 per cent
of his cost from overseas and satellite rights. Similarly, Percept sold the TV rights of ‗‗Makdee‘‘
to Zee and raked in about 30 per cent of the film's costs from the deal. The satellie companies
which are fighting their own battles are forking out anywhere between Rs. 5 lakh and Rs 30 lakh
even for small budget films. So, many producers are hoping that even a moderate run in India
combined with TV and the international circuit will take them into profit. That's the calculation
made by Pratap Raju, co-founder of Bandra West production and producer of cross-over film
‗‗Bas Yun Hi‘‘: ‗‗We hope that overseas rights and satellite and music sales would account for
90 per cent of the investment and we would be in profits if the film does reasonably well in the
eight cities where it will be released in the first phase.‘‘ The low budget filmmakrs are also
tapping new markets-like non-English speaking countries. Triplecom, for instance, has sold a
dubbed version of ‗‗Mr and Mrs Iyer‘‘ in Italy for around $20,000. Films‘ export earnigs are
becoming increasingly important to producers, as the share from this segment is rapidly
expanding. Of the estimated Rs. 4,500 crore turnover of the Indian film industry export earnings
amounted to Rs. 1,000 crore. So come the series of ‗‗American Desi‘‘ kind of movies targeting a
NRI population growing at a very fast rate.
There are other driving factors as well. There have been favorable Govt. policies like benefits for
export industry including film, tax reduction for Multiplexes, rationalization of tax structure
across the different phases from production to exhibition, etc. have augmented the growth.
Added is the new means of earning by selling the film-space for advertisement, and VHS, VCD,
DVD copyrights. Home video rights (combining VHS, VCD, DVD) attributed to 5 per cent to 7

per cent of the total revenue last year. Its popularity is increasing with the window between film's
theatrical release and video release shrinking to an average 3.4 weeks. VCD and DVD are now
most popular media in the home entertainment sector with the VCD formal dominating the
market figuring in 90% by volume penetration. The reason being its cheap price, but DVD is
growing much faster. This can be concluded from the fact that DVD hardware market is growing
at more than 100 per cent per year while that for VCD is only 25 to 30 per cent. However the big
concern is the piracy market, which is causing a major revenue loss for the distribution houses.
While legitimate home entertainment market is estimated at Rs. 1750 million that for pirated
market is Rs. 7000 million. And there is Internet with its easy accessibility and unique capacity
to spread at tremendous speed that makes the fight against piracy really difficult. However
stringent laws, decreasing DVD or VCD release window, reduced cost, etc. are some though
inadequate steps taken for the prevention of piracy. Again DVD, internet, TV etc. have been
proving beneficial to marketing the products with much more capacity than the traditional forms.
The euphoria is on the air. The industry has gained a new momentum and so is its new consumer
culture. ‗‗While the New wave of the 70s saw a rivalry between the art house and commercial
cinema, today's films seek new themes but within the paradigm of entertainment,‘‘ says Pritish
Nandy, producer of ‗‗Shabd‘‘, ‗‗Jhankar Beats‘‘. What is obvious is there is much glossy
sophisticated look with these smart productions besides apparent novelty in themes. Majority of
the films deal on the social and individual problems on superficial level and hardly disturb with
the feel-good factor of the easy-going audience. The new trend is not without a potential risk of
being hackneyed over time like its big budget traditional counterpart. Moreover it is limited to a
small segment of big Indian audience. Whether it will take on a more sincere, widespread and
relevant course of expression remains to be seen. But it has definitely brought a fresh breathing
space - more importantly a promise of economical health of the industry and opportunity of
exploration.
"There is no doubt, whatsoever, that the film must be treated as a distinct form of art, the most
modern of the fine arts. It links with the other arts like music, dance and drama, but it has its
separate artistic individuality. With its wide range of depiction and with the University of its
Appeal, it has tremendous possibilities. It must not be overlooked that the film industry, today
has become one of the major industries in this country and consequently the box-office aspect is
likely to overshadow its artistic aspect". Justice Rajamannar.
India is one of the largest producers of films in the world. Now-a-days, Indian films are quite
popular in South East Asian countries, countries of the Middle East and even in Russia. There
are many centres of film-making in India like Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, etc. But Bombay is
still the biggest film production centre. Films in India are made in Hindi and many regional
languages. Daring the last 35 years the film industry has made great progress. Thousands of
persons are employed at various stages in connection with the making of films distributing them
and exhibiting them all over the country. In reality, film making has become a highly organized
and developed industry. A film is the finished product of the labors of a host of artists and
technicians. It is, indeed, a symphony of co-operative efforts. Actors, directors; art and dance
directors, music directors, playback singers, script writers, lyricists, cameramen, soundmen,
editors—all have to work together under the leadership of a producer for a common object.

Films are produced on many topics, mythology, religion, history, social problems, sex, romance,
war etc. Social subjects, however, predominate and 278 films in the category were certified in
1974. Films are the cheapest source of entertainment for the masses. Therefore, they have
become quite popular as a pastime in our country. All persons love to see films whether young or
old, poor or rich, educated or uneducated. The films are also a very effective media of
educational and cultural value.
But it is quite disheartening to note that in spite of this large number of 65ms produced in India
every year the quality and content of Indian films has not at all improved correspondingly. Indian
films are generally weak in story and construction. In excellence arid production also they are
quite poor. Most of the stories women in the film lack real interest and are far removed from the
realities of life. The film lack credibility and variety in themes, 'The boy meets the girl' theme
has been filmed for countless times and It really becomes tiresome monotony to watch these
Sims. In the average Bombay film one can see something of everything, violence, action,
smuggling, crime, patriotism, melodrama, romance and what not. Thus by and large, the films
are sub-standard and they naturally flop at the box-office. The film producers do not bother at all
for making films of high quality and standard. They are highly commercial minded and are more
worried about their success at the box-office. They want to make quick money without caring
about the artistic contents or social purpose.
The star system in the film industry is also an evil practice. Under this system the big stars are
too much pampered and given the pride of place. They are paid huge amounts of black money
for their roles, In spite of the fact that other actors like character actors also play an important
role in the making of the films; they are given a very raw deal. The big stars are entertained and
housed in five Liar hotels; whereas the extras are given very meagre wages and that too not
regularly.
Films have become a big business and a very costly affair so that people having big financial
resources only can afford to invest enormous amounts of money in the films. It is very difficult
for a purposeful producer or director having meager financial resources to enter the film-making
business. Now the latest trend is to make films with many big stars like 'Sholay' and 'Shan' the
cost of which runs into several crores of rupees. There is no doubt that young producers during
the last few years have tried to produce low budget films with experimental themes. But how
many such films become commercially successful is a very difficult point to judge. The
Government has established the Films Finance Corporation to extend help to the producers to
make the films of low budget with high aesthetic sense, but these films have failed to make the
desirable impact on the film industry in Bombay and change its trend.
Another defect in the Indian films is that instead of making original films, generally the film
producers try to imitate the films produced by Hollywood. In this way films that are made, are
not the true representative of Indian culture and society. Recently, a new trend has started in the
films, according to which it has become a fashion and a must to show semi-nude and exciting
female posture. These scenes are shown to titilate the sex-instinct of the audience which is highly
objectionable. Showing of rape scenes and cabarets dance, kissing, nude scenes also have
become a must for every formula-film whether these are required or not. These scenes are very
humiliating for the female audience. The Government has recently taken some effective
measures to ban certain films showing highly provocative sex scenes in the name of sex

education. It has also placed certain restrictions on the showing of violence, murder, rape and
cabaret dances in the films.
Another recent trend in the films is showing brutal violence, murders and crime-packed scenes.
Such films have a very unsalutory effect on the younger generation especially the student
community in India. These young boys and girls learn many criminal traits like gambling,
smuggling, pick pocketing and murder from these films in which violence and crime is given
prominence. It is highly desirable that the Government should also come with a heavy hand on
such films and eliminate such criminal influences on the youth in the country.
The film industry should also feel its responsibility towards the nation. They should change their
hackneyed and rotten ways. The film producers should produce filing which should not only be a
source of entertainment for the masses, but they should also be a source of education for them.
Instead of misleading the youth to the path of crime and social vices, they should inspire them to
work for the welfare of the nation. The films should provide a purpose to the youth who are
feeling aimless and purposeless.
The films should also be in conformity with the national aspirations of the people. They can be a
very effective and important instrument in bringing about social and economic reforms in the
country by pin pointing the evils existing in the society like dowry, bonded labor, exploitation of
the workers, etc. The film makers can also condemn the nefarious activities and anti-national role
played by smugglers, black marketers, money lenders and greedy businessmen. The can arouse
the conscience of the society against these anti-social and anti-national elements. In conformity
with the ideals of our country the films can also preach secularism and help in the emotional
integration of the country. Films should condemn social evils like communalism, casteism,
untouchability, ostentatious expenditure, etc. Which are thwarting the progress of our country?
They can condemn the religious superstitions and futile rituals.
In this way, the film industry which is a very large industry in India can get a new and
respectable place in the national life. The film industry itself also needs certain reforms and
changes. The glaring evils in the film industry at the moment are star system and use of
blackraoney in the making of films. Thus the film in dustry also needs cleansing its Augean
stables. When the film industry itself is established on healthy grounds, only then it can play a
constructive role in the life of the country. The film industry should also be saved from the
clutches of the big financial shark‘s star-whales and smugglers, who have been keeping a
stranglehold on the film industry by investing their tainted money in the films.
Computer Generated Imagery (CGI)
Definition - What does Computer Generated Imagery (CGI)mean?

Computer generated imagery (CGI) is the usage of computer graphics for special effects in
movies, printed, and electronic media.

The application tools involved CGI manipulate the environment and produce photorealistic
images, which might be useful for the electronic and printed media. As CGI visuals are far cost-
effective than traditional photographic ones in many cases, it is widely used and quite popular.
Techopedia explains Computer Generated Imagery (CGI)

Features of CGI:
 CGI can be used to build a library of props, which can be reused if needed.
 Without supplying the actual products, the highest quality room sets and illumination can
be achieved.
 Is one of the best and cost-effective methods when it comes to developing images and
videos for electronic media like movies, video games, etc.
 CGI is created with help of wireframe models. The properties like reflection, illumination
can be assigned and modified to these wireframe models.
 The quality of the visual effects is higher and more pronounced and controllable
compared to physical ones.
 Allows creation of images and effects which may not be feasible using other methods.
 CGI is far safer than physical effects.
For most of us a trip to the movies is a chance for a choc top and a few hours of
escapism. But have you ever stopped to wonder what goes into creating some of our
favourite scenes - the ones that have us on the edge of our seats, hiding behind our hands,
or all-out sobbing?
The term CGI may be ringing bells. Computer generated imagery (CGI) is used to
digitally create animation and special effects in film and television, and while it all
started with traditional animation, later technology has seen artists drop their pens and
turn to their screens.
The Beginning
Computer animation in film began in the 1970s as visual effects and short animations
were crafted using the layering of 2D images.
In 1972 Pixar co-founders, Ed Catmull and Fred Park, created the first prototype of a
digitally-rendered 3D hand using a technology that would be the foundation for countless
effects and filmic masterpieces that followed.

CGI that we could feel
In 1993 we witnessed a magical moment in computer-generated film history - we saw our
first dinosaur. Jurassic Park was the first 'physically-textured' CGI film, meaning those
dinosaurs appeared incredibly realistic on screen. But it didn't happen overnight.
The team from visual effects house ILM began with drawn designs and prosthetics of the
dinosaurs before scanning them into a computer. Animation software was used to
pinpoint and manipulate hand and feet movements before the texture of the dinosaurs'
skin was painted on. Once these separate images were pulled together, the dinosaurs were
placed into a scene and combined with live-action and location shooting.
CGI that created entire films

Until the late 1990s CGI was used sparingly, but in 1995 Toy Story became the first full-
length CG feature. With only a small team of animators, our favourite characters, from
Woody to Buzz Lightyear, came to life. Pixar followed this breakthrough project with a
plethora of CG animations such as Monsters Inc., Finding Nemo and the Toy Story
sequels, the latest in 3D.
CGI that recreated scenes from history
Advancing into the millennium CGI reached new heights as technicians used computer
graphics in live-action film to recreate true events. In 2001 audiences watched the
Japanese attack on a US naval base in Pearl Harbour. The attack was filmed using two
shots of the USS Arizona and a handful of visual effects to model the sequence, create
body simulations and insert smoke plumes.
CGI that captured people
As the early 2000's rolled in, audiences were awed once again when a fully-rendered CG
character appeared on screen. Motion capture, a strand of CGI that crept into mainstream
cinema at a staggering pace, allowed for the recording of movements made by objects or

people.
In Peter Jackson's 2001 film, Lord of the Rings, Gollum was the first motion-captured
character to come face to face with other actors. Traditional animation was combined
with artificial intelligence software to replace actor Andy Serkis' movements with those
of Gollum's.
Eight years later CGI took a pioneering turn when facial capture joined motion capture to
ensure that each facial expression could be recorded and rendered. Known for its cutting-
edge CGI, Avatar wowed crowds with this innovation in 2009.
CGI's next steps
The latest CGI movie is creating waves in Hollywood -- and for the right reasons.
Audiences are anticipating the release of Jon Favreau's remake of the 1967 classic, The
Jungle Book, hailed as a CGI-heavy adventure. The film blends live-action with
environments and photorealistic animals crafted entirely using CGI, meaning no live
animals were used in the movie.
Crossover Cinema
Crossover cinema is a complex term to define, because of the many factors which differentiate it
from other forms of cinema. Khorana (2013) defines crossover cinema as ―an emerging form of

cinema that crosses cultural borders at the stage of conceptualization and production‖. As an
emerging form of cinema, the question remains: How does crossover cinema affect audiences
and the content being produced?
In order to fully comprehend the emerging form of cinema that is Crossover cinema, it is
essential to identify the factors or characteristics that define or differentiate it from other forms
of cinema. The 2014 South Korean/North American film ―Snowpiercer‖ directed by Bong Joon-
ho demonstrates clear characteristics of crossover film. The film, which is entirely set on a train
in a post-apocalyptic world, was shot principally in the Czech Republic and was co-produced by
South Korean company ―Moho films‖ and by North American company ―RADiUS-TWC‖,
which is run by The Weistein Company. These production elements alone demonstrate the cross-
cultural nature of the film. However, multicultural productions don‘t solely define a film as
crossover cinema. The elements of the content also have to be considered.
The film ―Snowpiercer‖ principally revolves around a train which contains all that is left of
humanity, after a failed attempt to counter-act global warming. At the tail-end of the train are the
lower classes, whilst the higher-classes, capitalist people belong to the front. The film contains
many universal, political allegories and ideas that are hyperboles to the current global situation,
particularly the situations of Iran and Gaza. These are the sorts of contexts or themes that
differentiate crosscultural cinema to other forms.

So how did ―Snowpiercer‖, as a cross-cultural film, affect audiences? The film was very well
received by critics globally, and according to Box Office Mojo the film grossed $86,581,701
worldwide and is the 12th Highest Grossing Film in South Korea. The film received a limited
release in the U.S., before gaining a mainstream release due to critical acclaim. The film made a
total of $4, 526,345, which demonstrates that U.S. audiences have not yet fully accepted the form
of crossover cinema, despite the previous success of the 2008 UK/Indian film ―Slumdog
Millionaire‖. I hope, as a filmgoer, that crossover film will continue to emerge and increase its
success globally.
India and Indonesia are set to foster cultural and entertainment ties
India will engage Indonesia with co-production of films and training of personnel, giving a boost
to tourism and the entertainment business, as Asia‘s two large nations come closer on the people
front. The two countries committed to building on their close historical and cultural links after
talks between Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Indonesian President Susilo
Bambang Yudhoyono in Jakarta last week. Recognising the popularity and impact of films in
bringing the two people closer and promoting tourism, both sides agreed to encourage
cooperation in production and post-production between their film industries. ―Both (countries)
would explore joint production. Indonesians would also be trained at the Film and Television
Institute of India (Pune) and the Institute of Animation in Hyderabad,‖ Commerce and Industry
Minister Anand Sharma.
Shooting of films in both countries would also be explored as this would promote two-way
tourism. Countries such as Australia, Malaysia, Mauritius, Singapore and South Africa have all
been locations for Indian films and have registered a significant rise in tourist footfalls. ―India-
Indonesia tourism is very small. It can benefit a lot from this kind of engagement, a new area of
cooperation,‖ says Indian Ambassador Gurjit Singh, given the huge popularity of Bollywood
films which have been a part of the everyday lives in the archipelago nation. Indonesia offers
‗virgin‘ locations that are much cheaper than those in many other countries of the world. Mari
Pangestu, Indonesia‘s minister for creative economy and tourism, has said the government will
help international filmmakers by setting up a one-stop clearing house for the permits they need
for shooting.
Ahman Sya, director general of arts and creative economy, corroborates this, saying Indonesia is
creating a single window for clearance of foreign shooting teams to promote the country as a
film destination. The film industry of Indonesia grew at over seven per cent last year and there
are plans to add thousands of new screens in the coming years. The industry produces 80 to 100
movies a year for commercial release. But in comparison to its Southeast Asian neighbours,
Indonesia falls behind Thailand and Singapore as a production and post-production hub.
Commercial Indian films were first imported into Indonesia by the allied armies in 1945, after

Independence, as entertainment for the Indian troops, who were part of the British army. Under
Indonesia‘s first president Sukarno, Hollywood films were banned for their ‗explicit‘ political
and sexual content, and this helped Bollywood to dominate the popular imagination. And that
popularity has not subsided since then.
Indonesia has a thriving community of Bollywood fans, many of whom have formed clubs
dedicated to individual stars. The Shah Rukh Khan Fan Club Indonesia holds regular meetings to
discuss upcoming movies featuring the star. The ‗Rukhsters‘ watch every newly released King
Khan film together. Then there are ‗Ranians‘ who collect Rani Mukherji merchandise such as
films, posters and pins. Sanggar Mohabbatein, a dance studio in Jakarta, teaches children and
adults dances from popular Bollywood movies. Sociologists say the sensibilities of Indian
cinema emphasise family ties, traditional values and humanity more than in Western cinema, and
thereby touches a chord in the audience. The love for Bollywood films lies in their ability to
evoke strong emotions. ―People really enjoy seeing people they can identify with, emphathise
with,‖ said an Indonesian official.
Also, Indian storytelling traditions, such as the Ramayana, resonate throughout the country.
Garin Nugroho, an Indonesian director, has directed Opera Jawa, a modern interpretation of
the Ramayana. Film historians say Indian films served as an important model for Indonesian
films in the 1950s. And it was during the 1990s with the wide spread of television in the country
that Bollywood films moved from cinema halls to living rooms and saw what Bettina David calls
a ‗dynamic upward mobility‘ in Indonesia‘s public culture. It was the successful run of the Shah
Rukh Khan starer, Kuch Kuch Hota Hai in 2001, which revived the Indian films‘ market among
the Indonesian upper class. Following the agreement between the two countries, it is expected
that substantive collaboration between the two film industries will take off, maturing Indonesia‘s
love affair with Bollywood.
Experimental Cinema
AN INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL FILMS
This definition covers experimental films, artists' films and avant-garde films
An international film practice that explores cinema's capacity to manipulate light, motion, space,
and time, and/or expresses the filmmaker's personal artistic vision. Usually linked to broader
trends and practices in fine art, avant-garde film is particularly closely associated
with modernism, tracing its origins to 1920s Europe in the work of artists motivated by a desire
to add a temporal dimension to painting and sculpture. Formative early works Rhythmus
21 (Hans Richter, Germany, 1923–25) and Symphonie diagonale (Viking Eggeling, Germany,
1923–24) explore the musical organization of filmic time; while Le ballet mécanique(Fernand
Léger, France, 1924) and Anémic cinéma (Marcel Duchamp, France, 1926) offer graphic
investigations of Cubist space. The influence of Surrealism is apparent in La coquille et le
clergyman (Germaine Dulac, France, 1927) and Un chien Andalou/An Andalusian Dog (Salvador
Dali and Luis Buñuel, France, 1929); and that of Futurism and Constructivism in Chelovek s
kinoapparatom/The Man with a Movie Camera (Dziga Vertov, USSR, 1929). Elsewhere in pre
World War II Europe, the avant-garde impulse informs the work of Len Lye, Norman McLaren
and Alberto Cavalcanti in Britain, as well as the poetic documentaries of Joris Ivens in
theNetherlands and Henri Storck in Belgium. In 1929, the first international conference on avant-
garde film, held in La Sarraz, Switzerland, was attended by Eisenstein, Cavalcanti, and Richter,
among others.
Experimental cinema is not a new or a recent concept in India. In the late 60's and early 70's, a lot of
avant-garde work was produced by the Indian government. This was a period when a community of
artists at the Films Division was experimenting with the format, and these films were often shown in
cinemas before features. Dadasaheb Phalke, who is considered to be the father of Indian cinema,
can actually be considered the first experimental filmmaker from India, given his experimentation
with time-lapse photography way back in 20's.
Originally from Mumbai, avant-garde filmmaker Shai Heredia is not only the founder of Experimenta,
an international festival for moving-image art in India, but she has also been involved in the early
years of the Bhavishyavani collective, that was instrumental in bringing various forms of cutting-edge
electronic music to India (The Mole, Aquarius Heaven, DOP, Laurent Garnier and Chloe to name
just a few).
Shai has also curated experimental films for Tate Modern, Berlinale, Images Festival (Toronto) and
EXIS (Seoul). As a filmmaker, her latest film is a short titled An Old Dog's Diary. Co-directed with
Shumona Goel, the short opened to critical acclaim in the Wavelengths category at this year's
Toronto International Film Festival and went on to win the Best Short Film Award at the London Film
Festival 2015. The 11-minute-long film assembles, in puzzle-piece evocations, a portrait of Indian
avant-garde painter Francis Newton Souza, revealing the cultural conditions for his work and its'
eventual institutionalization.

