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Organizational Strategy, Structure,
and Process1
RAYMOND E. MILES
University of California, Berkeley
CHARLES C. SNOW
The Pennsylvania State University
ALAN D. MEYER
University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
HENRY J. COLEMAN, JR.
University of California; Berkeley
Organizational adaptation is a topic that has received only lim ited and
fragm ented theoretical treatment. A ny attempt to examine organiza
tional adaptation is difficult, since the process is highly com plex and
changeable. The pro po sed theoretical framework deals with alterna
tive ways in which organizations defin e their product-m arket domains
(strategy) and construct mechanisms (structures and processes) to
pursue these strategies. The fram ework is based on interpretation o f
existing literature and continuing studies in four industries (college
textbook publishing, electronics, fo o d processing, and health care).
R aym on d E. M ile s (P h.D . — S tan ford U niversity) is Professor Alan D . M e y e r (Ph.D . — U n iversity of C a lifo rn ia , B erkeley) is
of Business A d m in istra tio n an d A ssociate D ire cto r of the In Assistant Professor of Business A d m in istratio n at the U n iv e r
stitute of Industrial R ela tio n s at the U n iversity of C a lifo rn ia , sity of W isco n sin , M ilw a u k e e .
B e rk eley. H en ry J. C o le m a n , Jr., is a Ph.D . C a n d id a te at the U n iversity ot
C h a rle s C . Snow (P h.D . — U n iversity of C a lifo rn ia , Berkeley) C a lifo rn ia , B erkeley.
is Associate Professor of O rg a n iz a tio n a l B ehavio r at T h e P e n n
sylvania State U n iversity. ’ T h e au tho rs w ish to ex p ress th eir a p p reciatio n to D ouglas
R e c e i v e d 6/ 7/7 7; R e v i s e d 8/19/77; A c c e p t e d 9/15/77; D a rra n , R o b ert Pitts, and M ax R ich a rd s for their h elpfu l c o m
R e v ise d 11/15/77. m ents on an earlier version of this p aper.
546
Academy of Managem ent Review - July 1978 547
An organization is both an articulated pur top management believes will allow the effec
pose and an established mechanism for achiev tive direction and control of human resources
ing it. Most organizations engage in an ongoing (4, 5, 6). Thus the theoretical framework to pre
process of evaluating their purposes—question vailing theories of management is also related.
ing, verifying, and redefining the manner of in An increased understanding of the adaptive
teraction with their environments. Effective or process, of how organizations move through it,
ganizations carve out and maintain a viable mar and of the managerial requirements of different
ket for their goods or services. Ineffective organ adjustment patterns can facilitate the difficult
izations fail this market — alignment task. Organ process of achieving an effective organization-
izations also constantly modify and refine the environment equilibrium .
mechanism by which they achieve their pur In the following sections, a typical example
poses— rearranging their structure of roles and of organizational adaptation drawn from one of
relationships and their managerial processes. our empirical research studies is first presented.
Efficient organizations establish mechanisms Second, a model of the adaptive process that
that com plement their market strategy, but in arose from this research is described and dis
efficient organizations struggle with these struc cussed. In the third section, four alternative
tural and process mechanisms. forms of adaptation exhibited by the organiza
For most organizations, the dynamic proc tions in our studies are described. Finally, the re
ess of adjusting to environmental change and lationship between the organizational forms and
uncertainty— o f maintaining an effective align currently available theories of management is
ment with the environm ent while managing in discussed.
ternal in terd epen den cies—is enormously com
plex, encompassing myriad decisions and be
haviors at several organization levels. But the
An Example of Organizational Adaptation
complexity of the adjustment process can be
As an example of the problems associated
penetrated: by searching for patterns in the be
with the adaptive process, consider the experi
havior of organizations, one can describe and
ence of a subsidiary of one of the companies in
even predict the process of organizational adap
our studies.
tation. This article presents a theoretical fram e
work that managers and students of manage Porter Pump and Valve (PPV) is a semi-auto-
ment can use to analyze an organization as an nom ous division o f a m edium -sized equ ip
integrated and dynamic whole—a model that m ent-manufacturing firm, which is in turn part
takes into account the interrelationships among o f a large, highly diversified conglom erate. PPV
strategy, structure, and process. (For a complete manufactures a line o f heavy-duty pum ps and
discussion of the theoretical framework and re com ponents for fluid-m ovem ent systems. The
search studies, see (15)). Specifically, the fram e com pany does most o f its own castings, makes
work has two major elements: (a) a general many o f its own parts, and maintains a com plete
model of the process of adaptation which spe stock o f replacem ent parts. PPV also does spe-
cifies the major decisions needed by the organi cial-order foundry work for other firms as its
zation to maintain an effective alignment with production schedule allows.