A still from An Old Dog's Diary
Recently, Shai conducted a session called 'Film As Art' at the recently concluded 17th Jio MAMI
Mumbai Film Festival where she spoke about experimental cinema in India & across the world..
Though she was busy getting the 9th Experimenta up & running, Shai managed to speak to us
about her film, the need for festivals in today's day & age and on the state of experimental
cinema in our country. Below are the excerpts from the interview:
Let’s start from the beginning. How did your tryst with experimental cinema start?
When I first saw the works of Luis Bunuel, Mann Ray & Michael Snow, my perceptual world
shifted.
There are quite a few names to watch out for today, when it comes to experimental cinema
in India. Amit Dutta for one. What are your views on the current state?
I am not sure I would place any particular filmmaker as an experimental filmmaker, and others
as not. I think there are many different kinds of filmmakers who work in different contexts and
styles, from inside and outside, both the film & the art industry. Actually, there's a large number
of women filmmakers who make avant-garde work like Shumona Goel, Priya Sen, Natasha
Mendonca, Payal Kapadia, to name a few. Their work has been shown at international festivals
and won several awards worldwide. We need to study their work more closely. If we really want
to know where the challenging work is being made, it's important to connect to the many
communities of filmmakers who live and make films independently across the country. They are
not from film institutions but are self-taught filmmakers with pure passion.
Tell us about your film An Old Dog’s Diary. What went into the making of it and how did
the idea germinate?
The Xandev Foundation initially commissioned us to make a film on FN Souza in 2012, which is
how we came to the subject in the first place. However, on encountering Souza‘s writings, our
process changed dramatically and the film began to take on several layers and become more
complex. Perhaps the film is more than just a film about Souza.

Another still from Heredia's short film - An Old Dog's Diary
We spent a great deal of time in an archive that houses Souza‘s letters, writings and essays. Once
we had a sense of who Souza was - his ideas and philosophies, we then began to identify which
of these resonated with us as filmmakers. We were not interested in investigating FN Souza as a
personality and artist for others to consume - many books, essays, articles, films have already
done so quite extensively. To us, An Old Dog's Diary is quite simply an impressionistic portrait
of the internal world of an artist, and quite possibly any artist.
Congratulations on winning the Best Short Film Award at the London Film Festival. Could
you tell us about your collaboration with Shumona Goel?
We share similar ideas and approaches to filmmaking. We trust each others politics and
aesthetics. We are also friends. We believe in the collaborative approach to experimental and
personal cinema.

Shai Heredia & Shumona Goel
You have a soft corner for archival material and the use of film. What is your take on the
transition from film to digital?
All our early photography & filmmaking exercises were done with black & white film so for us
it's in fact most normal to work with black & white. In fact, working with colour would be quite
challenging - Black and white is much more forgiving. It has greater latitude.
How important is the short film format today, in terms of experimentation?

Maybe short films do not have the pressure to speak to large audiences through television or
cinema releases so they can explore diverse subjects. We do not set out to make a film with a
duration in mind. We identify ideas and cinematic subjects and contexts, shoot them and then the
duration is determined through the ideas that govern how the film is crafted in the editing
process.
5 experimental films that you would recommend.

Chattrabhang by Nina Shivdasani Rovshen
Innocence Unprotected by Dusan Makavejev
Girl Chewing Gum by John Smith
Reason Over Passion by Joyce Wieland

Even as the revelries surrounding the 100 years of Indian cinema touched a high pitch in the last
few months, experimental cinema — the lesser-screened side of it — remained out of focus.
Now, bringing a sense of completion to the commemoration, a film festival organised by Films
Division, Mumbai attempts to showcase these cinematic works.
"Hundred Years of Experimentation: A Retrospective of Indian cinema and video" will trace the
roots and the evolution of Indian experimental cinema through 100 years in a three-day long
retrospective that will feature 50 films. "There have been grotesque forms of celebrations of
Indian popular cinema, whereas there is a robust experimentation in cinema that has gone
unnoticed and needs to be celebrated," says Ashish Avikunthak, who has curated the festival
along with Pankaj Rishi Kumar. The festival opens on June 28. The schedule of the festival,
organised by the Films Division and to be held at its premises in Mumbai, has divided films
across genres and formats, which include features, shorts, fiction, apart from documentaries,
animations and video installations in gallery spaces.
The festival opens with the screening of first full-fledged Indian film, Dadasaheb Phalke's Raja
Harishchandra. Though in retrospect this is considered to be a popular film, the festival curators
see it as a starting point of experimentation in Indian cinema. So how did the two — popular and
experimental — take vastly different routes from its common genesis? "Cinema at that time
wasn't about entertainment, people watched Raja Harishchandra for the same reasons they went
for a pilgrimage, or to the temple. And it is an experiment because Phalke was the first person to
tell an Indian tale through the modern apparatus of cinema, which till then had been passed on
through oral traditions, visuals and writings," says Avikunthak, who is an experimental
filmmaker and assistant professor of Film Media at the University of Rhode Island.
Censorship in Indian Cinema
Film censorship was born of fire. Early film stock had a compound called nitrocellulose, which
was used in explosives as guncotton. Mixed with camphor, it became nitrate film—not
explosive, but still violently flammable. In 1897, a year and a half after the first ever film
screening, a nitrate fire at the Bazar de la Charité in Paris killed 126 people. A spate of similar
incidents over the next decade resulted in the world‘s first cinematograph legislation being
passed in Britain in 1909, to improve safety standards by controlling the issue of cinema
licences.

One kind of control led to another. Since the 1909 Act made licences necessary for public
screenings, local authorities used this to regulate not just the conditions in which the film would
be screened but also the contents of the film itself. After a few confusing years with everyone
making up their own rules, the British Board of Film Censors was formed in 1912.
By this time, Indians were not only watching films but also making their own. After dozens of
home-grown newsreels and shorts, the first full-length feature, D.G. Phalke‘s Raja
Harishchandra, released in 1913. In 1917, a Bill introduced in the imperial legislative council
noted the ―rapid growth in the popularity of cinematograph and increasing number of such
exhibitions in India‖. It recommended the creation of a law that would ensure both safety and the
―protection of the public from indecent or otherwise objectionable representations‖. Thus was
born the Cinematograph Act of 1918, and, with it, film censorship in India.
An article in the March 1940 issue of ‗Filmindia‘.

A suitable film
The 1918 Act gave the district magistrate (or, in Rangoon, the commissioner of police) the
power to issue licences to exhibitors, and the government to appoint inspectors to examine and
certify films as ―suitable for public exhibition‖. It did not, however, mention what the inspectors
were to look out for. What a suitable film was—or, at least, what it wasn‘t—began to become
clearer in 1920, when censor boards were set up in Bombay, Madras, Calcutta and Rangoon (a
fifth was established in Lahore in 1927). To judge the appropriateness of films, both local and
foreign, for release, these boards adopted a set of rules.
―No generally and rigidly applicable rules of censorship can be laid down.‖ The general
principles of the Bombay Board of Film Censors began with these encouraging words, then
proceeded to lay out 43 objectionable subjects (most of them taken verbatim from a famous list
compiled by politician T.P. O‘Connor for the British censors in 1917). Rules 21 and 22 were
key: ―Scenes holding up the King‘s uniform to contempt or ridicule‖ and ―Subjects dealing with
India, in which British or Indian officers are seen in an odious light‖. Film-makers were also
advised to steer clear of ―Gruesome murders and strangulation scenes‖, ―Unnecessary exhibition
of feminine underclothing‖ and ―Indecorous dancing‖. No.40—―Confinements‖—must have
struck Indian directors as grimly ironic; 1920 was the start of the non-cooperation movement,
and jails all over the subcontinent were full.
With one eye on the freedom movement, another on the barrage of Axis propaganda, the British
government in India ordered a cinematic fact-finding mission. The Indian cinematograph
committee (ICC) of 1927-28, chaired by a former Madras high court judge, T. Rangachariar, was
the first comprehensive inquiry into movie viewing, censoring and exhibiting habits in the
country, and an acknowledgment by the British of cinema‘s increasing popularity in India. In
1921, there were an estimated 148 movie halls in India; by 1927, this number had doubled.
Despite Hollywood films accounting for roughly 80% of the shows in those early years, it was
the Indian titles which really got the public going. In its report, the committee said: ―The crowds
which flock to witness a popular Indian film (and many of them are popular) are really
remarkable.‖

An advertisement for ‗Kismet‘.
The ICC‘s sensible suggestions—setting up a central board of censors, a system of appeals,
classifying titles as U and A—were not put into practice, a fate which would befall other
painstakingly compiled reports on Indian cinema in the years to come. Still, the report and its
attendant documents are a fascinating snapshot of Indian movie-going in the 1920s, with
interviewees ranging from Phalke to Lala Lajpat Rai (didn‘t like Charlie Chaplin) and M.K.
Gandhi (didn‘t like cinema). The responses testify to the hold cinema had over viewers in this
country—that unique ability to transport, to transfix and to linger on—even before the
introduction, in 1931, of sound, and with it, the signature genre of Indian cinema: the musical.
―The Picture House possesses all the attractions of real life,‖ a Lucknow judge, Bhagwat Prasad,
wrote to the ICC. ―We find ourselves in the midst of people in the screen and become interested

in them. Our tears for their sorrows and our delight at the successes are immediately called forth.
The effect which is produced in our minds is instantaneous and it is not soon effaced.‖
No politics, please
Despite the long list of objectionable subjects, Indian cinema wasn‘t exactly prurient in the
1920s and 1930s. Hamarun Hindustan (1930) had an intimate scene with Sulochana and Jal
Merchant. Film-maker J.B.H. Wadia recalled, years after the fact, Lalita Pawar kissing her co-
star ―without inhibition‖ in a film, and Jal Merchant and Zubeida ―kissing each other quite often‖
in 1932‘s Zarina (depending on which account you read, Zarina had a total of 34, 48 or 82
kisses). Actors kiss in the Franz Osten-directed Shiraz (1928) and A Throw Of Dice (1929). And
there‘s the famous kiss in Karma (1933), which has gone down in legend as being 4 minutes
long, though it lasts only a minute and involves a snake and a tearful Devika Rani trying to bring
a comatose Himanshu Rai to life.
The British had bigger problems than a few onscreen kisses. ―The main preoccupation of the
British censor was not the passionate love scenes then common in Indian cinema but the threat of
communal discord and the expression of nationalistic sentiments,‖ Suresh Chabria writes
in Light Of Asia: Indian Silent Cinema, 1912-1934. Mentioning British excesses, the Indian
National Congress, self-governance, or even revolution in other countries (Juarez, a 1939
Hollywood film about the fight for self-rule in 1860s Mexico, was forbidden by the Bengal
censors) was enough to earn your film a cut or a ban. ―It‘s a strange phenomenon which we find
in this country to see the Government-sponsored Indian News Parade claiming to give all the
news to the Indian people while the Censors black-out the Nation‘s beloved leaders who make
the most news,‖ cine-journal Filmindia complained in 1945, noting that even framed
photographs of national leaders were cut from films.

K.A. Abbas with the censor certificate for ‗Char Shahar Ek Kahani‘.
Then there was the ultimate taboo: Gandhi. Listed in the Journal Of The Motion Picture Society
Of India (1937) are the titles of banned newsreels—Mahatma Gandhi’s Historic March, Gandhi
Sees The King, Bombay Welcomes Mahatma Gandhi, Mahatma Gandhi After his Release, and
several others—short non-fiction reports that the British clamped down on. In fact, Gandhi was
the hidden subject of the first film to be banned in India. The protagonist of Bhakta
Vidur (1921)—with his Gandhi cap, Khadi clothes and spinning wheel—was deemed, quite
rightly, to be a stand-in for the Mahatma. Thyagabhoomi (1939) met the same fate;
in The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Cinema, it‘s mentioned that the Tamil film had documentary
inserts of the leader, and that protagonist Sambhu Sastry ―is portrayed as the Gandhi of Tamil
Nadu, sitting on a dais spinning with a charkha‖.

It wasn‘t just a case of official paranoia over newsreels, then shown before all feature film
screenings. Indian fiction film directors were finding ways to talk about the ongoing freedom
struggle without mentioning it directly. Door Hato O Duniyawalo, the hit musical number
from Kismet (1943), is ostensibly a warning to the Germans and the Japanese, but the actual
target is clearly the British. In a 1970 interview, writer-director K.A. Abbas mentions historical
films like Umaji Naik (1926) and Swarajya Toran (1930), which replaced the British with other
invading forces, and social films like Wrath (1930) and Apna Ghar (1942), which spoke in a
kind of code to Indian viewers. ―There was ferment all over the country,‖ Abbas recalls, ―and it
was reflected in the arts and the cinema.‖
In the 1940s, the policing of Indian cinema grew more stringent. Out of 1,774 films seen by the
Bombay censors in 1943, 25 required modification before they could be released; that number
went up to 464 (out of 3,099) by 1948.Through the Film Inquiry Committee report submitted to
the government in 1951, we get a picture of what censorship was like in the years leading up to,
and just after, independence. Things were, to put it mildly, chaotic. The five censor boards
examined films separately, and each had their own set of rules and local pressures. Often, a title
passed by one would be rejected by another. In addition, the government—of India, or of a
particular state—might deny a certificate to a film passed by the censors, a fate which could
befall a noir (The Postman Always Rings Twice, 1946) or a war film (All Quiet On The Western
Front, 1930) as easily as it could a propaganda newsreel (Inside Nazi Germany, 1938).
This was also the decade that saw the disappearance of the kiss from Indian cinema—a
curtailment so long and stifling that it hasn‘t fully returned yet. Crucially, this wasn‘t due to a
change in censor rules, but because of a societal shift towards moral caution and ―Indian‖ values.
In film critic and historian B.D. Garga‘s words, ―Kissing disappeared from the Indian screen not
because of a fiat of the censor but because of pressures brought on by social and religious
groups.‖ It was a sign that film censorship in free India would depend not only on official
sanction but on societal approval.
One board to rule them all

In the Bombay Calling column in the February 1949 issue of Filmindia, Baburao Patel praised,
in his combative way, a recent development. ―We have been asking for this for the last 15 years,‖
he wrote of the move to centralize film censorship, before suggesting a politician of puritanical
tendencies, Morarji Desai, as a possible chairman. Over the next few years, a Central Board of
Film Censors (CBFC, renamed as Central Board of Film Certification in 1983) was set up,
regional boards were abolished, and U and A were adopted as certification categories.
The scrapping of the 1931 Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act after independence effectively
abolished newspaper pre-censorship in India. Yet, as Arpan Banerjee notes in his essay Political
Censorship And Indian Cinematographic Laws: A Functionalist-liberal Analysis, there was no
corresponding move to free cinema of that restriction. ―The Act of 1918 was repealed, but it was
later replaced with a law not dissimilar in scope,‖ he writes. This was the Cinematograph Act of
1952, the cornerstone—and, in many ways, the millstone—of film censorship in India.

A still from Pramod Pati‘s 1968 short film ‗Explorer‘.
The 1952 Cinematograph Act sets out the structure of censorship as it stands today: the
chairperson at the top, then the board members, then the advisory panels (members of the initial
examining committee and the revising committee, which do much of the actual examination of
films, are drawn from these). Everyone, from the chairperson down to the advisory panel
members, is a government appointee. And every government at the Centre has taken advantage
of this, staffing the CBFC with party loyalists eager to make cuts and deny certificates to films
critical of the establishment. The Emergency saw the most blatant use of this power, with
Gulzar‘s Aandhi (1975) and Amrit Nahata‘s Kissa Kursi Ka (1977) banned, and Shyam
Benegal‘s Nishant (1975) stuck in a bureaucratic tangle, because they were perceived as critical
of the Congress government.
What makes the Cinematograph Act such a problematic piece of legislation? In short, it gives the
CBFC—technically, a certification body—vague and vast powers to play censor. The crux is
Section 5B of the Act, which states that any film that is against the ―interests of [the sovereignty
and integrity of India] the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public
order, decency or morality, or involves defamation or contempt of court or is likely to incite the
commission of any offence‖ can be denied a certificate. It further asks the government to frame
rules according to which the CBFC will function.
These guidelines, which have only increased in number over the years, make for depressing
reading. Censors are tasked with ensuring that films provide ―clean and healthy entertainment‖
and do not ―deprave the morality of the audience‖—instructions broad and stodgy enough to
cover anything from a raised middle finger to an orgy. Many of the rules that the CBFC can cite

to demand cuts are the same as those followed before independence (no endangering of public
order, no depicting the modus operandi of criminals)—which gives one an idea of how archaic
our censorship mindset is.
Not all these rules are followed to the letter; if they were, hardly any films would make it to
theatres. But they exist, vague and convenient, and that is enough. No Central government has
made serious attempts to change them, because they are so useful. You cannot release a film in
theatres without a CBFC certificate. And you can‘t get a certificate without having a
government-appointed body passing judgement on your film.
A still from ‗Aandhi‘, which was banned during the Emergency.
Taking censorship to court

In his early days as a critic, K.A. Abbas pushed for the censure of blithely racist Hollywood
films like Gunga Din (―It is not enough even if we manage to get the film banned in India,‖ he
wrote in 1939). It‘s somewhat ironic, then, that he was the one person (until an attempt by Amol
Palekar last year) to challenge the idea of pre-censorship in court. In 1968, Abbas—already well-
known as the screenwriter of Awara and Shree 420—made a 16-minute documentary, Char
Shahar Ek Kahani, which had scenes showing prostitution in Mumbai. The CBFC‘s examining
committee handed the film an ―A‖ certificate; after Abbas protested, the revising committee
reached the same conclusion. After a fruitless appeal to the Central government, Abbas
petitioned the Supreme Court, arguing that pre-censorship was antithetical to freedom of speech
and expression.

The court ruled against Abbas. ―The censorship imposed on the making and exhibition of films is
in the interests of society,‖ said the judgement, though it also asked Parliament and the
government to do more to separate the objectionable from the socially valuable. Though Abbas‘
suit was probably doomed from the start, it did have one useful fallout: the formation, in 1981, of
the Film Certification Appellate Tribunal (FCAT), a quasi-judicial body headed by a retired high
court judge, which one could approach if unhappy with the decision of the CBFC‘s examining
and revising committees.
This is pretty much where things stand today. There have been some minor developments in the
years since—films must now carry no-smoking advisories, and it‘s almost impossible to shoot a
scene with a live animal. In addition to the ever-arbitrary demands of the board—a blurred
brassiere here, a bleeped ―virgin‖ there—censorship by mob has emerged as a disturbing issue.
Bal Thackeray demanding his own cuts in Mani Ratnam‘s Bombay in 1995 and the Shiv Sena‘s
protests against Deepa Mehta‘s Fire in 1998 have acted as a blueprint for violent political
groups, which have threatened the makers of films from Ae Dil Hai Mushkil to Padmaavat into
deleting scenes and delaying releases. Though most directors, writers and actors today are
affected by censorship, the film community—especially Bollywood—has shown little
willingness to band together on the issue. ―Bollywood does not care,‖ director Dibakar Banerjee
says, ―because it knows it will somehow navigate through the bureaucratic red tape to survive.
It‘s a vestige of the licence raj.‖
A still from ‗Raja Hindustani‘.

Hope seemed to surge through the film world when Shyam Benegal was appointed head of a
committee to look into censorship in 2016. Those who greeted this as a stepping stone to
dismantling censorship were probably unaware that there was a similar committee in 2013 under

Justice Mukul Mudgal, whose report made many of the suggestions that the Benegal one did—
and which was never implemented. Or that, back in 1969, a committee headed by G.D. Khosla,
and counting amongst its members K.A. Abbas, Umashankar Joshi and R.K. Narayan,
recommended an autonomous, independent censor board. Letting important reports gather dust is
a time-honoured tradition for an opaque bureaucracy like India‘s, something that the 83-year-old
Benegal seems to have made peace with. When I met him at his office in Tardeo, Mumbai, he
said: ―I have no idea how much (of the report) has been accepted. I have reminded them any
number of times until I‘ve lost interest in it.‖
In an interview to The Hindu in January 2002, Vijay Anand, director of Guideand Jewel
Thief and the CBFC chief at the time, was asked whether the media was right to pick on the
board‘s decisions. ―Why not?‖ he replied. ―We are the visible mouthpiece of a moralistic
society.‖ This is an uncomfortably honest self-assessment, but there‘s some truth to the idea that
the board, whether headed by Anand or Leela Samson or Pahlaj Nihalani, isn‘t entirely to blame.
Film censorship in India can only be fixed if the rules governing it are overhauled. This, in turn,
means changing an attitude that has persisted since the days of the British: the tendency to treat
the viewer as incapable. Every week, movie-watchers across the country make hard decisions—
to go by the review in the morning paper or by their neighbour‘s thumbs-down, to spend ₹200 on
a predictable big film or on a small, uneven one. Deciding whether a particular film will offend
their sensibilities should also be left to them.
Censorship in India, the truth

Author: Law Wire Team
"Censorship is when a work of art expressing an idea which does not fall under current
convention is seized, cut up, withdrawn, impounded, ignored, maligned, or otherwise made
inaccessible to its audience."
— Ritu Menon, for Women‘s World Organisation for Rights,

Literature, and Development
The suppression or control of ideas, public communication and information circulated within a
society is termed as censorship. The freedom of speech guaranteed by the Constitution of India
can be suppressed if it is considered objectionable, harmful, or necessary to maintain communal
harmony. Governments across the globe have used religious arguments as well as other powerful
techniques and arguments to support for their censorship efforts. Offensive communication in the
eyes of the government varies from country to country, religion to religion, even sect to sect.
Many governments provide for certain limited protection against censorship. It is always
necessary to balance conflicting rights in order to determine what can and cannot be censored.
A classic example of censorship in India is the Central Board of Film Certification or Censor
Board, which comes under the purview of Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. The Board
regularly orders, directors to remove anything it deems offensive or subjects considered to be
politically subversive. The censorship of films is governed by the Cinematograph Act, 1952. It

assigns certification as Universal, Adults, and Parental Guidance to films in India before public
exhibition.
Around the world the utmost concern of censors is the depiction of violence and sex. The censor
board‘s job is to control the ―corruption of the mind‘ and to stop pornographic films. But on the
other hand it is ironical that anyone with internet access can see endless amounts of pornography.
Today a child with access to internet can see all kinds of pornography by typing three letters
―sex‖, while the censor board has long discussions on the permissible duration of a kissing scene
in a movie. I am not saying that we should legalize pornography, but in today‘s age the censor
board has to understand that this generation exercises their right to freedom of speech and
expression.
There was a huge controversy with regards to the kissing scene in Dhoom 2 which ended in
people burning its movie posters and obstructing people from entering the cinema halls to watch
the film. Vishwaroopam, a Tamil film was blocked by the Tamil Nadu government after a protest
from the Muslim Community. The director was forced to delete some important scenes from the
movie before releasing the same. The Vishwa Hindu Parishad protested against the women
modelling dresses bearing images of Hindu Gods, a Fatwawas brought against all girls rock band
saying it was Un-Islamic. Therefore, on observing the above incidents it seems that it‘s not
actually the government censoring but rather the self employed moral police doing the job.
Aseem Trivedi, Indian political cartoonist and activist had been sent to jail on the grounds of
sedition for publishing a series of cartoons highlighting corruption in India. He was later freed
under a wave of protest.
The Constitution of India guarantees freedom of speech and expression with certain restrictions
such as that of morality, decency, public order etc. Further, the Indian Penal Code allows
cramping free speech on grounds of outraging religious feelings, making statements creating or
promoting enmity, hatred or ill-will between classes on grounds of religion, caste, language or
race. The Information Act, 2000 aims to punish people who send offensive messages online but
is often used to target dissident and even posts on social media.
These laws are so broadly classified that cases can be impossible to quash, because it is difficult
for a judge to take the view that some of speech does not promote hatred between groups. There
is no chance that these laws can be struck of the legislations. Politically, nobody will do it,
because we have such a huge vacuum of leadership that nobody has the guts to step up and
suggest such changes.
Conclusion
If the government has certified that a particular movie is for adults only, even then the scenes are
deleted. This happens especially so in foreign movies which are released in India. The word
―fuck‖, which may have varied meaning, is effectively scrubbed out of a film and its subtitles.

Newspapers carry revealing pictures of actresses and print adult jokes which can be read by
children pretty easily. Ironically the Board makes sure that the kissing scene is deleted from a
particular movie. How could it be constitutional to prevent the free broadcast of news over radio,
for instance, or to prohibit speech online that causes ‗annoyance‘? Not only speech restricting
laws not being struck off, but more such laws are being added to the statutes all the time.
Then on reflection what is the difference between India and China. China being a Communist
country, there are really strict laws for public speaking and speeches and it is impossible to speak
anything against the government. The same thing is happening in India. Article 19(1)(a) should
be struck of because there is no freedom of speech and expression left in our country.
Democracy is going to dogs. People cannot speak out their minds. There is communalism and
dictatorship. But cases like Akbaruddin Owaisi’s hate speech against the Hindu sect harmed the
religious sentiments of many. This is one example of misuse of this freedom of speech and
expression under the Indian Constitution.
It seems that censorship can be a weapon in the hands of the State to make people agree with its
ideology. Often the Censor Board functions to impose the State's notion of Indianness and
nationhood. The reach and power of films in India is massive. If a director wants to show the
reality, he has to put it in a movie and then what happens, the censor board removes it. The Dirty
Picture and other 'A' films, according to the Broadcasting Content Complaints Council (BCCC),
can be screened on television without cuts after 11pm. The BCCC suggested some sort of a
coordination mechanism between the Central Board of Film Certification and the TV regulatory
body for the certification of films for TV viewing. By this does it mean that the T.V is meant for
children and not adults? Now is the time to look into the role that can be played by healthy
criticism, analysis, and cinema literacy, rather than relying on a Censor Board that acts as a
moral police, stopping the dissent.
India: Is Censorship A Necessary Evil?

Last Updated: 7 March 2018
Article by Avadhi Jain
With more than 1000 films being released every year, in India censorship of films has not only
been a debate in the legal fraternity but also a topic of discussion at the family dinner table. The
recent delay and cuts in the movie "Padmavati" is just one of the many examples of censorship in
India. The current trend of CBFC of cutting scenes and banning of movies has raised various
questions in people's mind which need clarification.
What is the need for Censorship of a film?

In 1970, a Supreme Court judge in K. A. Abbas v. The Union of India & Anr, recognized the
universal treatment of motion pictures different from that of other forms of art and expression.
He further insisted that it has a deep impact on adolescent children more than that on mature
women and men. The need of censorship thus arises from the prolonged effect that a motion
picture has on an individual that doesn't occur in a painting, book or play.
Who can censor a movie?
A motion film is certified by Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC), the regulatory
authority in India, under Section 5A and B of the Cinematograph Act, 1952.
In addition, powers are given to the Central Government to suspend a granted certificate for such
period as it thinks fit or it may revoke such certificate if it is satisfies the conditions under
Section 5E of the aforementioned Act.
There are 4 types of censor certificates to be given:
1. U certificate: Sanctioned for unrestricted public exhibition

2. U/A certificate: Sanctioned for unrestricted public exhibition except any child below the
age of twelve years may be allowed to see such a film after the consideration of child's
parents or guardian
3. A certificate: Sanctioned the film for public exhibition restricted to adults
4. S certificate: Sanctioned the film for public exhibition restricted to members of any
profession or any class of persons, having regard to the nature, content and theme of the
film, e.g.: doctors, farmers etc.
What are the grounds for Censorship?
Section 5(B) (1) lays the grounds for not certifying a film for public exhibition if, in the opinion
of CBFC, the film or any part of it is against the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of
India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or
morality, or involves defamation or contempt of court or is likely to incite the commission of any
offence. This is in accordance with the reasonable exceptions specified in Article 19 of the
Indian Constitution.
To help CBFC facilitate the certification process, guidelines have been issued by Central
Government time and again. A few out of the 20 guidelines that must be ensured by the CBFC
are:
1. Anti-social activities such as violence are not glorified or justified

2. The modus operandi of criminals, other visuals or words likely to incite the commission
of any offence are not depicted;
3. Human sensibilities are not offended by vulgarity, obscenity or depravity;
4. Scenes degrading or denigrating women in any manner are not presented;

5. Visuals or words contemptuous of racial, religious or other groups are not presented.
Moreover, the Censor Board has also released a list of banned words which includes Hindi
English curse words, abusive language and the mention of Mumbai not Bombay as per
Government's Official Notification dated 04/08/1996.
Appeal Procedure:
If the applicant is aggrieved by the order of the CBFC he may appeal to the Appellate Tribunal
which is chaired by a retired High Court judge or any person so qualified to be a High Court
Judge. Further, Revision powers are given to the Central Government to call for the record of
any proceeding in relation to any film which is pending before, or has been decided by the Board
and may make a decision as it deems fit, after giving the applicant an opportunity for
representing his views in the matter.
Role of Judiciary
The Judiciary has frequently demarcated between the expression and abuse of freedom of
speech. It has always tried to maintain a balance between rights of artists and the need of
censorship wherever required. In S. Rangarajan v. P. Jagjivan Ram, the Court opined,
censorship by prior restraint is not only desirable but also necessary in case of motion pictures as
it has a strong impact on the minds of the viewers and can affect their emotions. In this case the
ban on this movie was lifted. Similar cases in which Supreme Court passed an order in the favour
of artists are Raj Kapoor v. Laxman, and Patwardhanv. Cent. Bd. of Film Certification, Life
Insurance Corporation of India v. Prof. Manubhai D. Shah and the most recent was the lift of
ban on Padmavati.
Analysis
As the title suggests, censorship is a necessary evil, but that doesn't negate the freedom of speech
and expression completely. The chief problem is that it seems that Censor Board doesn't look
into alternative options before banning a film and fails to take into account a lot of mitigating
factors involved in the making of the film. While public interest needs to be protected, private
interest of the parties involved cannot absolutely be forgotten. Right from the script to music, to
production and advertising, a lot of effort and money has gone into films which when banned
enormously impacts the economic status of people involved, which in turn comes under the
ambit of their fundamental right of livelihood. This repeated pattern of Board or Government
banning or halting the release of movies, thereby consequently an appeal being filed to High
Courts and Supreme Court where the ban is lifted is getting quite tedious. Since the scope of
grounds are quite wide it calls for some stringent measures to be taken by authorities, to clarify
the objectivity with which a film must be granted a certificate. The struggle between the
necessity of censorship and freedom of speech must be met with a right balance.

Footnotes
1 https://www.cbfcindia.gov.in/main/guidelines.html
2 https://blog.ipleaders.in/censorship-films-law/#_ftn7
3https://factly.in/how-is-a-film-certified-by-the-censor-board-cbfc-film-certification-process-in-
india/
4 http://mib.gov.in/acts/cinematograph-act-1952-and-rules
The content of this article is intended to provide a general guide to the subject matter. Specialist
advice should be sought about your specific circumstances.
The 100-decibel noise made around the censorship suggestions for Anurag Kashyap‘s Udta
Punjab brings back the whole question about whether in a democratic country like India
censorship really holds any meaning.
The other significant feature is that in case the filmmaker enters into a dispute and refuses to
carry out the former‘s recommendations, the filmmaker can seek legal justice from the respective
courts of the country, thus, rendering the CBFC redundant in a certain sense. So, at the end of it
all, the filmmakers won hands down in the big battle with the CBFC and with a few changes,
marched their film to the screens, leaving Pehlaj Nihalani who claims to be a ―chamcha‖ of PM
Narendra Modi, pink-faced.
But censorship in India is a two-pronged knife that cuts both ways and though Nihalani‘s move
to delete different things from the film beginning with ―Punjab‖ from the title has created a

furore, this interference with the filmmaker‘s freedom of expression is nothing new. It has been
on since the very practice of censoring films stepped into the cinema scenario of India.
Cinema apart, without realising this, we actually live within a web of censorship. The reporter
whose copy is cut, the news agency influenced by the political power or the corporate funding
behind it, the sub-editor playing with headlines that can influence the reader in a way that the
original writer did not intend. In other words, the state is not the only censor.
Veteran Polish journalist Ryszard Kapuscinski (1999) wrote, ―In a dictatorship, censorship is
used; in a democracy, manipulation.‖ This would apply equally well to the climate that sustains
in film censorship in India.
Way back in 1934, in British India, Censors took a strong exception to Mazdoor (1934), based
on a Munshi Premchand story directed by Mohan Bhavnani in which Premchand collaborated on
the screenplay. The story dealt with the conflict between capitalists and labourers and this made
―the Censors come down heavily upon some of the scenes of labour unrest.‖ The film was finally
cleared after two rounds of negotiation with the footage reduced by almost 1000 feet and its title
changed to read Daya Ki Devi!

The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) is appointed by the state, at the regional level
and at the central level. It is a quasi-judicial body under the Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting. Censorship is a legacy the British left behind whose aim was to prevent showing
anything anti-British in Indian films. A set of guidelines is provided in The Cinematograph Act
1952. The Board is authorized to certify films that do not violate any of these guidelines.
But the Board, both at the centre and at the regional levels, is instituted almost arbitrarily,
comprised often, of members who have political backing, or, some kind of celebrity status within
or without cinema, whose interests and knowledge of cinema are not taken into consideration
during such appointments.

These ‗bodies‘ change after a given term and these changes either remain completely indifferent
to the statutory guidelines laid down by the Central Board of Film Censorship, or, change them
according to their whims and fancies that often impinge on the filmmaker‘s fundamental right to
freedom of expression, or, deprive the audience of seeing what they ought to see and draw their
own conclusions.
Veteran journalist and author Aruna Vasudev says, ―The government‘s dilemma rests on finding
the right people who are ready to devote considerable effort to this voluntary, practically unpaid
and very time-consuming assignment. It is too much to expect one individual to combine the
qualities of an educationist, sociologist and anthropologist plus have a wide background in film.‖
Each regional panel has around 30 to 40 members who are called for screenings on rotation. But
many cannot make it for the screenings at the capital on short notice. Therefore, the same four or
five members who live within the capital city keep watching the films and impose their personal
moral codes, thus exercising a power they do not have.
―Censorship is highly subjective and essentially mindless. The main motivation for censorship is
intolerance. Conventional wisdom and official ideology cannot be allowed to be questioned and
criticized and must be suppressed. Portrayal of historical events that depict a government or
certain persons or groups in an unfavourable light cannot be tolerated and should therefore be
suppressed by recourse to censorship‖ This is a comment by Soli Sorabjee in the Indian Express

(January 30, 2007) following the non-screening of Parzania in Gujarat. The film was rejected by
multiplex owners in Gujarat for fear of a Hindu backlash.
The members of the CBFC stick to the values that sustained in Indian society way back in 1952
and that too, by colouring the same with their own moral stance.
For instance, in 2015, they muted the word ―lesbian‖ from Dum Lagake Haisha which is a
powerful feminist statement on marriage. Earlier this year, they had strong issues with Hansal
Mehta‘s brilliant bio-pic Aligarh and granted it an ―A‖ certificate just because the word
―homosexuality‖. The film was based on the last years of the life of Professor Shrinivas
Ramchandra Siras who taught Marathi at Aligarh Muslim University. He was sacked from his
position on charges of homosexuality. The unending humiliation, insult, financial constraints and
social ostracism forced him to commit suicide. Should this very important film be given an ―A‖
Certificate?
Pehlaj Nihalani

Pehlaj Nihalani insisted on cutting down on the kissing scene in the recent James Bond action
thriller Spectre though kissing in public is common practice in the West and also not very
uncommon in Indian metro cities today. To add fuel to fire, at the press conference, he went on
to defend the cutting of the kissing scene by stating, ―I have not seen the film. It is not my job to
watch all movies. In fact, I have not even seen a single shot of the film including the kissing
scene. My panel members have seen the film!‖
The Central Board of Film Certification‘s guidelines amended up to May 1983, clearly laid down
its three-fold objectives of censorship: (a) the medium of cinema remains responsible and
sensitive to the values and standards of society, (b) artistic expression and creative freedom are
not unduly curbed, and (c) censorship is responsive to social change.
These objectives are ambiguous because they beg the question of defining what I & B Ministry
means by ‗standards of society.‘
The Board is silent about who sets these standards and on what basis. The Board is comprised of
a chairman with a minimum of 20 nominated members from different backgrounds. In other
words, it is a multi-personal body representing a microcosm of India‘s diverse culture. How can
such diverse members be expected to arrive at a unanimous decision or definition of artistic
expression and creative freedom? These are subjective and relative to time, individual and place,
culture and language, education and class.

Controversies get raised when questions are asked not only about the efficacy of the CBFC as a
watchman of Indian morals but also about its redundancy in the face of STAR, CNN, cable
networks that do not fall under the axe of the CBFC. Such controversies are bound to occur when
one film like Pati Parmeshwar produced by the late R.K. Nayyar is refused a certificate while
another film like Shahenshah clearly gets a ―U‖ certificate from the same board around the same
time.
Is the CBFC a cinematic ass? Or, is it a political one? Or is it a sandbag and a whipping boy of
filmmakers across the country with nominal powers that are taken away by the politicians in
power whenever they feel like it?
Need and CBFC Standards
Guidelines
The Cinematograph Act lays down that a film shall not be certified if any part of it is against the
interest of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with
foreign States, public order, decency or involves defamation or contempt of court or is likely to
incite commission of any offence.
Under section 5B(2) the Central Government has issued the following guidelines.
A film is judged in its entirety from the point of view of its overall impact and is examined in the
light of the period depicted in the film and the contemporary standards of the country and the
people to whom the film relates, provided that the film does not deprave the morality of the
audience. Guidelines are applied to the titles of the films also.
1. Objectives of Film Certification
i. the medium of film remains responsible and sensitive to the values and standards
of society;
ii. artistic expression and creative freedom are not unduly curbed;
iii. certification is responsible to social changes;
iv. the medium of film provides clean and healthy entertainment; and
v. as far as possible, the film is of aesthetic value and cinematically of a good
standard.
2. In pursuance of the above objectives, the CBFC shall ensure that

i. anti social activities such as violence are not glorified or justified
ii. the modus operandi of criminals, other visuals or words likely to incite the
commission of any offence are not depicted;
iii. scenes -

a. showing involvement of children in violence as victims or perpetrators or
as forced witnesses to violence, or showing children as being subjected to
any form of child abuse.
b. showing abuse or ridicule of physically and mentally handicapped
persons; and
c. showing cruelty to, or abuse of animals, are not presented needlessly
iv. pointless or avoidable scenes of violence, cruelty and horror, scenes of violence
primarily intended to provide entertainment and such scenes as may have the
effect of de-sensitising or de-humanising people are not shown;
v. scenes which have the effect of justifying or glorifying drinking are not shown;
vi. scenes tending to encourage, justify or glamorise drug addiction are not shown;
vii. scenes tending to encourage, justify or glamorise consumption of tobacco or
smoking are not shown;
viii. human sensibilities are not offended by vulgarity, obscenity or depravity;
ix. such dual meaning words as obviously cater to baser instincts are not allowed;
x. scenes degrading or denigrating women in any manner are not presented;
xi. scenes involving sexual violence against women like attempt to rape, rape or any
form of molestation or scenes of a similar nature are avoided, and if any such
incidence is germane to the theme, they shall be reduced to the minimum and no
details are shown
xii. scenes showing sexual perversions shall be avoided and if such matters are
germane to the theme they shall be reduced to the minimum and no details are
shown
xiii. visuals or words contemptuous of racial, religious or other groups are not
presented
xiv. visuals or words which promote communal, obscurantist, anti-scientific and anti-
national attitude are not presented
xv. the sovereignty and integrity of India is not called in question;
xvi. the security of the State is not jeopardized or endangered
xvii. friendly relations with foreign States are not strained;
xviii. public order is not endangered
xix. visuals or words involving defamation of an individual or a body of individuals,
or contempt of court are not presented.
EXPLANATION: Scenes that tend to create scorn, disgrace or disregard of rules

or undermine the dignity of court will come under the term ''Contempt of Court'' :
and
xx. national symbols and emblems are not shown except in accordance with the
provisions of the Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950
(12 of 1950)
3. The Board of Film Certification shall also ensure that the film
i. Is judged in its entirety from the point of view of its overall impact; and

ii. Is examined in the light of the period depicted in the films and the contemporary
standards of the country and the people to which the film relates provided that the
film does not deprave the morality of the audience.
4. Films that meet the above – mentioned criteria but are considered unsuitable for
exhibition to non-adults shall be certified for exhibition to adult audiences only.
5.
i. While certifying films for unrestricted public exhibition, the Board shall ensure
that the film is suitable for family viewing, that is to say, the film shall be such
that all the members of the family including children can view it together.
ii. If the Board, having regard to the nature, content and theme of the film is of the
opinion that it is necessary to caution the parents / guardian to consider as to
whether any child below the age of twelve years maybe allowed to see such a
film, the film shall be certified for unrestricted public exhibition with an
endorsement to that effect.
iii. If the Board having regard to the nature, content and theme of the film, is of the
opinion that the exhibition of the film should be restricted to members of any
profession or any class of persons, the film shall be certified for public exhibition
restricted to the specialized audiences to be specified by the Board in this behalf.
6. The Board shall scrutinize the titles of the films carefully and ensure that they are not
provocative, vulgar, offensive or violative of any of the above-mentioned guidelines.
The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) (often referred to as the Censor Board) is a
statutory censorship and classification body under the Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, Government of India. It is tasked with "regulating the public exhibition of films
under the provisions of the Cinematograph Act 1952". Films can be publicly exhibited in India
only after they are certified by the Board, including films shown on television. CBFC India is
considered to be one of the most powerful film censor boards in the world due to its strict ways
of functioning.
Contents
History[
Though the first film in India (Raja Harishchandra) was produced in 1913 by Dadasaheb Phalke,
the Indian Cinematograph Act was passed and came into effect only in 1920. Censor Boards (as

they were called then) were placed under police chiefs in cities of Madras (now Chennai),
Bombay (now Mumbai), Calcutta (now Kolkata), Lahore (now in Pakistan) and Rangoon
(now Yangon in Burma). Regional censors were independent. After Independence autonomy of
regional censors was abolished and they were brought under the Bombay Board of Film Censors.
With the implementation of Cinematograph Act, 1927, the board was unified and reconstituted,
as the Central Board of Film Censors in 1952. Cinematograph (Certification) Rules were revised
in 1983 and since then the Central Board of Film Censors became known as the Central Board
of Film Certification.
Certificates and censorship