its environm ent, and (b) an organizational typol Until recently, Porter Pump and Valve had
ogy which portrays different patterns of adaptive defin ed its business as providing quality products
behavior used by organizations within a given in and service to a lim ited set o f reliable customers.
dustry or other grouping. But as several theorists PPV's general manager, a first-rate engineer who
have pointed out, organizations are limited in spent much o f his time in the machine shop and
their choices of adaptive behavior to those which foundry, perso nified the company's image o f
548 Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process
quality and cost efficiency. In the mid-seventies personn el additions have been made to the
corporate management becam e concern ed marketing department and m ore are planned,
about both the speed and direction o f PPV's with particular emphasis on individuals who are
growth. The management and staff at corporate capable o f perform ing field planning and super
headquarters began considering two new p ro d vising and who can quickly bring new fluid sys
uct and market opportunities, both in the ener tems to full operation. Budgets o f som e o f the
gy field. Fluid-m ovem ent systems required for o ld er departments are being cut back, and these
nuclear pow er generation pro vid ed one o f these funds are being diverted to the new areas o f ac
opportunities, and the developm ent o f novel tivity.
techniques for petroleum exploration, well re
covery, and fluid delivery provided the second. As illustrated, Porter Pump and Value expe
rienced changes in its products and markets, in
PPV had supplied som e com ponents to these
the technological processes needed to make
markets in the past, but it was now clear that o p
new products and serve new markets, and in the
portunities for the sale o f entire systems or large-
administrative structure and processes required
scale subsystems were grow ing rapidly.
to plan, coordinate, and control the company's
PPV's initial moves toward these new o p
portunities w ere tentative. The general mana new operations. None of the usual perspectives
which might be used to analyze such organiza
ger discovered that contract sales required ex
tional changes — for example, economics, in
tensive planning, field-contact work, and careful
dustrial engineering, marketing, or policy — ap
negotiations—activities not within his primary
area o f interest or experience. Finally, in an ef pears to address all of the problems experienced
by Porter Pump and Valve. Therefore, how can
fort to foster m ore rapid m ovem ent into these
new markets, executives in the parent organiza the adaptive process which occurred at PPV be
described in its entirety?
tion transferred the general manager to a head-
office position and m oved into the top spot at
PPV a manager with an extensive background in The Adaptive Cycle
both sales and engineering and who was adept
at large-scale contract negotiations. We have developed a general model of the
Within a year o f the changeover in general adaptive process which we call the adaptive cy
managers, PPV landed several lucrative contracts, cle. Consistent with the strategic-choice ap
and m ore appeared to be in the offing. The new proach to the study of organizations, the model
business created by these contracts, how ever, parallels and expands ideas formulated by theo
placed heavy coordination demands on com rists such as Chandler (9), Child (10), Cyert and
pany management, and while the organization's March (11), Drucker (12, 13), Thompson (18),
technology (production and distribution system) and Weick (19, 20). Essentially, proponents of the
has not been drastically revised over the past strategic-choice perspective argue thar organi
two years, w orkflow processes and the opera zational behavior is only partially preordained by
tional responsibilities o f several managers have environmental conditions and that the choices
changed markedly. Materials control and sched which top managers make are the critical deter
uling, routine tasks in the past, are now com plex minants of organizational structure and process.
activities, and managers o f these operations Although these choices are numerous and com
m eet regularly with the executive planning plex, they can be viewed as three broad "prob
com m ittee. M o reo ver, a rudim entary matrix lem s" of organizational adaptation: the entre
structure has em erged in which various line preneurial problem , the engineering problem ,
managers undertake specific project responsi and the administrative problem . In mature or
bilities in addition to their regular duties. Key ganizations, management must solve each of
Academy of Management Review - July 1978 549
these problems simultaneously, but for explan movement toward it may originate at lower
atory purposes, these adaptive problems can be managerial levels.
discussed as if they occurred sequentially.
The Engineering Problem
The Entrepreneurial Problem
The engineering problem involves the crea
The adaptive cycle, though evident in all or
tion of a system which operationalizes manage
ganizations, is perhaps most visible in new or rap m ent's solution to the entrepreneurial p ro b
idly growing organizations (and in organizations
lem . Such a system requires management to se
which recently have survived a major crisis). In
lect an appropriate technology (input-transfor-
a new organization, an entrepreneurial insight,
mation-output process) for producing and dis
perhaps only vaguely defined at first, must be de
tributing chosen products or services and to
veloped into a concrete definition o f an organi
form new inform ation, communication, and
zational dom ain: a specific good or service and control linkages (or modify existing linkages) to
a target m arket o r market segm ent. In an on ensure proper operation of the technology.
going organization, the entrepreneurial prob
As solutions to these problems are reached,
lem has an added dimension. Because the or
initial implementation of the administrative sys
ganization has already obtained a set of "so lu
tem takes place. There is no assurance that the
tions" to its engineering and administrative
configuration of the organization, as it begins to
problems, its next attempt at an entrepreneurial
emerge during this phase, will remain the same
"th ru st" may be difficult. In the example of
when the engineering problem finally has been
Porter Pump and Valve, the company's attempt
solved. The actual form of the organization's
to modify its products and markets was con
structure will be determined during the admin
strained by its present production process and
istrative phase as management solidifies rela
by the fact that the general manager and his staff
tions with the environm ent and establishes proc
did not possess the needed marketing orienta
esses for coordinating and controlling internal
tion.
operations. Referring again to Porter Pump and
In either a new or ongoing organization,
Valve, the company's redefinition of its domain
the solution to the entrepreneurial problem is
required concomitant changes in its technology
marked by management's acceptance of a par
— from a pure mass-production technology to
ticular product-market domain, and this ac
more of a unit or small-batch technology (21).
ceptance becomes evident when management
decides to commit resources to achieve objec
The Administrative Problem
tives relative to the domain. In many organiza
tions, external and internal commitment to the The administrative problem, as described
entrepreneurial solution is sought through the by most theories of management, is primarily
developm ent and projection of an organization that of reducing uncertainty within the organiza
al "im ag e" which defines both the organization's tional system, or, in terms of the present mod
market and its orientation toward it (e.g., an el, of rationalizing and stabilizing those activities
emphasis on size, efficiency, or innovation). which successfully solved problems faced by the
Although we are suggesting that the engi organization during the entrepreneurial and en
neering phase begins at this point, the need for gineering phases. Solving the administrative
further entrepreneurial activities clearly does not problem involves more than simply rationalizing
disappear. The entrepreneurial function remains the system already developed (uncertainty re
a top-management responsibility, although as duction); if also involves formulating and im ple
Bower (7) has described, the identification of a menting those processes which will enable the
new opportunity and the initial impetus for organization to continue to evolve (innovation).
550 Organizational Strategy , Structure , and Process
This conception of the administrative problem, ganizations: Defenders, Analyzers, and Pros
as a pivotal factor in the cycle of adaptation, de pectors. Each type has its own unique strategy
serves further elaboration. for relating to its chosen market(s), and each has
Rationalization and Articulation — In the a particular configuration of technology, struc
ideal organization, management would be ture, and process that is consistent with its mar
equally adept at performing two somewhat con ket strategy. A fourth type of organization en
flicting functions: it would be able to create an countered in our studies is called the Reactor.
administrative system (structure and processes) The Reactor is a form of strategic "fa ilu re " in that
that could smoothly direct and monitor the or inconsistencies exist among its strategy, technol
ganization's current activities without, at the ogy, structure, and process.
same time, allowing the system to become so Although similar typologies of various as
ingrained that future innovation activities are pects of organizational behavior are available
jeopardized. Such a perspective requires the (1, 2, 3 ,15,16, 17), our formulation specifies rela
administrative system to be viewed as both a tionships among strategy, technology, structure,
lagging and leading variable in the process of and process to the point where entire organiza
adaptation. As a lagging variable, it must ration tions can be viewed as integrated wholes in dy
alize, through the development of appropriate namic interaction with their environments. Any
structures and processes, strategic decisions typology is unlikely to encompass every form of
made at previous points in the adjustment proc organizational behavior — the world of organi
ess. As a leading variable, the administrative sys zations is much too changeable and complex to
tem must facilitate the organization's future permit such a claim. Nevertheless, every organ
capacity to adapt by articulating and reinforcing ization that we have observed appears, when
the paths along which innovative activity can compared to other organizations in its industry,
proceed. At Porter Pump and Valve, manage to fit predominantly into one of the four cate
ment modified its planning, coordination, and gories, and its behavior is generally predictable
control processes substantially in order to pur given its typological classification. The "p u re"
sue the company's newly chosen areas of busi form of each of these organization types is de
ness (the "lagging" aspect of administration). At scribed below.