Films are certified under 4 categories. Initially, there were only two categories of certificates –
"U" (unrestricted public exhibition) and "A" (restricted to adult audiences). Two more categories
were added in June 1983 – "U/A" (unrestricted public exhibition subject to parental guidance for
children below the age of twelve) and "S" (restricted to specialized audiences such as doctors or
scientists). In addition to these certifications, the board may also refuse to certify.
 U (Unrestricted Public Exhibition)

Films with the U certification are fit for unrestricted public exhibition and are family friendly.
These films can contain universal themes like education, family, drama, romance, sci-fi, action
etc. Now, these films can also contain some mild violence, but it should not be prolonged. It may
also contain very mild sexual scenes (without any traces of nudity or sexual detail).
 U/A (Parental Guidance for children below the age of 12 years)

Films with the U/A certification can contain moderate adult themes, that is not strong in nature
and can be watched by a child under parental guidance. These films contain moderate to strong
violence, moderate sex scenes (very little traces of nudity and moderate sexual detail can be
found), frightening scenes or muted abusive and filthy language.
 A (Restricted to adults)
Films with the A certification are available for public exhibition, but with restriction to adults.
These films can contain heavily strong violence, strong sex (but full frontal and rear nudity is not
allowed usually), strong abusive language (but words which insults or degrades women are not
allowed), and even some controversial and adult themes considered unsuitable for young
viewers. Such films are often recertified for TV and video viewing, which doesn't happen in case
of U and U/A certified movies.
 S (Restricted to any special class of persons)

Films with S certification should not be viewed by the public. Only people associated with it
(Engineers, Doctors, Scientists, etc.), have permission to watch those films.
Additionally, V/U, V/UA, V/A are used for video releases with U, U/A and A carrying the same
meaning as above.
 Refusal to certify.
In addition to the certifications above, there is also the possibility of the board refusing to certify
the film at all.
Guidelines for certification :
1.
1. anti-social activities such as violence are not glorified or justified
2. the modus operandi of criminals, other visuals or words likely to incite the
commission of any offence are not depicted;
3. scenes -
1. showing the involvement of children in violence as victims or perpetrators
or as forced witnesses to violence, or showing children as being
subjected to any form of child abuse.
2. showing abuse or ridicule of physically and mentally handicapped
persons; and
3. showing cruelty to, or abuse of animals, are not presented needlessly
4. pointless or avoidable scenes of violence, cruelty, and horror, scenes of violence
primarily intended to provide entertainment and such scenes as may have the
effect of de-sensitizing or de-humanizing people are not shown;
5. scenes which have the effect of justifying or glorifying drinking are not shown;
6. scenes tending to encourage, justify or glamorize drug addiction are not shown;
7. scenes tending to encourage, justify or glamorize consumption of tobacco or
smoking are not shown;
8. human sensibilities are not offended by vulgarity, obscenity or depravity;
9. such dual meaning words as obviously cater to baser instincts are not allowed;
10. scenes degrading or denigrating women in any manner are not presented;
11. scenes involving sexual violence against women like attempt to rape, rape or any
form of molestation or scenes of a similar nature are avoided, and if any such
incidence is germane to the theme, they shall be reduced to the minimum and no
details are shown
12. scenes showing sexual perversions shall be avoided and if such matters are
germane to the theme they shall be reduced to the minimum and no details are
shown
13. visuals or words contemptuous of racial, religious or other groups are not
presented
14. visuals or words which promote communal, obscurantist, anti-scientific and anti-
national attitude are not presented
15. the sovereignty and integrity of India is not called in question;
16. the security of the State is not jeopardized or endangered
17. friendly relations with foreign States are not strained;
18. public order is not endangered
19. visuals or words involving defamation of an individual or a body of individuals,
or contempt of court are not presented. EXPLANATION: Scenes that tend to
create scorn, disgrace or disregard of rules or undermine the dignity of court will
come under the term ''Contempt of Court'' : and
20. national symbols and emblems are not shown except in accordance with the
provisions of the Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950
(12 of 1950)
2. The Board of Film Certification shall also ensure that the film
1. Is judged in its entirety from the point of view of its overall impact; and
2. Is examined in the light of the period depicted in the films and the contemporary
standards of the country and the people to which the film relates provided that
the film does not affect the morality of the audience
3. The Board shall scrutinize the titles of the films carefully and ensure that they are
not provocative, vulgar, offensive or violative of any of the above-mentioned
guidelines.
Enforcement
Since 2004, censorship is rigorously enforced. There have been reported instances where
exhibitor's staff - the booking clerk who sold the ticket, the usher who took minors to the seat,
the theatre manager and the partners of the theatre complex - were arrested for non-compliance
with certificate rules.
Composition and leadership

The Board consists of 25 other non-official members and a Chairperson (all of whom are
appointed by Central Government). Prasoon Joshi currently presides the board, being appointed
as the 28th Chairperson of the Board on 11 August 2017, after the ouster of Pahlaj Nihalani, who
was preceded by Leela Samson who had resigned after the CBFC's rejection of a certificate for
the film MSG: Messenger of God was overturned by an appellate tribunal. Earlier, Leela
Samson had succeeded Sharmila Tagore, who was the longest continuous running Chairperson in
the history. Nihalani was the 27th Chairperson after the Board's establishment. His appointment
was highly controversial given his propensity for censoring films instead of merely certifying
them.
The Board functions with its headquarters at Mumbai. It has nine Regional offices each at:
 Bangalore
 Chennai
 Cuttack
 Guwahati
 Hyderabad
 Kolkata

 Mumbai
 New Delhi
 Thiruvananthapuram
The Regional Offices are assisted in the examination of films by Advisory Panels. The members
of the panels are nominated by Central Government by drawing people from different walks of
life for a period of two years.
Chairpersons of the CBFC
No. Name From To
1 C S Aggarwal 15 January 1951 14 June 1954
2 B D Mirchandani 15 June 1954 9 June 1955
3 M D Bhatt 10 June 1955 21 November 1959
4 D L Kothari 22 November 1959 24 March 1960
5 B D Mirchandani 25 March 1960 1 November 1960
6 D L Kothari 2 November 1960 22 April 1965
7 B P Bhatt 23 April 1965 22 April 1968
8 R P Nayak 31 April 1968 15 November 1969
9 M V Desai 12 December 1969 19 October 1970
10 R Srinivasan 20 October 1970 15 November 1971

11 Virendra Vyas 11 February 1972 30 June 1976
12 K L Khandpur 1 July 1976 31 January 1981
13 Hrishikesh Mukherjee 1 February 1981 10 August 1982
14 Aparna Mohile 11 August 1982 14 March 1983
15 Sharad Upasani 15 March 1983 9 May 1983
16 Surresh Mathur 10 May 1983 7 July 1983
17 Vikram Singh 8 July 1983 19 February 1989
18 Moreshwar Vanmali 20 February 1989 25 April 1990
19 B P Singhal 25 April 1990 1 April 1991
20 Shakti Samanta 1 April 1991 25 June 1998
21 Asha Parekh 25 June 1998 25 September 2001
22 Vijay Anand[6] 26 September 2001 19 July 2002
23 Arvind Trivedi 20 July 2002 16 October 2003
24 Anupam Kher[7] 16 October 2003 13 October 2004

25 Sharmila Tagore[8] 13 October 2004 31 March 2011
26 Leela Samson 1 April 2011 16 January 2015
27 Pahlaj Nihalani 19 January 2015 11 August 2017
28 Prasoon Joshi 12 August 2017 Present
Controversies
CBFC has been associated with various scandals. Movie producers reportedly bribe the CBFC to
get 'U' certificate to avail 30% exemption in entertainment tax despite violent scenes and coarse
dialogues.
In 2002, the film War and Peace, depicting scenes of nuclear testing and the September 11, 2001
attacks, created by Anand Patwardhan, was asked to make 21 cuts before it was allowed to have
the certificate for release. Patwardhan objected, saying "The cuts that they asked for are so
ridiculous that they won't hold up in court" and "But if these cuts do make it, it will be the end of
freedom of expression in the Indian media." The court decreed the cuts unconstitutional and the
film was shown uncut. The same year, Indian filmmaker and former chief of the country's film
censor board, Vijay Anand, kicked up a controversy with a proposal to legalize the exhibition
of X-rated films in selected cinemas across the country, saying "Porn is shown everywhere in
India clandestinely ... and the best way to fight this onslaught of blue movies is to show them
openly in theatres with legally authorized licences". He resigned within a year after taking charge
of the censor board after facing widespread criticism of his moves.
In 2003, CBFC banned the film Gulabi Aaina (The Pink Mirror), a film on
Indian transsexuals produced and directed by Sridhar Rangayan. The censor board cited that the
film was "vulgar and offensive". The filmmaker appealed twice again unsuccessfully. The film
still remains banned in India, but has screened at numerous festivals all over the world and won
awards. The critics have applauded it for its "sensitive and touching portrayal of marginalised
community".
In 2004, the documentary Final Solution, which looks at religious rioting
between Hindus and Muslims, was banned. The film follows 2002 clashes in the western state
of Gujarat, which left more than 1,000 people dead. The censor board justified the ban, saying it
was "highly provocative and may trigger off unrest and communal violence". The ban was lifted
in October 2004 after a sustained campaign.

In 2006, seven states (Nagaland, Punjab, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh) have banned the
release or exhibition of the Hollywood movie The Da Vinci Code (and also the book), although
the CBFC cleared the film for adult viewing throughout India. However, the respective high
courts lifted the ban and the movie was shown in the two states.
The CBFC demanded five cuts from the 2011 American film The Girl with the Dragon
Tattoo because of some scenes containing rape and nudity. The producers and the director David
Fincher finally decided not to release the film in India.
In 2013, Kamal Haasan's Vishwaroopam was banned from the screening for a period of two
weeks in Tamil Nadu.
A CEO of CBFC was arrested in August 2014 for accepting bribes for speedy clearance.
In 2015, the CBFC demanded four cuts (three visual and one audio) from the art-house
Malayalam feature film Chaayam Poosiya Veedu (The Painted House) directed by
brothers Santosh Babusenan and Satish Babusenan because the film contained scenes where the
female lead was shown in the nude. The directors refused to make any changes whatsoever to the
film and hence the film was denied a certificate.
Chairperson of CBFC Leela Samson resigned alleging political interference after the CBFC's
rejection of a certificate for the film MSG: Messenger of God was overturned by an appellate
tribunal. She was later replaced by Pahlaj Nihalani. His appointment caused more than half the
board members to resign alleging Pahlaj Nihalani is close to the present ruling party.
CBFC was panned by social media for reducing two kissing scenes in the movie Spectre.
In 2016, the film Udta Punjab, produced by Anurag Kashyap and Ekta Kapoor among others,
ran into trouble with the CBFC, resulting in a very public re-examination of the ethics of film
censorship in India. The film, which depicted a structural drug problem in the state of Punjab,
used a lot of expletives and showed scenes of drug use. The CBFC, on 9 June 2016, released a
list of 94 cuts and 13 pointers, including the deletion of names of cities in Punjab. On 13 June,
the film was cleared by the Bombay High Court with one cut and disclaimers. The court ruled
that, contrary to the claims of the CBFC, the film was not out to "malign" the state of Punjab,
and that it "wants to save people". Thereafter, the film was faced with further controversy when a
print of it was leaked online on a torrent site. The quality of the copy, along with the fact that
there was supposedly a watermark that said "censor" on top of the screen, raised suspicions that
the CBFC itself had leaked the copy to spite the filmmakers. It also contained the only scene that
had been cut according to the High Court order. While the CBFC claimed innocence, the
lingering suspicions resulted in a tense release, with the filmmakers and countless freedom of
expression advocates taking to social media to appeal to the public to watch the film in theatres,
as a conscious challenge against excessive censorship on art in India. Kashyap himself asked
viewers to wait till the film released before they downloaded it for free, stating that he didn't
have a problem with illegal downloads, an unusual thing for a film producer to say. The film
eventually released and grossed over $13 million finishing as a commercial success. In August

2017, soon after his removal as CBFC Chief, Nihalani revealed in an interview that he had
received instructions from the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting to block the release of
the film.
In 2017, the film Lipstick Under My Burkha directed by Alankrita Shrivastava and produced
by Prakash Jha, also ran into trouble with the CBFC which refused to certify the film, stating that
"The story is lady oriented, their fantasy above life. There are contagious [sic] sexual scenes,
abusive words, audio pornography and a bit sensitive touch about one particular section of
society." Internationally, the film had been screened in over 35 film festivals across the world
and notably earned eleven international awards prior to its official release in India, becoming an
eligible entry for the Golden Globe Award Ceremony. The filmmakers appealed this decision to
the Film Certification Appellate Tribunal (FCAT), which overruled the censor board's ruling,
thereby granting the film a theatrical release rights. FCAT asked the filmmakers to make some
cuts, mostly related to the sex scenes, at their discretion. The film released with an "A" or adults
certificate, equivalent to an NC-17 rating in the United States, with some voluntary edits.
Shrivastava told Agence-France Presse: "Of course I would have loved no cuts, but the FCAT
has been very fair and clear. I feel that we will be able to release the film without hampering the
narrative or diluting its essence."
In August 2017, Pahlaj Nahalani was removed as the Chairperson of the CBFC. In an interview
days after his removal, he revealed that the Government of India had, in at least two instances,
issued direct instructions to the Board on blocking or delaying the release of particular films.
An Overview of Indian Contemporary Film Industry

CONTEMPORARY INDIAN CINEMA (2000 – PRESENT)
The 21st century was when Indian cinema finally found some sort of a balance between the ever
genres of popular commercial and parallel cinema. Several new films were produced which
brought to light the fact that Indian cinema could be meaningful and yet be commercially
successful. Some of the best movies of the past decade have been – Lagaan (2001), Devdas
(2002), Koi... Mil Gaya (2003), Rang De Basanti (2006), Lage Raho Munnabhai (2006), Chak
De India (2007), , Wake Up Sid, No Smoking, Dev D, Mr and Mrs Iyer, Raincoat, My Brother
Nikhil, Mumbai Meri Jaan, Aks, Pinjar, Monsoon Wedding, Omkara, Maqbool, Oye Lucky
Lucky Oye, Khosla Ka Ghonsla, Blue Umbrella, Seher, Naach, Aamir, Astitva, Zubeida,
Hazaaron Khwaishein Aisi, Manorama Six Feet Under, Black Friday, Matribhoomi, Haasil and
more recently Peepli Live. Among the mainstream films, Lagaan won the Audience Award at the
Locarno International Film Festival and was nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the
74th Academy Awards, while Devdas and Rang De Basanti were both nominated for the
BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Language Film.

Though India has always been partial to its film stars, with actors like Amitabh Bacchan, Shah
Rukh Khan, Amir Khan, Salman Khan and Akshay Kumar having careers which span decades, it
has also of late become open to new and young talent like Ranbir Kapoor, Abhay Deol, Neil
Nitin
Mukesh and John Abraham.
The 2000‘s saw a growth in the popularity of Indian cinema all over the world. After a very long
time mainstream Indian films seemed to have caught the fancy of the international markets. The
lines of distribution which had been silently working towards commercial distribution of Indian
films abroad found themselves in demand in over 90 countries outside of its own. Dev Benegal's
ROAD MOVIE (2010) was sold for international distribution before it was sold in India. This
was just the right amount of boost that the filmmakers required and there was a marked
improvement in the quality of the content produced with superior technological innovations in
cinematography, special effects and story lines. The earlier trends in cinema had sought only to
please the Indian audiences, but this has changed with time and now films are made with a global
perspective in mind. The entire film experience is no longer limited to the cinema halls. There
are now progressive pre release marketing, promotions of television channels and radio.
Old film production studios that had monopolised the market in the 90‘s reinvented themselves
to suit the new Indian cinema goer‘s preferences (Like Yash Raj Films and Dharma
Productions). Those which could not change were left behind in the race. Economic growth of
the country in general and rising disposable income levels in particular clubbed with the
gradually liberalising attitude of the Government by bringing forth favourable regulatory
initiatives liberalized the foreign direct investment in the Indian film industry. Since 100% FDI
was allowed in Film Industry including film financing, production, distribution, exhibition, and
marketing and associated activities related to film industry. This resulted in a lot of foreign
companies like Time Warner, Paramount, 20th Century Fox, Fox Searchlight and Disney to
either setup offices in India or enters into lucrative partnerships with the existing production
houses.
If the early pioneers like Dadasaheb Phalke, Bhatavdekar and Hiralal Sen were to see the
progress that the industry has made they would be nothing short of astonished. For the past 103
years India has been home to a very lucrative global enterprise – the Film Industry. India is the
largest producer of films (annually) in the world.
In the year 2009, despite the economic slowdown, India produced more than 3000 films (over
1315 feature films). The Indian film industry today easily eclipses Hollywood both in terms of
the number of films produced and theatrical admissions. Indian films find a market not only
domestically but also in over 100 different countries across the globe. According to a recent
report by the research firm KPMG, the industry is currently worth about US$ 1.8 billion and is
expected to grow at a CAGR of 16 per cent for the next 5 years to reach US$ 3.8 billion in 2011.
The industry has shown consistent growth both commercially and creatively. With time it has
produced countless award winning films and directors who have received the highest honours at

prestigious film festival and award functions on an international level. But the current challenge
that lies before the industry today is to learn how to market its content effectively.
Fortunately the trade pundits have given indications of some very strong growth drivers like
expansion of multiplex screens resulting in better realizations of revenue, increase in number of
digital screens facilitating in wider film prints releases, enhanced penetration of home video
segment, increase in number of TV channels fuelling demand for film content and improving
collections from the overseas markets. Nevertheless, the challenges like managing cost of
production to arrest the fall in profitability levels, increasing competition from other media,
constant supply pressure, piracy and regulatory hurdles are keeping the industry from performing
to the best of its capabilities. Regardless, several market reports (by KPMG and PWC) project
limitless growth for the industry in the years to come.