the same time, key personnel were added to the
Defenders
marketing department; their duties included
product development, market research, and The Defender (i.e., its top management)
technical consulting. These activities were de deliberately enacts and maintains an environ
signed to keep PPV at the forefront of new prod ment for which a stable form of organization is
uct and market opportunities (the "leading" as appropriate. Stability is chiefly achieved by the
pect of administration). Defender's definition of, and solution to, its en
trepreneurial problem. Defenders define their
The Strategic Typology entrepreneurial problem as how to seal o ff a
portion o f the total market in o rder to create a
If one accepts the adaptive cycle as valid, the stable domain, and they do so by producing only
question becomes: How do organizations move a limited set of products directed at a narrow
through the cycle? That is, using the language of segment of the total potential market. Within
our model, what strategies do organizations em this limited domain, the Defender strives ag
ploy in solving their entrepreneurial, engineer gressively to prevent competitors from entering
ing, and administrative problems? O ur research its "tu rf". Such behaviors include standard eco
and interpretation of the literature show that nomic actions like competitive pricing or high-
there are essentially three strategic types of or quality products, but Defenders also tend to ig
Academy of M anagem ent Review - July 1978 551
nore developments and trends outside of their industries lend themselves to this type of organ
domains, choosing instead to grow through mar ization more than turbulent industries (e.g., the
ket penetration and perhaps some limited prod relative lack of technological change in the food-
uct developm ent. O ver tim e, a true Defender is processing industry generally favors the Defend
able to carve out and maintain a small niche er strategy compared with the situation in the
within the industry which is difficult for com pe electronics industry). This particular form of or
titors to penetrate. ganization is not without its potential risks. The
Having chosen a narrow product-market do Defender's prim ary risk is that of ineffectiveness
main, the Defender invests a great deal of re — being unable to respond to a major shift in its
sources in solving its engineering problem : how market environment. The Defender relies on the
to p ro d u ce and distribute goods or services as continued viability of its single, narrow domain,
efficien tly as po ssible. Typically, the Defender and it receives a return on its large technological
does so by developing a single core technology investment only if the major problems facing the
that is highly cost-efficient. Technological effi organization continue to be of an engineering
ciency is central to the Defender's success since nature. If the Defender's market shifts dramatic
its domain has been deliberately created to ab ally, this type of organization has little capacity
sorb outputs on a predictable, continuous basis. for locating and exploiting new areas of opportu
Some Defenders extend technological efficiency nity. In short, the Defender is perfectly capable
to its limits through a process of vertical integra of responding to today's world. To the extent
tion — incorporating each stage of production that tomorrow's world is similar to today's, the
from raw materials supply to distribution of final Defender is ideally suited for its environment.
output into the same organizational system. Table 1 summarizes the Defender's salient char
Finally, the Defender's solution to its ad acteristics and the major strengths and weak
ministrative problem is closely aligned with its nesses inherent in this pattern of adaptation.
solutions to the entrepreneurial and engineering
Prospectors
problems. The Defender's administrative prob
lem — how to achieve strict control o f the o r In many ways, Prospectors respond to their
ganization in ord er to ensure efficien cy — is chosen environments in a manner that is almost
solved through a combination of structural and the opposite of the Defender. In one sense, the
process mechanisms that can be generally de Prospector is exactly like the Defender: there is
scribed as "m echanistic" (8). These mechanisms a high degree of consistency among its solutions
include a top-management group heavily dom i to the three problems of adaptation.