Multiplex Culture in India

shortage of cinemas in India, and their different clientele, appears to suggest the continuanceof
the older cinema circuit along with its new, upmarket cousin it is also the case that the patrons of
this two-
tier infrastructure are becoming not only economically, but also spatially,separated.While this
segregating effect can be cast as symptomatic of the processes of globalisation, thesignificance
of the multiplexes in India in this regard should be related in the first place to theinternal tensions
inherent in the longstanding uneven development of India in socio-economicterms, as well to the
legacy of feudal and colonialist spatialities. Leela Fernandes has noted that: ‗The expansion of
such socio-cultural spaces for the changing lifestyles of the middleclasses in liberalising India
rests on the creation of a new urban aesthetics of class purity‘(2004: 2420). While the concept of
purity has some relationship to the ‗cleanliness‘ desired by suburban multiplex patrons in
Britain, it is important to recognise that it has very particular connotations in the Indian social
imagination, significantly shaping popular attitudes towardsfellow citizens as well as to the
environment itself in ways that both exacerbate and transcend class society (see Sharan
2002, Mawdsley 2004). At the same time, it is equally apparent thatthe multiplex is also
indicative of the impact of global economic trends on the urbanlandscape (Gandelsonas 2005,
Koolhaas 2005).The process of dislocation between the consuming classes and the rump of the
Indian population is thus commensurate, and intimately entwined, with the liberal
economic policiesand urban redevelopment agendas currently being pursued by the Indian
government. In thatsense, local histories do not exist in isolation from global histories, rather
they exist in bothcomplementary and contradictory interactions within the lived environment,
variouslyreinforcing and refuting the ideological power of the forces of conservatism
and modernisation. On both counts, it may be pertinent in the light of the present history
of themultiplex for film scholars to revisit and even reconsider their claims made upon the
cinemahall and its occupants as the site of a nascent democratic principle. By contrast, the story
of the multiplex to date appears to provides greater support for Partha Chatterjee‘s predictionthat,
frustrated with the burden of development and the politicisation of the masses: ‗The elitewill
form its own community - a spatially bound interpersonally networked subculture...[with]
segregated and exclusive space for shops, restaurants, arts and entertainment aimed atthis
clientele‘ (Chatterjee, 2004, 144-145).
A Legacy Of Public History
From the account given here, we can clearly see the antecedents of the multiplex in thehistory of
the cinema crowd and the conflicts that have been constituted within and around thecinema hall.
Taking these factors into account we begin to see how the multiplex has beenconsciously
deployed in India in order to solve the ‗problem‘ of the cinema from a particular set of
perspectives. It is apparent that the (re)appearance of cinema as an extension of environmentally-
regulated retail leisure has been predisposed by a series of ideologicalmotives (and social
anxieties) deeply ingrained amongst the middle classes pertaining to thesuitable composition of
the audience and the appropriate ritual purpose of the cinemaexperience. At the same time, it is
important to recognise that the ground for spatialsegregation has long been laid. Indeed, it was
one of the intrinsic principles in the formalorganisation of the colonial city and, in the post-
socialist era, it is relatively unsurprising tosee its revival in the commercially-oriented urban
redevelopment agendas being pursued under the instrument of the Jawaharlal Nehru National
Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM).38

This ‗reclamation‘ of public space is enacted through the production of new, exclusive formsof
social space under the rubric of ‗urban renewal‘. In the specific case of the multiplex
this process should be further seen as part of (and a response to) the history of social contestwithi
n (and outside) the cinema hall.The twenty-year time-lag between the debut of the ‗true‘
multiplex and its adoption in India isalso proving to be a significant factor in the shaping of the
Indian multiplex; not least becauseit brings with it to India particular histories, technologies and
rationales and the terminologiesthat go with them. However, while the proponents of the Indian
multiplex have enjoyed
the benefits of adopting a tested ‗international‘ formula, they have also been required toaccommo
date or overwrite the particular nature of the Indian cinema and its idiosyncraticcommercial
culture, aesthetic mobilisations and modes of operation. So whilst it remainsuseful to analyse the
multiplex in terms of ‗impact‘, it is also the case that the status of themultiplex cinema in India is
determined in a large part by a public history that
has predetermined its arrival. The multiplex is also, of course, further subject to the existingtensi
ons within the market itself. As such, the following chapter will seek to situate themultiplex
within the specific industrial context of the Indian cinema.
Piracy and Indian Cinema
Definition: Piracy refers to the unauthorized duplication of copyrighted content that is then
sold at substantially lower prices in the 'grey' market. The ease of access to technology has
meant that over the years, piracy has become more rampant. For example, CD writers are
available off the shelf at very low prices, making music piracy a simple affair.
Description: Many laws have been made to prevent privacy. Internationally, the laws for
punishing piracy in developed countries are stringent and punitive in nature. In Asian
countries and more in India too, it does not get the attention at the national level due to more
engaging issues at hand. However, the industry, especially the IT and music industry, has
been taking active interest in stemming the rot. These organizations identify sources of
music piracy and then conduct raids with the help of the police. However, convictions are
few and the penalties not harsh enough to act as a deterrent.
Piracy is done in many ways like video piracy, cable piracy, and DVD/CD piracy. Video
piracy takes place when a film is produced in the form of a videocassette without proper
authorization from the right holder i.e. the producer. Often, film producers sell video rights
to another party (generally after six weeks or more of release in theatres), which makes

video cassettes for selling, or lending.
The videocassettes on sale are meant for home viewing only. Cable piracy refers to
unauthorised transmission of films through cable network. Very often, films, especially the
new releases, are shown through cable without permission from the rights holder. Piracy is a
rare phenomenon in satellite channels because these are organised and generally do not
show films without buying proper rights.
Music piracy refers to the unauthorised replication of music cassettes that flood the market
as soon as the launch of a new release. Music companies' revenues hit hard by the deluge of
pirated compact discs and cassettes, as these are available at substantially lower prices
compared to that at stores.
DVD/VCD piracy of Indian films happens in the international markets. The prints sent for
overseas screening of the film are pirated, typically at any of the Middle East country
airports. DVD/VCD prints are prepared and are send to Pakistan. From Pakistan, these
prints may even travel to Nepal and enter the country by land.
A look at the losses to the film industry thanks to smartphones, camcorders and hi-
tech projectors
2016 is turning out to be a terrible year for filmmakers. Piracy is affecting the industry
globally and is spreading like wildfire. The estimated yearly revenue loss globally is to the
tune of US$ 5-6 billion . According to some estimates, the Indian industry too is bleeding as
much as to $2.7 billion annually.
There is no doubt that piracy has eaten into the business of cinema. This year, it has affected
films even before their release. There were widespread allegations that the piracy of films
like Udta Punjab, which found their way to torrent sites ahead of their theatrical releases,
were actually the handiwork of some in the censor board.
The films most affected by piracy this year are Udta Punjab, Great Grand
Mastiand Sultan in Hindi, and 24 and Kabali in Tamil. In the case of Udta Punjab and Great
Grand Masti, the piracy affected the film even before its release!

Meanwhile, 24 and Kabali‘s leaks are said to have taken place after the first day first show
of the film. According to a press release issued by Qube, the popular digital cinema
provider, forensic watermarking showed that 24 was illegally recorded during the morning
show on its release day at a popular multiplex chain‘s screen in a Bengaluru mall.
Earlier this year, Vemal‘s Mapla Singam was leaked a month before its release. But what is
shocking is that more and more Tamil films are getting leaked online. As per trade analysts,
the reason for the sharp decline in collections for star-driven movies after the opening
weekend is piracy.
Earlier, the origin of pirated copies emerged from prints sent to overseas markets, which
made their way into Tamil Nadu only a day after release there. In recent times, this has
changed, largely due to technology.
A large number of individuals based in Bengaluru and parts of Tamil Nadu, seem to be
indulging in piracy using smartphones or camcorders or even E-projectors (not 2K or 4K) to
record from theatres in small towns. According to a recent survey carried out by the anti-
piracy cell, pirated movies in India are today seen more ―on the move, in trains and planes,
on smartphones and laptops‖.
Today, big film producers get a ‗John Doe‘ order from a court before release. It means the
onus is on the Internet service provider (ISP) to block access to every website/torrent site
that may facilitate illegal downloads of a movie. Dealing with piracy and copyright issues in
the digital world is a tricky and futile business. If you shut down a few torrent sites, others
mushroom just hours later.
Producer, distributor and exhibitor Abirami Ramanathan, who recently spoke on this issue,
says, ―We have caught nearly 20 theatres in Tamil Nadu for abetting piracy, and some of
them were charged with the Goonda Act. But after a few weeks, the persons concerned
came out on bail. At a certain multiplex chain in Bengaluru, as many as seven Tamil films
were pirated over the course of two months. The multiplex chain claims it was done by
unknown individuals withouts its knowledge. However, we have moved a criminal case and
have solid evidence that it could not have taken place without their knowledge.‖

Piracy is now the biggest menace facing Kollywood. The industry, which must stand
together to fight it, is however divided over the issue, as the Nadigar Sangam and Tamil
Film Producers Council (TFPC) are subscribing to two different viewpoints.
Rajkumar Akella, chairman, Anti-Video Piracy Cell, and head, Rentrak (now comScore)–
India, says, ―Rapidly growing technology is making the job of pirates easier and simpler by
the day. During the post-production stages, content can now be easily copied with a simple
pen drive and spread across the world instantly. Sadly, the industry in India is only now
coming to terms with the menace.‖
Now, how can this issue be tackled effectively? The youth, who are the main consumers
of cinema, need to be educated about its ill-effects through knowledge sharing. A statutory
warning (like anti-smoking warnings) should be attached to all films too. The government
should formulate an aggressive policy to fight piracy. The proposed law that viewing,
downloading, exhibiting or duplicating an illicit copy of copyrighted content on a blocked
site could attract a three-year prison term and a fine up to Rs.3 lakh, could become a
deterrent for perpetrators. Unless the Tamil film industry unites in its fight, the future of the
cinema business looks bleak.
Movie piracy: threat to the future of films intensifies

Almost 30% of Britons are now watching movies illegally online or buying counterfeit DVDs,
costing the industry £500m a year
'There's a perception it's a victimless crime, but it's not,' says Mark Batey of the FDA.
Photograph: Getty Images
The movie industry excels in selling dreams. But since the dawn of the digital revolution, there is
one narrative they've consistently and conspicuously failed to sell: that piracy is theft and
consumers who indulge ought to feel guilty about it. Recent research by Ipsossuggests that
almost 30% of the UK population is active in some form of piracy, either through streaming
content online or buying counterfeit DVDs. Such theft costs the UK audiovisual industries about
£500m a year.
Given such scale, why has that the message failed to sink in? "There's a perception that it's a
victimless crime," says Mark Batey, chief executive of trade body the Film Distributors'
Association. "But it's not. There are just a handful of super successes every year among hundreds

of movies that are brought to market. And when a film is copied or made available online, it
reduces the value of that film around the world."
This, says Batey, can be particularly detrimental to the independent film-maker who may have
spent years raising money for the film and may have had to remortgage their house.
Former lobbyist and US senior government official Jean Prewittagrees. "The impact of piracy
tends to play out differently and arguably more immediately on the independent sector than it
does on the studios," she says. "The indies are totally dependent on local distributors in all
countries to take risk and invest in the making of a film before it is made. This is how these films
get financed."
Prewitt, who now heads the Independent Film and Television Alliance, points to its members
who go to markets at festivals such as Cannes, Berlin and the American Film Market in Los
Angeles (which is produced by IFTA) to present their project to buyers, who pre-commit to the
film and then take it when it is finished, guaranteeing a minimum level of royalties to the film-
maker.
These pre-sales are then taken to a bank and used as collateral to finance the film. If the pre-sales
aren't secured, the bank won't loan the money and the film doesn't get off the ground.
"Distributors are not able to take the risks they used to. What this means to the consumer is not
that some producers don't get rich, it means the product doesn't get made."
At risk from piracy ... Dallas Buyers Club. Photograph: Anne Marie Fox
Each year, a huge number of these independent films are lauded at the Oscars: Dallas Buyers
Club, 12 Years a Slave, American Hustle and The Wolf of Wall Street all went to market to seek
independent financing.
This reduction of revenue caused in part by piracy has also resulted in studios and production
houses making less adventurous choices when it comes to films – just think of the prequels,
sequels and remakes hitting screens this summer. Similarly, streaming television content illegally
has a huge effect on the business, says Gareth Neame, executive producer of Downton Abbey.
"Broadcasters will pay us money upfront, but it's not sufficient to cover the cost of the whole
production, so we look at the long-term value of our product and, based on all the ways we can
exploit this, we cashflow against anticipated revenues," he says. "If it comes to pass that the
show doesn't make those revenues because of illegal downloads, we don't recoup the money, and
we have to be more cautious.

"Long term, movies and TV and other content simply won't be created in the first place. One
may think an individual act of piracy doesn't matter, but if that becomes a way of life then the
value of intellectual property becomes eroded, shows like Downton Abbey won't get made."
Phil Clapp, chief executive of trade organisation the Cinema Exhibitors' Association, says that
cinemas are losing about £220m a year at the UK box office due to piracy, representing about
two months' income in an average year.
"We recognise that the vast majority of illegal content starts its life in the cinema, and because
we remain the key source we have put a huge amount of effort into making our sites more secure
and training staff and giving them the ability to take action," he says.
Clapp adds that the financial impact is felt most acutely by the long list of people you see on the
credits of a film. "Makeup artists, costume designers,, studios and facilities, even box office staff
– they are the ones who are greatly affected by this loss of revenue."
Piracy hurts TV too ... Downton Abbey. Photograph: Nick Briggs/Carnival Films
According to a 2010 TERA report, up to a quarter of a million jobs will be at risk if nothing is
done about copyright infringement in the UK by 2015.
Alex Hamilton, managing director of eOne Films UK, which has brought films such as
the Twilight saga and 12 Years a Slave to British theatres, agrees with that assessment.
"The audiovisual industry supports hundreds of thousands of people's livelihoods and if the
industry has trouble supporting itself, it's going to put people out of work," he says. "People
aren't pirating to make themselves better or put food on the table; they are doing it for
recreational purposes. An individual has to acknowledge that their actions don't exist in
isolation."
There are a number of ways to consume content legally, says Hamilton, from cinema to video on
demand subscriptions such as Amazon Prime and Netflix, and the cost is relatively low. Another
crucial point pirates should understand is that nothing is free. When a consumer streams illegal
content, these sites are making money, either through advertising or subscription costs.
"It's straightforward plagiarism for profit," says Prewitt. "Every consumer click is driving
legitimate dollars out of the legal industry and into the pockets of these criminals."
The Federation Against Copyright Theft (Fact) works with law enforcement agencies to
prosecute piracy but also works to educate the public on the consequences of copyright
infringement.

"One message that is key is that, whether you're pirating physical copy or streaming, you are
putting money into the hands of a criminal," says Kieron Sharp, director general of Fact.
Many pirates who produce counterfeit DVDs on a large scale can be traced to organised crime
rings in the far east, he says, who then reinvest that money in other strands of criminal activity,
such as prostitution, drugs and dog-fighting. "Our view is that most of these people [who stream
illegally] are film and TV fans and we want them on our side, not on the side of criminals, who
will profit from their consumption."
Fact general counsel Byron Jacobson says the organisation has also been working hard to prevent
companies from advertising on infringing websites. There seems to be evidence, he says, of a
significant decrease in the number of high-street brands doing so.
And while Fact has proved to be a strong backbone for the entertainment industry when it comes
to copyright infringement, support from outside the business has waned.
Out of business ... film sales stands at Cannes's Marche du Film Photograph: Loic
Venance/AFP/Getty Images
The UK coalition government has moved slowly in implementing the Digital Economy Act,
which addresses policy issues related to digital media, including copyright infringement, and it
has been an uphill struggle to get internet service providers to help combat the issue.
However, there is light at the end of the tunnel. In the UK, BT, Sky, Virgin Media and TalkTalk
have reached a deal with the Motion Picture Association and the BPI, which represents the
British music industry to send "educational" letters to customers who have downloaded illegal
content. The process is expected to come into effect in 2015.
"The difficulty is there is no end point," says one industry insider. "It's not really going to divert
or stop even medium-level or hardcore pirates. Maybe it will quash the nervous teenager, but
that's about it."
And it's not just the entertainment industry that will suffer if the value of copyright is not
respected, says Neame. "IP businesses and learning-based business industries are hugely
increasing in the west," he says. "The erosion of IP will have an increasingly large impact on the
global economies and economies in Europe. It's important that we try to educate people to
behave like responsible citizens and to be honest and understand why copyright matters."
How can we stop piracy?

To check piracy, Bollywood is looking to use the Electronic Sell Through (EST) mechanism for
the digital sale of films, according to a study by global advisory firm Deloitte. Through EST,
consumers can buy digital copies of films for unlimited viewing on demand via the Internet,
mobile and cable in exchange of a transactional fee.
"The country's film industry continues to lose around Rs 50 billion in revenues and over 50,000
jobs every year due to piracy. India is one of the top countries witnessing peer-to-peer file-
sharing infringement worldwide," the report said.
Although there is no immediate solution to curb piracy, the filmmakers are trying to counter the
menace with increasing digitisation of the movie prints, it added. In India, about 60% of the box-
office collections are made during the first week of release of a movie. Digital cinema
distribution firms are going for digital prints of the films, the report said.
"A big-budget Hindi movie, which would have been released earlier with 400 500 prints, now
enjoys a wider release with almost 1,000-1,500 prints. Further, with an increasing demand for an
alternative source of entertainment for the home audience, filmmakers will look at Digital EST
and online VOD (video on demand) transactions to garner revenue," it said.
Taking cinema to the audience in this way will generate more money and start making up for the
DVD business, which is dying worldwide, it added. The report further said that content will be
the king and Bollywood filmmakers will experiment with themes like biopics and reality.
"The change in fortune for Indian cinema has happened due to experimentation with different
genres by Indian filmmakers, and this is expected to continue in future," it noted. The Indian
audience has also opened up to new genres and recent success of films like Badlapur, NH 10,
Talvar is a proof of the change in taste of moviegoers, the report said.
"In the coming days, we are likely to see more experiments from the filmmakers in terms of
depiction of reality, biopics on the lives of famous personalities like M S Dhoni, Saina Nehwal,
and Sanjay Dutt," it added.

Hollywood's earnings in India have largely been disappointing. ProfessorLakshmi Iyer believes
the problem has more to do with intellectual pirates than the cinematic kind.
by Kim Girard
In 2007, Sony Pictures became the first multinational studio to enter the India film
business known as Bollywood with its $7 million film Saawariya. The movie
grossed only $9 million. That same year, Walt Disney Pictures collaborated with
Yash Raj Studios, one of India's leading production houses, to make the $3.5
million Roadside Romeo. The first-of-its-kind animated Hindi movie barely broke
even.
All told, Hollywood studios invested an estimated $100 million on producing films
in India between 2007 and 2009. But box-office profits were hard to come by,
despite the power of India's growing middle class, and the fact that India's film
industry sold 3.2 billion tickets in 2009.
―MOVIE PIRACY IN INDIA IS RAMPANT—YOU CAN GET ONE ONLINE THE DAY
AFTER A RELEASE‖
Harvard Business School Associate Professor Lakshmi Iyer, a native of New Delhi, was
intrigued by Hollywood's failures, especially considering American films had made great inroads
in other countries. So she started to investigate a potential link between the disappointing box-
office receipts and intellectual property (IP) law.
In the case study Hollywood in India: Protecting Intellectual Property, Iyer and HBS India
Research Center researcher Namrata Arora uncover a complicated mix of piracy and plagiarism
that harm not only Hollywood's efforts at success in the Indian market, but local Bollywood
companies as well. Iyer says the case can help students and practitioners understand the best
business strategies for firms to protect their intellectual property rights—one of the most
important growth drivers in the US economy—in developing markets.
The case is one of a series Iyer is developing that are linked to property rights in emerging
economies. Other case studies include an analysis of slum redevelopment in Mumbai, and an
ongoing investigation of the transfer of land from agricultural to industrial use in China.

Pirates On The Horizon
There are two primary types of IP theft for copyright industries, which include movies, music,
books, and software. Piracy—the illegal copying and distribution of movies—represents an
estimated loss to music and movie companies of up to $180 million a year in India. Plagiarism-
—making films based on the ideas, plots, characters, and other "inspirations" from famous
films—results in an uncalculated loss in royalties to the original writers and performers, and can
weaken IP protections for others if not enforced.
The case meets up with Vijay Singh, CEO of Fox Star Studios, to discuss a strategy for
protecting IP on the upcoming release of My Name is Khan in February 2010. Fox Star, a joint
venture between Hollywood's 20th Century Fox and Asia's STAR Television (both owned by
Rupert Murdoch's News Corp.), paid in excess of $22 million to acquire the film's global
distribution rights.
Students are asked to make some of the same cost-to-benefit analyses considered by Singh and
his team:
Should the mass-market price of DVDs be lowered from $5 or $10 to $1 or $2, which would
match prices charged by pirates? After examining the numbers, Iyer says students understand
that selling low is a losing strategy. "They take such a loss [on the profit margin] that the extra
sales don't make up for it."
Should a single release date be used for global distribution, instead of a staggered release? By the
time Fox Star Studios released Danny Boyle's megahit Slumdog Millionaire in India, several
months after its US release, most people there had already seen pirated versions. To answer this
problem, a distributor could choose a single worldwide release date. Doing so, however, would
negate cost savings achieved by reusing film copies across staggered release dates. Studios could
also limit a film's distribution to digital, not analog, screens, the copies tagged with electronic
watermarks so forgers could be traced—but there are very few digital screens in India. With
movie tickets in the country selling for only 57 cents on average, and a digital screen costing
$150,000, installing one usually doesn't make economic sense for theaters.
Should local theater owners be prosecuted for running pirated prints? Iyer says going to court is a
long and complicated process, with outcomes uncertain at best. For instance, it can be difficult to
successfully prosecute a theater owner if someone sneaks in and makes an unauthorized
camcorder recording.

Should studios go after Internet pirates? "Movie piracy in India is rampant—you can get one
online the day after a release," says Iyer. To police pirated copies online, a Hollywood company
could pay $100,000 to hire 50 monitors after a debut. But if 350,000 people are prevented from
illegally downloading one movie, and instead pay 57 cents to see the movie at a theater, is it
worth the cost? Yes, it probably would be worth it, she says.
Should Hollywood sue Bollywood production houses to fight plagiarism?This bet can be a lost
cause for American studios. After showing a couple of scenes of the Bollywood version of the
Will Smith movie Hitch, it was obvious to Iyer's students that it was a knockoff. But they were
divided, just as India's courts have been, about whether what they watched was plagiarism. The
words used in Bollywood films are different, and India's theatergoers perceive the movie's
dialogue differently than US audiences, students observed. And India's copyright law, similar to
the law in the United States, lacks a clear dividing line that defines plagiarism. "The ambiguity is
inherent in the product," Iyer says, making it difficult for Hollywood to collect anything in the
courts when its scripts are stolen.
Getting It Right
Despite the formidable challenges, Iyer found that Hollywood's efforts in India are far from a
lost cause, noting that all these problems can be addressed if a studio understands India and
develops a coherent strategy, as did Fox Star Studios. After some effort, Iyer persuaded Fox Star
execs to open up about how they succeeded in producing and distributing My Name is Khan in
the country. The first thing Fox did right? "They set up shop in India."
The company's previous release of the Hollywood blockbuster Avatar to the Indian market
created the blueprint. Fox Star aggressively distributed the film to over 700 screens and dubbed it
in three regional languages. Then, when the company introduced My Name is Khan, it put both
money and power behind the release. "It's going to be released in a way no Hindi film has been
released internationally before," the film's star, Shah Rukh Khan, says in the case.
First, CEO Singh took steps to keep Khan prints out of the hands of movie thieves. To prevent
hijacking of copies heading to theaters, a Fox Star employee accompanied every analog reel
released in theaters in India and abroad. The studio also hired antipiracy agencies across India
that worked with local police to raid illegal DVD-making facilities in the days following the
film's release. (The Mumbai police alone seized over 3,000 pirated DVDs of My Name is
Khan on February 18, 2010.)
India's film industry, said to be the largest globally with some 1,000 movies produced each year,
earns around $2 billion from legitimate sources such as screening at theatres, home videos and

TV rights. But with $2.7 billion, piracy earns 35 per cent more, and a way out has proved
elusive.
Red Chillies Entertainment, a production house promoted by actor Shah Rukh Khan, was a
victim of film piracy with 'Dilwale' last year. It grossed Rs 148 crore at the box office, but its
pirated version, circulated a day before its release, grossed a much higher amount, stakeholders
said.
Recent films like 'Kabali', 'Great Grand Masti' and 'Udta Punjab' have all faced similar music.
"Content theft or piracy in the film industry originates from 'camcording' in cinema halls. Over
90 per cent of new release titles originate from cinemas," said Uday Singh, Managing Director,
Motion Picture Distributors' Association (India).
"The infringing copies appear online within few hours of a film release," Singh told IANS, and
added: "The Indian film industry loses around Rs 18,000 crore ($2.7 billion) and over 60,000
jobs every year because of piracy."
This figure is also what the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) brandishes in its
magazine, quoting noted filmmaker Anurag Basu. While the Indian film industry is, indeed,
flourishing, piracy points toward how much more its stakeholders can make, he said.
According to the latest KPMG-Ficci report on the Indian media and entertainment sector, the
film industry here is projected to grow from Rs 138.2 billion ($2.09 billion) in 2015 to Rs 226.3
billion ($3.43 billion) by 2020 at an annual growth rate of 10.5 per cent. But piracy could also
grow exponentially unless checked.
"Currently, the government is focused on inclusive society initiatives, aimed at connecting

villages via broadband. This has the potential to incentivise piracy, as people would find it much
easier to watch a movie on their laptop than travel to far off theatres," the report said.
"Hence, there is need for a collective, structured, scientific, multi-pronged and proactive
approach to combat piracy."
Adding another dimension, Patrick Kilbride, Executive Director for International IP with Global
Intellectual Property Center of the US Chamber of Commerce, said piracy also limits the
economic contribution which creativity can make in India.
"Issues such as copyright infringement, film piracy, camcording and content leakage weaken the
industry by hampering the deserved revenue production," said Kilbride.

Stakeholders said some sophisticated technologies like the watermarking of prints, which allow
producers or rights holders to monitor the usage and movement of each print across the globe,
have also not been able to stop piracy.
"New technologies, including digitisation of film prints, have cut the cost of recording, storing
and copying of films for distribution. Risks involved in leaking and piracy have also increased
manifold," said Lavin Hirani, Head of Legal Affairs, Red Chillies Entertainment.
"Unfortunately, these technologies are not enough to protect the clandestine recording of pirated
versions -- done 90 per cent of the times with a camcorder or high-quality mobile camera in a
low-light setting of a cinema theatre, or from the projector room," Hirani said.
There is also the recent prevalence of pirated versions of Indian films swarming the market and
the Internet a day or two before their actual release, since distributors opt for a simultaneous
global screening, which requires the dispatch of prints some 10-12 days in advance.
"Some territories like in the UAE, they release films a day prior to the Indian release date --
which is typically a Friday. This is one of the reasons why a film is leaked before its actual
release," he added.
Rajkumar Akella, Chairman of the Anti Video Piracy Cell, Telugu Film Chamber of Commerce,
echoed a similar line of thought.
"Earlier, one odd film would get accidentally leaked before release date. But these days, pre-
release piracy leaks have become a recurring feature, which is very alarming for the industry,"
Akella told IANS.
What then is the solution?
Anurag Basu told WIPO that people need to understand piracy is a crime. The state blocks Web
sites that allow downloads of pirated films, which is good. This apart, DVD versions must be
available within a week or two after the formal release, as a wait of three-four months is a bit
long.
"Piracy is working because people can buy a (pirated) DVD for Rs 100 and a whole family can
watch it. We have to offer that kind of entertainment at that price. It has to be as easy to get an
original DVD as it is to get a pirated one," he said.
Hirani said there's no single method or step. "Possible measures would require concerted efforts

by all stakeholders, including the state and central governments which lose tremendous amount
of money in taxes from the sale, distribution and exhibition of films."
The Tamil Film Producer's Council (TFPC) is likely to halt the releases of latest Tamil films for
about three months to put movie pirates out of business.
On Sunday, at the general body meeting of TFPC, most of its members decided that the only way
to stop the problem of video piracy is to stop releases of films for at least three months.
"Piracy will automatically stop when there's no content. When we stop film releases, say for
three months, the movie pirates will go out of business. We are looking into this option because
film producers have suffered heavily in the last 24 months," Kalaipuli S Thanu, TFPC president
said.
"We haven't finalised on the decision yet. A resolution has been passed but we'd like to discuss
the idea with all the parties involved and only when found beneficial for everybody, will we
implement it. It's going to take some time," he said.
He also said need to be taken to develop better digital projection."Since all films are being
released digitally, it's becoming easier for movie pirates to copy content. We need better digital
projection measures. We will discuss with companies such as Qube and UFO to address this
problem as well," he said.The idea to ban release of films momentarily has come as a shocker to
the industry.
"Piracy has become a menace, but stopping the release of films is not a solution. Filmmakers are
already struggling to find a suitable window to release their films, and now this step to halt
release of films will make it worse," a leading producer said.
"Each Friday, a minimum of three Tamil films are releasing in cinemas. If you stop release of
films for three months, we are holding back about 36 films. Post the ban, these 36 films have to
battle it out with more films for release, which looks impossible," he said.
Filmmaker Cheran, who last week released his new Tamil film Jk Ennum Nanbanin Vaazhkai
via direct-to-home and DVD, said it's the "best option" available to stop piracy.

"If original DVD of a new film is available for Rs.50, why would anyone think of buying a
pirated copy? We all know the quality of pirated prints. I've sold nearly Rs 10 lakh DVDs of my
film in the first two days," he said.
"I don't mind if one person buys and shows it to his entire family. As long as people don't watch
pirated version of any film, I'm happy to release my films on DVD. Most households today have
access to digital TV, so new films can be released via direct-to-home medium as well," he added.
Cheran has plans to release his film Arjunan Kathali, which has been lying in the cans for long
time, using the same model.He has also floated a company called Cinema to Home (C2H), to
facilitate the release of films directly to home.
The possibility of a solution

Cases like these highlight the detrimental effect piracy has within the Nigerian film industry, but
also shows that the problem persists partly due to a serious lack of accountability, especially for
the distributors. Often when a movie ends up on the black market, it was leaked by a film
distributor who accepted a bribe from the pirate kingpins to give them a digital copy of the
movie for mass production. Even cinema operators have told news outlets pirates threaten them
if they do not hand over copies of the films they‘re playing.
The solution? Trust no one. Especially not the so-called ―legitimate‖ film distributors. In a recent
interview with The Africa Report, Congolese director Djo Tunda Wa Munga said he hopes to
tackle the piracy problem with what he called ―self-distribution‖, in other words finding his own
way to get his work in front of a paying audience, with no leaks along the way.
Luckily advances in technology means it‘s becoming increasingly possible for filmmakers to
prevent, or at least limit their movies from leaking, especially if they can control who has access
to it every step of the way. During the long chain of custody every film inevitably goes though,

filmmakers can track who has access to their work and, should it leak, discover where along the
chain it happened.
Secure distribution platforms like Screener Copy offer such a solution. Once a video file is
securely uploaded, the owner sends it to a pre-determined list of recipients. Each recipient
receives a unique copy of the file, embedded with an unnoticeable watermark forever linking
their copy to them. And if the film is leaked, the owner will be able to know who leaked it, at
what point it was leaked, and hold that person responsible.
With annual losses tallyingmore than $2 billion, the piracy problem in Nigeria needs a long-term
and sustainable fix. If the industry can start by creating a culture of accountability, Nollywood
can come together to take action and help this booming industry to survive.
Unit IV
Film Appreciation
What is film appreciation
Film analysis is the process in which a film is analyzed in terms of mise-en-scène,
cinematography, sound, and editing. One way of analyzing films is by the shot-by-shot analysis,
though that is typically used only for small clips or scenes. ... Different authors suggest various
approaches to film analysis
You watched a film. You noticed every single aspect of the film, from script to cinematography,
from acting to editing, from dialogues to music, from every scene to the complete idea,
everything.
Now you wrote your review about the film. This is film appreciation.For appreciating a film, you
need to understand the history of filmmaking, how the films were made in the past, and how they
are being made, and what progress can be achieved in the future cinema.
You must be able to understand what the director had in his mind while he made the film, To
what extent could he be just with the film, What could have been done better.In a nut shell, you,
after figuring out the plot of the film, have to imagine how would you have done the film, and in
comparison to your film, is it better or it could have been better.
To be able to appreciate there needs to be an ‗understanding‘ and that is what film appreciation is
all about for me. To help you understand the key dynamics of what film is made up of –
technology, art, industry. The next stage of the process hopefully would be to reflect on it and to
appreciate it.
To look back at the history of cinema is important as there lies the story of the evolution of the
language of cinema. To really understand what contemporary cinema is made up of we need to

look at what went before because on the foundation of the past is based the present and the
future.The language of cinema is universal which crosses all boundaries. Cinema has been
influenced by various artists, countries, innovators, art forms, businesses and the coming together
of these forces creates something unique which is cinema as we know it today. Understanding
these contributions makes the study of cinema more interesting and valuable.
‗Film Appreciation‘ is a humble attempt to make you aware of the potential of cinema and
empower the artist and audience aiming towards a more enriching experience.
Importance of Film Appreciation

The analysis of film enables viewers to truly appreciate the work as a form of art. It explains all
of the working parts, thusly encouraging a more complete understanding of the whole. This in
turn deepens the characters, conflicts, and theme of film making it more real or significant to the
viewer. While initially developing and implementing skills of analytical viewing are difficult.
With practice one will be able to analyze an entire move and describe how viewers find meaning
in a film. Also, one can develop their own personal criteria for analyzing film. After reaching
these goals the viewer will not only be able to enjoy the film emotionally but also intellectually.
Effectively analyzing a film is complex in that film is not static. In literature and screenplays one
is able to read and re-read the information because it remains motionless on the page. In film,
however the viewer must be able to process the non-verbal, and other visual ques. During critical
analysis of a film the critic must be able to view all of the elements separately but also
understand their relationship to the whole. The viewer must ask several questions prior to the
analysis of the film. Does the film have a unified plot? Is the story and characters credible? Is the
film interesting? Does the director create a simplistic yet complex film? Does the film handle
emotion with restraint (Boggs, 1996, pg. 6)?
A film with a unified plot enables the viewers to follow a stream of consciousness when viewing
the movie. It has a beginning, middle, and an end. In literary terms, a unified plot includes an
exposition, a rising action, a climax, and a denouement. The characters, theme, and plot are
developed as the film progresses. A logical sequence of events maintains a constant theme and
the conflict are resolved by elements or characters that have been introduced in the film. The
events bear a resemblance to cause and effect; this forces the actions to move the story along
(Boggs, 2008, pg. 41).
During analysis one must decide if the film is credible. To accomplish this, the plot and the
characters will fall into one of three categories. What is understood to be true, what could be
true, or what is convincingly created as a reality. Harsh realities often fall into what is understood
to be true. The audience knows that the protagonist will not always win and couples do not
always stay together. On the other hand, human emotions dictate a desire to experience "happy
endings." In these films, Romeo would have received his letter from Juliet. Lastly, a production
team will create a world of science fiction or fantasy. The objective viewer must decide whether
this is done skillfully. The audience's response to the film is directly correlated to the credibility
of the fantasy characters and the world of which they live. While all of these aspects can be

found in a majority of film, the critical viewer will understand that one follows closest to the
theme (Boggs, 2008, pg. 42).
The most evident aspect to a reviewer and the audience is the movie's ability to captivate. How
do the filmmakers make the movie interesting? While to the audience this can be dependent on
personal preference, the reviewer must remain objective to make this conclusion. Directors and
writers will create suspense throughout the movie to create the desire to keep watching. They
will usually provide the audience with clues hinting to possible outcomes. Another aspect of how
interesting the movie is the action. Whether it be external, or physical action or it is internal or
psychological action. As easily as the reviewer can see a duel or crash landing, they will be able
to see external action. Now, when the action takes place in the mind or emotionally for the
characters it is internal. They both however create movement that is essential to maintain the
audience's interest in the film (Boggs, 2008, pg. 46).
The complexity of the film should be taken into consideration during analysis. While it is
possible to over-simplify the theme, characters, or the plot of a film it is also possible to make it
too complex. Movies are essential created for consumption and as with all things consumed,
consumers have different opinions on what pleases them. So, it is possible for many people who
enjoy the complexity of a serious, thought-provoking film. On the other hand, it is just as simple
to find those who would rather be entertained and do not desire to be challenged during a film.
Either way as a critical reviewer, one should be able to recognize how well the film-maker
combines these to ideas. How well they are able to present complex ideas in a simple manner
without taking away from the meaning, and vice-versa (Boggs, 2008, pg. 48).
A final aspect in critical review of film to consider is its ability to present emotional material
with restraint. Normally the director will intend for the film to be reciprocated with a certain
emotional response from the audience. However, if the audience feels as though it is being
forced or coaxed to feeling a certain way it may have the opposite effect. As the objective
viewer, one will notice that emotional content can be presented in plot structure, character's
dialogue, musical score, and even visual cues. When analyzing the film, it is important to look at
all of these aspects to understand the effect that they have on the whole. To understand how the
emotional content is presented to add value to the film (Boggs, 2008, pg. 51).
People from across every economic, social, gender, cultural, and all other stratifications that can
be thought of watch movies. Knowing that people are innately different from one another leads
one to the conclusion, that there exist hundreds of different ways that individuals use to find
meaning in film. Meaning in cinema can be found and interpreted exclusively at face value. This
method of course does not fully value the vision of the filmmakers and does not allow for the
viewer to receive the complete experience that critical receptiveness would attain. When a
critical viewer attempts to find meaning in a film there are several different areas in which they
can search. The meaning of film can be found in its allegories, symbolism, metaphors, and
ironies (Boggs, 2008, pg. 55).
In cinema and literature, allegories create an additional meaning for what is being portrayed on
the screen. The characters normally cannot adopt distinctive personalities because their primary
role is to accurately portray something already in existence. In the film, Animal Farm, the

audience understands the different roles that each animal plays and their association to the actual
events that occurred in the early 1900s (Boggs, 2008, pg. 70).
Films often use symbolism to help the audience discover meaning beyond what is being shown.
Filmmakers will introduce a symbol that will arouse certain emotions, feelings, thoughts, and
connotations within the viewer. This skillful application of symbols can be done with the use of
natural or universally accepted signs or through by the director placing emphasis on the symbols
throughout the film. Because different natural or universally accepted symbols have different
meanings to different people there is some ambiguity in their meanings. For example, a common
association of bats in Western society is to demons or spirits, association of the night. While in
the East bats are a symbol of good fortune. When filmmakers want to apply meaning to symbols
that occur in the film they utilize methods, such as, repetition, value added by characters, and
context. When the director places emphasis on an object that otherwise would seem insignificant
by showing it to the audience. When the characters place emphasis on objects or identify
themselves through something, the audience understands that by considering the objects meaning
and its associations they will be able to better understand the character. In context, the director
will use a symbol to suggest a meaning to the audience through combining scenes, juxtaposition,
or relating the object to other images in the scene. In Batman, when Bruce Wayne's mother was
shot the audience is shown her pearl necklace being broken and falling to the ground an example
of juxtaposition (Boggs, 2008, pg. 71).
Often in cinema different metaphors are used to represent actions. Normally metaphors are
figures of speech that denote an object or idea to suggest likeness or analogies between them.
There exist two methods in creating metaphors in film, extrinsic and intrinsic metaphors.
Extrinsic metaphors a normally very similar to symbolism in film in that they are achieved by
juxtaposition or showing scenes simultaneously. In a romance the director could show a man and
woman making love and then show a bee pollinating a flower to show the miracle of life. The
intrinsic metaphors occur more naturally, the metaphor can now replace action. The director can
simply show the two people entering a room and then show the bees and the audience will
understand what is happening. Of course, the metaphor for the actions depicted is the birds and
the bees and many people grow up knowing and understanding its connotation (Boggs, 2008, pg.
80).
Quite the opposite of metaphors and similes is irony. Irony creates association through
differences; through the differences the audiences can draw similarities. There are many different
types of irony: dramatic, situational, characters, setting, tone, and cosmic. Audiences draw
meaning through irony by understanding the contradictions that exist in the film. In an example
of irony of character in Sling Blade, the audience sees that the formally institutionalized for
murder, Karl Childers, as a positive role model and even a father figure for Frank Wheatley. This
portrays to the audience a caring, loving side of Karl but also shows the hopelessness of Frank's
situation (Boggs, 2008, pg. 88).
Although viewers can find meaning through these devices, the most common methods are
through analyzing the plot and characters of a film. The audience is able to automatically identify
with these aspects and parallel personal experiences to find a meaning in a film. The conflict
which is central to the plot a film is what moves the movie along. Conflict centers on man versus

self, nature, society, or man. The characters portrayed in a film can be identified by the conflicts
that they will face and the audience will be able to deepen their understanding of characters
through the conflicts that they face. Firstly, the audience will see what actions lead to the
conflict. Secondly, the audience will see how the character copes with the situation, whether he
will rise to meet the challenge, remain static, or fail to act. Finally, the audience will be shown
how the character reaches a resolution adding depth to the character. The type of conflict and the
personality character who is facing it often develops the theme of a film. Once the nature of the
characters is establishes the viewers can find meaning in them. Is the protagonist a strong
minded, witty character who always is quick to act, like James Bond? The director's intention in
films like these is to glorify traits of heroism and fearlessness. Similarly, Jason Bourne portrays
many of the same traits but with distinct differences. Bourne is a neurotic and is on the run
seeking vengeance from the government who betrayed him while lacking the suave style
normally associated with Bond. While Bond classically a misogynist, Bourne is in love only with
one woman. Audiences find interpret these characters differently and value them in different
ways whether they like the values that the characters portray or not (Boggs, 2008, pg. 133).
Criteria for effectively analyzing a film will vary from person to person. The most important
objective is to establish a pattern, a system, or to evaluate films in way to ensure one covers
every aspect. Personally I have developed a system that allows me to enjoy a film on an
emotional level and then take a critical look at the different elements work together to create the
whole.
I do this by: locating a film, ensuring I have a clear open mind, watching the film first to
determine interest and initial impressions. Then I will watch the film again to carefully analyze
literary elements, such as, setting, plot, characters, and symbols. After the film is completed it is
important to reflect on several questions. What is the theme of the movie? I consider if the movie
effectively communicates a theme to viewers. How did the storyline move? Does the plot flow
easily but remains complex drawing the audience in. Does the dialogue work? Will viewers of
the film find the dialogue credible and natural? Do the set, lighting, score, and special effects add
to the movie? If not properly utilized these effects can overwhelm the senses and detract from the
film. How does the film represent its topic? How well is the film edited? If there are unnecessary
scenes that do not add to the movie they should be cut out. Also, do scenes effectively transition
or has too much been removed making the film hard to follow. How effectively does the director
use symbolism or metaphors? Does the director add depth to the characters or objects through
association (Boggs, 2008, pg. 8)?
After deliberate review of all of these questions I am able to fully appreciate the value of the
effort put into, or lack thereof, filmmakers have put into their work. While at the same time it
allows me to enjoy the film on a platonic level prior to analysis.
Film is unique because it is an art form but it also an industry. Audiences are willing to sacrifice
money and time to take part in the magic of the silver screen. Their love for this art form has
created the need to better understand the films, to create a deeper meaning than what is first
visible. With practice audiences can analyze an entire move and describe how they find meaning
in a film. Also, they can develop their own personal criteria for analyzing film. Techniques

employed by filmmakers at first may be difficult to comprehend, but once understood they will
add significant value to the film.
The material for this section was derived from the wonderful book Making Meaning by David
Bordwell and was supplemented and explained by Debbie Twyman
David Bordwell suggests in his book Making Meaning, that there are four key components
present in film reviews. These components consist of a condensed plot synopsis, background
information, a set of abbreviated arguments about the film, and an evaluation.
Condensed Plot Synopsis
A condensed plot synopsis means exactly that. This is a brief description of the film's plot that
probably emphasizes the most important moments of the film without revealing the films ending.
Nothing is worse than revealing too much about the movie and thus ruining it for the viewer.
Background Information
Background information about the film consists of information about the stars, the director, and
the production staff of the film. It can also include interesting tidbits about the making of the
film. It may incorporate information about the film's source material as well as mentioning the
type of genre the film fits into. If the reviewer is so inclined, it may also include comments from
other reviewers and industry insiders that are designed to indicate to the reader what the film's
reception is likely to be (can you say hype?).
Abbreviated Arguments About The Film
The abbreviated arguments about the film are generally the main focus of the review. This is the
section in which the reviewer analyzes and critiques the film. The focus of this segment is to
point out what does and does not work in the movie and why. Most reviewers attempt to
combine this information with a little background information. For example, if the lighting and
composition of the film are particularly dreadful the reviewer will generally take the time to note
who the film's cinematographer was - since it's the cinematographer's responsibility to prevent
that from happening.
Evaluation

The reviewer's evaluation of the film generally includes a recommendation to either see or avoid
seeing the film. This evaluation is always based on the reviewer's arguments about the film and
is frequently backed up with his/her comments regarding the film's background. Your instructor
would argue that the entire tone of the review should be influenced by the reviewer's evaluation
of the film. To be honest, the reader should have a fairly clear idea of the reviewer's opinion after
they have read the review's opening sentence. This does NOT mean that you should start a
review with statements like, "This was a good movie," or "you should go see this film right
now!" It does mean that the reader should have a general idea about where the reviewer stands
on the film from the first paragraph on - just don't bludgeon us to death with it.
Generally speaking, when a reviewer is evaluating a film he/she tends to be assessing some, or
all, of the following: the motivation for what happens in the film, the film's entertainment value,
the film's social relevance and social value, and the film's aesthetic value. Hey, if it were easy
everyone would be a film critic. It is a great job, most of the time. Unless of course, you are
watching a genuinely bad film, the sort that once caused a notable film critic to comment, "That
is 90 minutes of my life I can never get back."
Film critics frequently find fault with the film's motivation. That is not to say that they did not
like the film's central theme but rather to say that they are looking for the relevance of a
particular narrative event, or a justification for a specific action or section of dialogue. Bordwell
classifies motivation into four categories: compositional, realistic, intertextual, and artistic.
Compositional motivation probes the film's cause-effect logic - that is, does the movie flow
logically from one scene to the next. Realistic motivation examines whether the actions that
occur within the film are plausible or believable within the realms of the film's fiction.
Intertextual motivation examines the relationship between the film and its genre and source
material (a novel, a play, etc.) - for example, what would make sense in a musical would not
make sense in a western and vice versa. Artistic motivation examines the way a film is made, its
use of mise-en-shot and mise-en-scene to achieve a particular artistic look and feel. It is
important to note that what is artistically motivated to one reviewer may be distracting to
another. Once again, it all comes down to individual taste.
Most reviewers are at the very least conscious of the film's entertainment value. They are aware
that the principle objective of most films is to entertain. They are also aware that if the film does
not create a sense of willing suspense of disbelief on the part of a viewer it simply is not
entertaining. Another way of looking at it is to say that the audience should be actively engaged
in the movie, it should hold their attention and arouse their emotions. At today's ticket prices it
had darn well better do that. So how does a movie do that? If I had all the answers I would be in

Hollywood consulting for a major studio and this web site could take care of itself! That is not
totally true, I do have some theories about this, as do most film critics.
For starters, it is my fundamental belief that a film that does not have a strong set of characters
with which the audience can identify it will not engage the audience. For more about what I
consider to be the essential aspects of effective films check out that section of the web page. It
should be noted, however, that some films (most notably summer blockbusters), can be
successful if they provide the audience with an emotional roller-coaster ride that is comprised of
enough action sequences, stunts, loud explosions, special effects, and booming surround sound.
This reviewer is particularly enamoured with fireballs and explosions. Any of these approaches
can potentially prove entertaining for the viewer.
Social value or relevance can also play an important role in a critic's perspective of the film. If
the film makes an important social statement a reviewer may choose to overlook some, if not all
of the flaws in the film. Films such as "Citizen Kane" (Orson Welles' masterpiece about the life
of Charles Foster Kane which was actually a scathing indictment of the American Dream
features many inconsistencies), or "JFK" (Oliver Stone's examination of the assassination of
John F. Kenedy which includes many questionable facts) can be forgiven the occasional lapse
because of their social and artistic importance. That is to say, a film can sometimes be redeemed
by its message to such an extent that a reviewer will overlook technical mistakes, unless they are
so monumental that they totally distract the viewer.
So, what order does this go in, and how much of each of these things should be included in any
review? Actually, that depends on the film and on the reviewer. Generally speaking, the
information appears in the aforementioned order, but there is no hard and fast rule that says that
it has to be that way. Bordwell seems to suggest that you open with a mini evaluation (one or two
sentences that set the tone for the review), provide a mini plot synopsis, insert some condensed
arguments (focusing on the acting - or lack therein, story logic, production values, special
effects, etc.), toss in some background information throughout these sections, and then finish
with a final assessment of the film's relative merit. Just how much the reviewer includes in each
of these sections depends both on the film and the reviewer's assessment of his/her readers.
Translated: what is there about the film that is worth praising or deriding and just how much
information do my readers need and want in order to determine whether they would enjoy seeing
this film?
Elements of Film Appreciation

ELEMENTS OF FILM ANALYSIS
1. Story:
a. Is it plot or character-oriented? Explain.
b. Are all the characters believable? Please cite examples.
c. Does it have the element of surprise? Is the ending predictable?
2. Character:
a. Are the actors and actresses deserved to be commended? Why?
b. Are all the other supporting actors credible? Who is the most credible?
Least credible?
c. What is your assessment of the lead actor or actress? Is the role fitting to
the personality/voice/projection of the actor or actress?
3. Theme:
a. What is the underlying message of the film?
b. Identify the symbolisms used in the film? What do they mean?
c. How do these symbols contribute to the over all meaning of the film?
d. Can you identify the leit-motif used in the film? How does the motif
relate to the director‘s tendencies and choice of presenting his message?
4. Setting:
a. Is the location appropriate?
b. What location touched you most? Why?
c. Are there locations that seem to be irrelevant? What are these and why?
OTHERS: Sex and Music/ Sound Effects:

· Was there any sex scene in the film? Was this necessary or not? How did this contribute to the
over all message of film?
· How was the music/ SFX used? Was the music/ SFX appropriate to the particular scene? Were
feelings evoked by the music/ SFX associated with the particular image it accompanied?
MIMETIC AND KINETIC ELEMENTS
Did the film touch your emotions? Which character affected you most? Why? Did you like the
movie? Were you able to identify any cinematic flaw? Did you think they were intended or not?
Any other comment about the movie is welcome.

Reminder: Please avoid copying film reviews in the Internet. Take note of the consequence
regarding academic dishonesty and student integrity. If you want to use some ideas from online
film reviews in the net, kindly paraphrase and put the necessary acknowledgement of the source
either as a footnote or endnotes or other applicable sourcing method.
The Essential Elements of Film Reviews
David Bordwell suggests in his book Making Meaning, that there are four key components
present in film reviews. These components consist of a condensed plot synopsis, background
information, a set of abbreviated arguments about the film, and an evaluation.
Condensed Plot Synopsis
A condensed plot synopsis means exactly that. This is a brief description of the film's plot that
probably emphasizes the most important moments of the film without revealing the films ending.
Nothing is worse than revealing too much about the movie and thus ruining it for the viewer.
Background Information
Background information about the film consists of information about the stars, the director, and
the production staff of the film. It can also include interesting tidbits about the making of the
film. It may incorporate information about the film's source material as well as mentioning the
type of genre the film fits into. If the reviewer is so inclined, it may also include comments from
other reviewers and industry insiders that are designed to indicate to the reader what the film's
reception is likely to be (can you say hype?).
Abbreviated Arguments About The Film

The abbreviated arguments about the film are generally the main focus of the review. This is the
section in which the reviewer analyzes and critiques the film. The focus of this segment is to
point out what does and does not work in the movie and why. Most reviewers attempt to
combine this information with a little background information. For example, if the lighting and
composition of the film are particularly dreadful the reviewer will generally take the time to note
who the film's cinematographer was - since it's the cinematographer's responsibility to prevent
that from happening.
Evaluation
The reviewer's evaluation of the film generally includes a recommendation to either see or avoid
seeing the film. This evaluation is always based on the reviewer's arguments about the film and
is frequently backed up with his/her comments regarding the film's background. Your instructor
would argue that the entire tone of the review should be influenced by the reviewer's evaluation
of the film. To be honest, the reader should have a fairly clear idea of the reviewer's opinion after

they have read the review's opening sentence. This does NOT mean that you should start a
review with statements like, "This was a good movie," or "you should go see this film right
now!" It does mean that the reader should have a general idea about where the reviewer stands
on the film from the first paragraph on - just don't bludgeon us to death with it.
Generally speaking, when a reviewer is evaluating a film he/she tends to be assessing some, or
all, of the following: the motivation for what happens in the film, the film's entertainment value,
the film's social relevance and social value, and the film's aesthetic value. Hey, if it were easy
everyone would be a film critic. It is a great job, most of the time. Unless of course, you are
watching a genuinely bad film, the sort that once caused a notable film critic to comment, "That
is 90 minutes of my life I can never get back."
Film critics frequently find fault with the film's motivation. That is not to say that they did not
like the film's central theme but rather to say that they are looking for the relevance of a
particular narrative event, or a justification for a specific action or section of dialogue. Bordwell
classifies motivation into four categories: compositional, realistic, intertextual, and artistic.
Compositional motivation probes the film's cause-effect logic - that is, does the movie flow
logically from one scene to the next. Realistic motivation examines whether the actions that
occur within the film are plausible or believable within the realms of the film's fiction.
Intertextual motivation examines the relationship between the film and its genre and source
material (a novel, a play, etc.) - for example, what would make sense in a musical would not
make sense in a western and vice versa. Artistic motivation examines the way a film is made, its
use of mise-en-shot and mise-en-scene to achieve a particular artistic look and feel. It is
important to note that what is artistically motivated to one reviewer may be distracting to
another. Once again, it all comes down to individual taste.
Most reviewers are at the very least conscious of the film's entertainment value. They are aware
that the principle objective of most films is to entertain. They are also aware that if the film does
not create a sense of willing suspense of disbelief on the part of a viewer it simply is not
entertaining. Another way of looking at it is to say that the audience should be actively engaged
in the movie, it should hold their attention and arouse their emotions. At today's ticket prices it
had darn well better do that. So how does a movie do that? If I had all the answers I would be in
Hollywood consulting for a major studio and this web site could take care of itself! That is not
totally true, I do have some theories about this, as do most film critics. For starters, it is my
fundamental belief that a film that does not have a strong set of characters with which the
audience can identify it will not engage the audience. For more about what I consider to be the
essential aspects of effective films check out that section of the web page. It should be noted,
however, that some films (most notably summer blockbusters), can be successful if they provide
the audience with an emotional roller-coaster ride that is comprised of enough action sequences,
stunts, loud explosions, special effects, and booming surround sound. This reviewer is

particularly enamoured with fireballs and explosions. Any of these approaches can potentially
prove entertaining for the viewer.
Social value or relevance can also play an important role in a critic's perspective of the film. If
the film makes an important social statement a reviewer may choose to overlook some, if not all
of the flaws in the film. Films such as "Citizen Kane" (Orson Welles' masterpiece about the life
of Charles Foster Kane which was actually a scathing indictment of the American Dream
features many inconsistencies), or "JFK" (Oliver Stone's examination of the assassination of
John F. Kenedy which includes many questionable facts) can be forgiven the occasional lapse
because of their social and artistic importance. That is to say, a film can sometimes be redeemed
by its message to such an extent that a reviewer will overlook technical mistakes, unless they are
so monumental that they totally distract the viewer.
So, what order does this go in, and how much of each of these things should be included in any
review? Actually, that depends on the film and on the reviewer. Generally speaking, the
information appears in the aforementioned order, but there is no hard and fast rule that says that
it has to be that way. Bordwell seems to suggest that you open with a mini evaluation (one or two
sentences that set the tone for the review), provide a mini plot synopsis, insert some condensed
arguments (focusing on the acting - or lack therein, story logic, production values, special
effects, etc.), toss in some background information throughout these sections, and then finish
with a final assessment of the film's relative merit. Just how much the reviewer includes in each
of these sections depends both on the film and the reviewer's assessment of his/her readers.
Translated: what is there about the film that is worth praising or deriding and just how much
information do my readers need and want in order to determine whether they would enjoy seeing
this film?
Cinematic Language
The first major concept in Chapter 1 is the notion of cinematic language. Cinematic language
(discussed on pages 2 and 3) is the name given by the authors to the conventions of filmmaking
that have evolved over time to become something like an overall film grammar. As we do with
spoken language, we often take the conventions and structures of cinematic language for granted,
allowing our brains to passively experience them without much, or any, conscious interpretation.
The result is a sort of invisibility of the techniques and strategies employed by the filmmakers.
For viewers seeking a few hours‘ entertainment, this invisibility is not a problem—in fact, it‘s
probably what makes a movie entertaining, and one reason that movies have become the
dominant art form of our time. But if we hope to understand movies better, we need to be alert to
the components of cinematic language that most viewers experience without a second thought.

Just as the techniques of filmmaking can go unnoticed during a casual viewing of a movie, so too
can the cultural mores and prejudices lurking under the surface of a movie. This cultural
invisibility is especially difficult to perceive in a film made within one‘s own time, place, and
culture. But if we want to tackle the question of what a movie means, then we need to understand
not only the meanings that the filmmakers themselves might say they were trying to convey but
also the ones that the filmmakers may not be aware of—the ones that flow from a common
reservoir of cultural values, ideas, and prejudices.
As you try to be more alert to all the layers of meaning in a movie, keep in mind the distinction
between explicit and implicit meaning.Explicit meaning is right there on the surface of things—
it is the result of what we have been explicitly shown and told onscreen. When we recount a
movie‘s explicit meanings to someone else, the result can sometimes sound like plot
summary. Implicit meaning, by contrast, is more like our traditional notion of meaning; when
we attempt to state a movie‘s implicit meanings, we are attempting to convey something less
obvious, something arguable about it that conveys a ―message‖ or ―point.‖
Our attempts to unveil the invisible layers of meaning in a movie are all forms of analysis—the
process of breaking a ―complex synthesis‖ into parts in order to understand it better. Formal
analysis focuses on the elements of film form, such as cinematography, editing, sound, and
design, which have been assembled to make the film. Cultural analysis focuses on the
assumptions, mores, and prejudices that a movie conveys about gender, class, race, ethnicity,
nationality, age, and many other social and cultural categories.
The rest of the first chapter (and the tutorial on the DVD) is devoted to showing you what both
formal analysis and cultural analysis can look like. The authors focus their analytical eye on
Jason Reitman‘s Juno (2007), to give you a concrete (and eye-opening) example. To fully
appreciate the power of this example, you should make sure to both read the chapter and watch
the accompanying DVD tutorial.
Telling your story: using film language
 You need to plan how to use pictures, sound and editing to tell the story

 When you’re filming, you need to think how the shots will join together
 You can learn a lot about film language by watching other people’s films
In a good film, the audience understands the story that the filmmaker is trying to show
them, and feels what the filmmaker means them to feel.
To be a successful filmmaker, you need to use different techniques to make sure this happens.
You need to know what will happen if you frame a shot in a particular way; how you
can use sound to help show what‘s going on, and how to edit your shots together
in sequences that build tension or emotion.
You need to know about film language.
For an example, watch this film:
Now watch the version below, where I‘ve added text which shows just some of the aspects of
film language that help to tell the story.
Here‘s more detail about how to use different aspects of film language.
Shots (the picture)

When you plan your pictures, you can think about shot size (how big things
are), composition (how things are arranged in the picture), position (where the camera is), how
you use or show movement, what kind of lens setting you use, and how the scene is lit.
Shot size
Shot size is one of the basics of filmmaking. It means how big things are in the picture. An
extreme long shot just shows the setting; long shots and mid shots show people in the setting,
and closeups show details of faces and objects.
More on shot size
Composition
Think about exactly what to put in the shot, what to leave out, and how to arrange things in the
shot. To make things look natural, put lines, edges or faces about a third of the way across, up or
down the picture ‗frame‘. To make them look formal, put them in the middle; and to make things
seem uncomfortable, make the shot unbalanced or put it at on a slant.
More on composition

Camera position and angle
As well as shooting different shot sizes, you should film from different places. Get closer or
move further away. See what the shot looks like if you move round to the side. Crouch down or
use a ladder to get unusual angles.
More on camera position
Movement
Most shots need some kind of movement to give them life. Keep the camera still to show
subtle movements; move the camera – pan, track or tilt – to follow action or move through a
space.
More on movement
The lens
Use wide angle (zoomed out) shots to get up close or make things dramatic, and telephoto
(zoomed in) shots to make things bigger if you can‘t get close. With bigger cameras, you can
change the focus to pick out the important parts of the shot.
More on using the lens
Light and colour

Light doesn‘t just help us see things. You can make the mood happy, sad, romantic or scary just
by using daylight or room lights and basic reflectors.
More on light and colour

Sound
Sound is a really powerful tool for telling your story and helping make an impact. Your
soundtrack can include all kinds of different sounds: natural sounds which you record live (or
fake with sound effects), dialogue, voiceovers and music.
More on sound
Continuity
Film-making is a bit like a magic trick. You can film a lot of different shots, add some sounds
and music, and put it together so everything seems to flow naturally. You can shoot with one
camera and make it look as if you have ten. You need to follow some tricks and rules to make
this work.
More on continuity
Editing
You should be thinking about how your shots will edit together as you‘re filming them. Each
shot should show something new: either a different thing, or the same thing with a different shot
size or camera position.
More on editing
Learn more
You can learn a lot more about film language by watching films, TV programmes and ads.
Watch a short film (or part of a long film) and try to work out the reasons for the decisions the
director made. Why did they put the camera there? Why did they include that in the shot? Why
did they use that sound? Try watching some of the films in the Creative ideas section.
My education package Editshots will help you learn about film language and how to edit shots
that will work together. It includes a short film (55 shots) for you to edit, and a step-by-step
guide. It‘s only $15/£15 for individual use, or $50/£40+VAT for education.

My new multitouch book Making Movies Make Sense (for iPad, Mac and iPhone) goes step by
step through the essentials of film language, illustrated with over 50 video clips, stills, interactive
images and audio clips. Aimed at ages 10 and upwards, it‘s available on the iBooks store.

Visual Language: Using Language as Cinematic Structure
Thunder rumbles over a darkened city. A woman dressed in high fashion looks up at the sky. She
opens her umbrella as raindrops fall and polka-dot the sidewalk. The woman hurries into a
nearby alley. She stops as she sees a man standing in her path. Rain drips from his wide-
brimmed hat. The man grins, showing broken yellow teeth. Lightning flashes in the sky. The
man lunges at the woman. She spins her umbrella, raking it across the man‘s face. He falls back
and hits the pavement. The woman runs
This scene could be from a movie made in Hollywood, Hong Kong or almost any city in the
world. Have you ever watched a foreign film with no subtitles? Were you completely lost or
could you follow the story even though it was in an unfamiliar language? Chances are you could
get the gist of it even without the benefit of dialogue.

A language is more than a collection of words, written or spoken, based on region or ethnicity. In
the broader sense, language is a system of terms, symbols and syntax used to generate and
communicate meaning. Visual language allows us to record ideas in a way that is more universal
than spoken words.
From ancient cave paintings to modern interactive games, humans have excelled at visual
storytelling. Cinema is a relatively new media whose stories transcend geographical boundaries.
Since the dawn of moving pictures in the 1890s, cinema has evolved as a language spoken across
the globe. Fortunately, this universal language is far easier to learn than a foreign dialect.
Cinematic Syntax
Written language uses letters, words, sentences and paragraphs to convey a narrative. Cinema
uses shots, shot sequences, scenes and dramatic sequences. Using language as an organizational
structure can give your video greater narrative impact and broader appeal. They say a picture is
worth a thousand words. A moving picture is worth even more.
The language of cinema starts with the shot. In film and video, a shot is a series of still image
frames that runs for an uninterrupted period of time. Like a letter in written language, the shot is
the smallest piece of visual language. However, a shot is closer to a word because it
communicates much more than a single letter can.
Depending on its elements, a shot can tell the entire story or just a tiny piece. These elements
include the shot‘s duration, camera angle and movement, sound, lighting and all the visual
design of the production that comprise its ―mise-en-scène.‖ If an actor or actors are in the shot,
their physical performance and emotions can also communicate more than dialogue.

A shot sequence is a collection of shots that communicate an idea, just as a collection of words
form a sentence. A sequence can be long or short, using many shots or a few, sometimes using
only a single long take. Just like the order of the words matters in a sentence, the order of images
are important in cinematic syntax. Film scenes often start with a wide shot to establish the
location before moving closer to the talent or action. But this isn‘t always the case.
JUST LIKE THE ORDER OF THE WORDS MATTERS IN A SENTENCE, THE ORDER OF
IMAGES ARE IMPORTANT IN CINEMATIC SYNTAX.
In our opening example, you probably pictured a wide shot of the city and storm clouds first
because that‘s what was written in the first sentence. However, for a different emphasis, the
scene could open with a close shot of the woman‘s fashionable shoes as she walks on the
sidewalk. The first shot sequence would include her reaction to the rain and end when she runs to
the alley. This is a new location, beginning a new shot sequence even though the action is
continuous.
In a montage sequence, shots of different locations can be combined because they are
communicating a single idea with compressed time. The boxer trains over a period of days. The
villagers build a bridge. A shot sequence can also illustrate the juxtaposition of opposing ideas or
characters in order to compare and contrast them, or establish a relationship between them. Like
a montage, a juxtaposition sequence compresses time with shorter shots.
So what‘s the difference between a shot sequence and a scene? A shot sequence communicates
an idea, while a scene depicts a narrative event in the story. If a shot sequence is comparable to a
written sentence, a scene is a paragraph. The event of our opening example is a woman fighting
off an attacker. This is a complete scene, but it could continue into a dramatic sequence if the
attacker gets up and chases the woman.

Storyboard showing how the different shots are grouped into sequences which make up a scene.
A dramatic sequence is a collection of dramatically linked scenes that communicates a complete
narrative idea. It is comparable to a series of paragraphs or a chapter in a book. Scenes of
different locations and characters are intercut to tell the story. We could expand upon the
example scene with scenes of police searching for the man intercut with scenes of the wanted
man chasing the woman.
Editing for Communication
Just like in writing, the message you‘re telling visually should be clear and refined. Build your
scene like a writer building a paragraph. Your cinematic structure starts with individual words
(shots) combined into sentences (shot sequences).

Think about the idea you‘re trying to communicate and simplify it to a sentence. We can break
down the example scene‘s shot sequences into the following sentences:
It‘s starting to rain.
1. The woman has an umbrella.

2. The woman runs to an alley.
3. An unpleasant man waits in the alley.
4. The man attacks the woman.
5. The woman defends herself with her umbrella.
Consider the importance of each sentence as you combine them into a paragraph that describes
the narrative event of your scene.
―Cut to the chase‖ is a popular saying among filmmakers and editors. This doesn‘t mean every
scene must be cut with the frantic pace of an action sequence. It means you should leave out
ideas that are not relevant to that particular scene. Stay focused on what you want each shot to
say.
Your message can be made clear by following the conventions of cinematic language. For
example, low-key lighting makes a scene more dramatic. Soft lighting and focus creates a
dreamy atmosphere. Rapid editing ups the excitement. A tight close-up emphasizes importance.
Every image and its timing should tell a part of the overall story.
When using language as cinematic structure, you should also consider your punctuation. Does
the sentence end with a period, an exclamation point, or a question mark? This can determine the
shot sequence duration, how quickly it‘s cut and the transition to the next sequence.

Scene from the Dark Knight – school bus full of gangsters in line of school buses.

Scene from Bonnie and Clyde – Ambush and shooting of the pair.

Scene from Dead Man – Dying William Blake being sent out to sea.
Becoming fluent in the language of cinema takes study and practice. Break down a scene from
your favorite movie. Observe the timing of each shot. If you changed the order of shots, how
would this change the story? Language and cinema are about communicating and expressing
ideas. Practice using language as organizational structure to better express yourself through film
and video.
Sidebar: The Long Take: When a Shot Becomes a Scene
Sometimes a scene can be a collection of shots connected by camera movement, or even a single
shot where the entire narrative is depicted without any changes to the camera or background.

Films like 2015 Academy Awards winner ―Birdman‖ even use hidden cuts to give the illusion of
being filmed in one take.
Scene from Birdman.
There should be a reason for your long take. Does it depict a character‘s isolation? A group of
misfits finally working together? How does it connect its images, and why? In cases where the
camera itself is a character, like found footage films, its point of view mimics the human
experience of events without unnatural cuts.
A scene filmed without cuts can still be broken down into sentences for each idea you‘re trying
to communicate, and those sentences translated into shots or sequences. The long take
seamlessly connects the sentences.

Discourse Analysis—What Speakers Do in Conversation
Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'. This
contrasts with types of analysis more typical of modern linguistics, which are chiefly concerned
with the study of grammar: the study of smaller bits of language, such as sounds (phonetics and
phonology), parts of words (morphology), meaning (semantics), and the order of words in
sentences (syntax). Discourse analysts study larger chunks of language as they flow together.
Some discourse analysts consider the larger discourse context in order to understand how it
affects the meaning of the sentence. For example, Charles Fillmore points out that two sentences
taken together as a single discourse can have meanings different from each one taken separately.
To illustrate, he asks you to imagine two independent signs at a swimming pool: "Please use the
toilet, not the pool," says one. The other announces, "Pool for members only." If you regard each
sign independently, they seem quite reasonable. But taking them together as a single discourse
makes you go back and revise your interpretation of the first sentence after you've read the
second.
Discourse and Frames

'Reframing' is a way to talk about going back and re-interpreting the meaning of the first
sentence. Frame analysis is a type of discourse analysis that asks, What activity are speakers
engaged in when they say this? What do they think they are doing by talking in this way at this
time? Consider how hard it is to make sense of what you are hearing or reading if you don't
know who's talking or what the general topic is. When you read a newspaper, you need to know
whether you are reading a news story, an editorial, or an advertisement in order to properly
interpret the text you are reading. Years ago, when Orson Welles' radio play "The War of the
Worlds" was broadcast, some listeners who tuned in late panicked, thinking they were hearing
the actual end of the world. They mistook the frame for news instead of drama.
Turn-taking
Conversation is an enterprise in which one person speaks, and another listens. Discourse analysts
who study conversation note that speakers have systems for determining when one person's turn
is over and the next person's turn begins. This exchange of turns or 'floors' is signaled by such
linguistic means as intonation, pausing, and phrasing. Some people await a clear pause before
beginning to speak, but others assume that 'winding down' is an invitation to someone else to
take the floor. When speakers have different assumptions about how turn exchanges are signaled,

they may inadvertently interrupt or feel interrupted. On the other hand, speakers also frequently
take the floor even though they know the other speaker has not invited them to do so.
Listenership too may be signaled in different ways. Some people expect frequent nodding as well
as listener feedback such as 'mhm', 'uhuh', and 'yeah'. Less of this than you expect can create the
impression that someone is not listening; more than you expect can give the impression that you
are being rushed along. For some, eye contact is expected nearly continually; for others, it should
only be intermittent. The type of listener response you get can change how you speak: If
someone seems uninterested or uncomprehending (whether or not they truly are), you may slow
down, repeat, or overexplain, giving the impression you are 'talking down.' Frederick Erickson
has shown that this can occur in conversations between black and white speakers, because of
different habits with regard to showing listenership.
Discourse Markers
'Discourse markers' is the term linguists give to the little words like 'well', 'oh', 'but', and 'and'
that break our speech up into parts and show the relation between parts. 'Oh' prepares the hearer
for a surprising or just-remembered item, and 'but' indicates that sentence to follow is in
opposition to the one before. However, these markers don't necessarily mean what the dictionary
says they mean. Some people use 'and' just to start a new thought, and some people put 'but' at
the end of their sentences, as a way of trailing off gently. Realizing that these words can function
as discourse markers is important to prevent the frustration that can be experienced if you expect
every word to have its dictionary meaning every time it's used.
Speech Acts
Speech act analysis asks not what form the utterance takes but what it does. Saying "I now
pronounce you man and wife" enacts a marriage. Studying speech acts such as complimenting
allows discourse analysts to ask what counts as a compliment, who gives compliments to whom,
and what other function they can serve. For example, linguists have observed that women are
more likely both to give compliments and to get them. There are also cultural differences; in
India, politeness requires that if someone compliments one of your possessions, you should offer
to give the item as a gift, so complimenting can be a way of asking for things. An Indian woman
who had just met her son's American wife was shocked to hear her new daughter-in-law praise
her beautiful saris. She commented, "What kind of girl did he marry? She wants everything!" By
comparing how people in different cultures use language, discourse analysts hope to make a
contribution to improving cross-cultural understanding.
It is difficult to give a single definition of Critical or Discourse Analysis as a research

method. Indeed, rather than providing a particular method, Discourse Analysis can be

characterized as a way of approaching and thinking about a problem. In this sense, Discourse
Analysis is neither a qualitative nor a quantitative research method, but a manner of questioning
the basic assumptions of quantitative and qualitative research methods. Discourse Analysis does
not provide a tangible answer to problems based on scientific research, but it enables access to
the ontological and epistemological assumptions behind a project, a statement, a method of
research, or - to provide an example from the field of Library and Information Science - a system
of classification. In other words, Discourse Analysis will enable to reveal the hidden motivations
behind a text or behind the choice of a particular method of research to interpret that
text. Expressed in today's more trendy vocabulary, Critical or Discourse Analysis is nothing
more than a deconstructive reading and interpretation of a problem or text (while keeping in
mind that postmodern theories conceive of every interpretation of reality and, therefore, of
reality itself as a text. Every text is conditioned and inscribes itself within a given discourse, thus
the term Discourse Analysis). Discourse Analysis will, thus, not provide absolute answers to a
specific problem, but enable us to understand the conditions behind a specific "problem" and
make us realize that the essence of that "problem", and its resolution, lie in its assumptions; the
very assumptions that enable the existence of that "problem". By enabling us to make these
assumption explicit, Discourse Analysis aims at allowing us to view the "problem" from a higher
stance and to gain a comprehensive view of the "problem" and ourselves in relation to that
"problem". Discourse Analysis is meant to provide a higher awareness of the hidden motivations
in others and ourselves and, therefore, enable us to solve concrete problems - not by providing
unequivocal answers, but by making us ask ontological and epistemological questions.
Though critical thinking about and analysis of situations/texts is as ancient as mankind or

philosophy itself, and no method or theory as such, Discourse Analysis is generally perceived as
the product of the postmodern period. The reason for this is that while other periods or
philosophies are generally characterized by a belief-system or meaningful interpretation of the
world, postmodern theories do not provide a particular view of the world, other that there is no
one true view or interpretation of the world. In other words, the postmodern period is
distinguished from other periods (Renaissance, Enlightenment, Modernism, etc.) in the belief
that there is no meaning, that the world is inherently fragmented and heterogeneous, and that any
sense making system or belief is mere subjective interpretation - and an interpretation that is
conditioned by its social surrounding and the dominant discourse of its time. Postmodern
theories, therefore, offer numerous readings aiming at "deconstructing" concepts, belief-systems,
or generally held social values and assumptions. Some of the most commonly used theories are
those of Jacques Derrida (who coined the term "deconstruction"), Michel Foucault, Julia
Kristeva, Jean-Franois Lyotard, and Fredric Jameson (this extremely brief listing of a few critical
thinkers is neither comprehensive nor reflecting a value judgment; these are merely some of the
most common names encountered when studying postmodern theories).
Critical thinking, however, is older than postmodern thought, as the following quote by John
Dewey illustrates. Dewey defined the nature of reflective thought as "active, persistent, and

careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds
that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends" (Dewey, J. Experience and
Education. New York: Macmillan, 1933. Page 9). When critically evaluating a research project
or text, one should, therefore, not limit oneself to postmodern theories.
What is Narrative Research?
Narrative Research Overview
Narrative research is a term that subsumes a group of approaches that in turn rely on the
written or spoken words or visual representation of individuals. These approaches typically
focus on the lives of individuals as told through their own stories. The emphasis in such
approaches is on the story, typically both what and how is narrated.
Narrative research can be considered both a research method in itself but also the
phenomenon under study.
Narrative methods can be considered ―real world measures‖ that are appropriate when ―real
life problems‖ are investigated. In a basic linear approach, they encompass the study of the
experiences of a single individual embracing stories of the life and exploring the learned
significance of those individual experiences. However, in most cases one will be creating an
aggregate of narratives each bearing on the others.
Narrative research is set out by the validation of the audience. It is a useful part of the social
science investigation, but may not always stand alone for evidence and support for the
conclusions of a report. Whether or not it is a part of a great presentation or whether it is a
stand alone piece of research, it has to be accepted on its own merits as individual
experience and the interpretation of thereof. The question arises as to the accuracy of the
story looked at objectively even though it must be viewed in its socio-cultural context. The
narrative gives one‘s individual view to be accessed on its merits. Such validation is
possible by corroboration from another narrative.

While some types of qualitative analysis have a standard set of procedures, narrative
research is questionable in this regard. One of the weaknesses of studying narratives is that
the text is by its own nature linguistically subjective. i.e. difficult to quantitatively access in
an objective manner since it is subjective i.e. personally meaningful.
A number of data collection methods can be used, as the researcher and the research
subjects work together in this collaborative dialogic relationship. Data can be in the form of
field notes; journal records; interview transcripts; one‘s own and other‘s observations;
storytelling; letter writing; autobiographical writing; documents such as school and class
plans, newsletters, and other texts, such as rules and principles; and pictures. To this list, one
should add audio and video recordings, as these are also useful data in narrative research.
Dedicated research software like ATLAS.ti help the researcher to catalog, penetrate and
analyze the data generated in a given research project. All forms of narrative research
benefit extensively from the special capabilities of a dedicated data analysis tool like
ATLAS.
The Strengths and Weaknesses Of The Narrative Method
Strengths of The Narrative Method

The power of the narrative lies in its extreme flexibility. This allows managers to customize the
contents of the review according to context, type of job, length of employment, or other factors
that seem appropriate. That means that the same method of evaluation can be used for the CEO
and for the maintenance staff. What would differ would be the categories and content, which
would derive from the major job responsibilities of each. For example, one of the categories on a
maintenance staff review might be ―Knowledge of Cleaning Substances and Methods.‖ Clearly
this category wouldn‘t be used with a CEO, but ―Knowledge of Accounting and Standard
Financial Practices‖ might be.
This permits the narratives to be extremely job-specific, which makes them more helpful in
improving performance. Contrast this with the standard use of ratings, which, if used across job
types, tend to use much too general review or evaluative dimensions. If you are required to use a

ratings format, the narrative can also be used to add specificity to the ratings. In that
combination, you‘d explain each rating with a short comment or narrative.
Another advantage of the narrative is that it doesn‘t create an illusion of objectivity, as is often
the case with rating systems. It is what it appears to be.
Weaknesses Of The Narrative Method
Narratives share a common weakness with any review methods that rely on an ―end of year‖
process. They are based on both parties‘ abilities to remember what‘s happened over an entire
year and to summarize a year‘s events some time after the facts. The solution, of course, is
obvious: to have regular performance reviews during the year, perhaps as often as once a month,
where manager and employee can discuss performance and take notes. These ―interim‖ meetings
can be as short as five minutes, if they are done efficiently.
Narratives also rely on the skills of the narrator. It‘s not easy to write a clear, concise description
of an employee‘s accomplishments, abilities, successes, and possible performance deficits. It‘s
not easy at all. The price of flexibility is that managers need to do much more during the review
process than, for example, if they were using a rating system, where all they have to do is circle a
few numbers. Then again, if that‘s all that‘s done—circling a few numbers—the benefits of the
review drop to zero.
Some people feel that narratives are not useful because they don‘t yield an easy way to classify
employees using some kind of overall assessment of performance. People like numbers. There‘s
some odd comfort in being able to sum up Jeff‘s performance as a ―68‖ and Jane‘s performance
as an ―82.‖ The ability to summarize a year‘s performance in one number is not part of the
narrative method. This may be a plus, though, since those kinds of summaries are often
inaccurate, still subjective, and likely to create friction between employee and manager.
Overall, though, the flexibility of narratives is exceedingly useful and outweighs the perceived
weaknesses. However, if managers and employees lack the ability to write clearly and concisely,
the narrative method may not be effective.
How to Become a Film Critic: Career Path Guide

If you love watching, analyzing and discussing films, you love to write, and you don't mind
working hard in your spare time to make your dreams come true, then a career as a film critic
might be well suited for you.
This field offers the joy that comes with communicating what you‘ve experienced, and getting
discussions going about it. It also generally offers the opportunity to set your own working
hours.

Like any vocation however, it has downsides. Film critics generally enter this field because of
the artistic appeal, rather than the financial appeal. In other words, it doesn‘t always pay well.
So, with some of these ups and downs in mind, read on below if becoming a film critic sounds
like something you‘d like to learn more about.
Education You May Need

Although it is not necessary to have formal training to become a film critic, many employers in
traditional media prefer to hire experienced print reporters, columnists or broadcasters (who
often have post-secondary education related to journalism).
Having a background related to film studies (whether through formal education, personal
experience watching and analyzing films, or a combination thereof) is a great asset for this
career.
Job Description:
1) Writes critical reviews of literary, musical, or artistic works and performances for
broadcast and publication: Attends art exhibitions, musical or dramatic performances, reads
books, or previews motion picture or television presentations.
2) Analyzes factors such as theme, expression, and technique, and makes comparisons to
other works and standards.
3) Forms critical opinions based on personal knowledge, judgment, and experience.
4) Organizes material to emphasize prominent features, and writes review.
5) Presents oral review in live or recorded form when working in broadcasting medium.
6) May enter information into computer to prepare reviews.
7) May be designated according to field of specialization as Art Critic; Book Critic; Drama
Critic; Movie Critic; Music Critic.

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Study Material- Film Appreciation

Course Code – BJ (MC) 309

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication

Kasturi Ram College of Higher Education, Narela

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

COURSE CODE: BA (JMC) 309 L: 4 T/P: 0 CREDITS: 4

Objective of the Course

Unit I: [Film as a Language] L: 12

Unit II: [Landmarks in Cinema] L: 12

Unit III: [Trends and Debates in Indian Cinema] L: 12

Unit IV: [Film Appreciation] L: 12

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Film as a medium of Mass Communication

1.1 MASS MEDIA

Communication is defined as an act of sending or receiving or understanding messages or meaning when

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

1.2 EFFECTS OF MASS MEDIA

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

1.3 FILMS AS A FORM OF MASS MEDIA

"Film Communication a process of transferring meanings or information's trough visual receptors". It is a

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Spec script writing

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Feature assignment writing

Rewriting and script doctoring

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Video game writing

Basic lighting: the three-point lighting setup

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

The cinematic types of lighting in film

 Which props and scene elements should be emphasized

 How characters differ from one another in a frame

Soft film lighting

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

HIRE KEY LIGHT

High key film lighting in The Hobbit

DIFFUSED OVERHEAD LIGHTING

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Hard film lighting

Hard lighting creates harsh shadows in Blade Runner's film lighting.

KICKER LIGHT WITH SOFT FILL

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

LOW KEY LIGHT

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Practical lighting techniques at work in James Laxton’s cinematography in Moonlight

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

How do Sound Effects help to Shape a Film?

Sound effects can be used to add mood or atmosphere to a lm by creating a

How Does Music Help to Shape a Film?

In some instances, directors use music to foreshadow upcoming events. In horror

How Does the Spoken Word Help to Shape a Film?

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Voice-overs are typically used in documentary films, although they occasionally

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

The Persisting Vision: Reading the Language of Cinema

Types of Shots Framing Shots

Surender Pal Singh (Assistant Professor), GGSIPU, New Delhi

2. The eyes are the centre of attention in face shots.

3. Headroom should be consistent for the same-sized shots.