nated by production and cost-control specialists, Generally speaking, the Prospector enacts
little or no scanning of the environment for new an environment that is more dynamic than those
areas of opportunity, intensive planning oriented of other types of organizations within the same
toward cost and other efficiency issues, function industry. U nlike the Defender, whose success
al structures characterized by extensive division comes primarily from efficiently serving a stable
of labor, centralized control, communications domain, the Prospector's prime capability is that
through formal hierarchical channels, and so on. of finding and exploiting new product and mar
Such an administrative system is ideally suited ket opportunities. For a Prospector, maintaining
for generating and maintaining efficiency, and a reputation as an innovator in product and mar
the key characteristic of stability is as apparent ket development may be as important as, per
here as in the solution to the other two adaptive haps even more important, than high profitabil
problems. ity. In fact, because of the inevitable "failure
Pursued vigorously, the Defender strategy rate" associated with sustained product and mar
can be viable in most industries, although stable ket innovation, Prospectors may find it difficult
552 Organizational Strategy, Structure , and Process
E n tre p re n e u ria l P rob lem En g in ee rin g P rob lem A d m in istrative P rob lem
P ro b le m : P ro b le m : P ro b le m :
H ow to "seal off' a p ortio n of the H ow to p ro d u ce and d istrib u te goods H ow to m aintain strict co n tro l of the
total m arket to crea te a stable set of or services as efficie n tly as possible. org anization in o rd e r to e n su re effi
p ro d u cts and cu sto m e rs. cie n cy .
1. N arro w and stable d o m a in . 1. C o st-e fficie n t tech n o lo g y. 1. Finan cial and p ro d u ctio n exp erts
2. A ggressive m a in te n a n ce of d o m ain 2. Single co re te ch n o lo g y . most p o w erfu l m em b ers of the
(e.g., co m p etitive p ricin g and e x 3. T e n d e n cy tow ard vertical d o m in an t co a litio n ; lim ited e n v i
ce lle n t cu sto m e r se rvice). integratio n. ro n m en tal scan n in g .
3. T e n d e n cy to ig n o re d e v e lo p m e n ts 4. C o n tin u o u s im p ro ve m en ts in 2. T e n u re of d o m in an t co alitio n is
o u tsid e of d o m ain . tech n o lo g y to m aintain efficie n cy. lengthy; p ro m o tio n s from w ithin .
4. C a u tio u s and in cre m e n ta l grow th 3. P lanning is in ten sive, cost o rien ted ,
p rim arily th ro u g h m arket and co m p le te d b efo re action is
p en etratio n . taken.
5. Som e p ro d u ct d e v e lo p m e n t but 4. T e n d e n c y tow ard fu n ctio n a l stru c
clo sely related to cu rre n t g o od s or ture w ith ex ten sive division of
services. labor and high d e g re e of fo rm ali
zation.
5. C e n tra liz e d co n tro l and long-
loo p ed vertical in fo rm atio n sys
tems.
6. S im p le c o o rd in a tio n m ech an ism s
and co n flict reso lved thro u g h
h ie ra rch ica l ch a n n e ls.
7. O rg a n iz a tio n a l p e rfo rm a n ce
m easured against p re vio u s years;
rew ard system favors p ro d u ctio n
and fin an ce .
S o u rce : R aym on d E. M ile s and C h a rle s C . Snow , Organ izat ional Strategy, Structu re, an d Process (N ew Y o rk : M c G ra w -H ill, 1978)
Tab le 3-1.
consistently to attain the profit levels of the more The systematic addition of new products or mar
efficient Defender. kets, frequently combined with retrenchment
Defining its entrepreneurial problem as how in other parts of the domain, gives the Prospec
to locate and develop p roduct and market o p tor's products and markets an aura of fluidity un
portunities, the Prospector's domain is usually characteristic of the Defender. To locate new
broad and in a continuous state of development. areas of opportunity, the Prospector must de
Academy of Management Review - July 1978 553
velop and maintain the capacity to survey a wide and research and development experts, plan
range of environmental conditions, trends, and ning that is broad rather than intensive and ori
events. This type of organization invests heavily ented toward results not methods, product or
in individuals and groups who scan the environ project structures characterized by a low degree
ment for potential opportunities. Because these of form alization, decentralized control, lateral
scanning activities are not limited to the organi as well as vertical communications, and so on.
zation's current domain, Prospectors are fre In contrast to the Defender, the Prospector's
quently the creators of change in their respective descriptive catchword throughout its adminis
industries. Change is one of the major tools used trative as well as entrepreneurial and engineer
by the Prospector to gain an edge over com peti ing solutions is "flexib ility".
tors, so Prospector managers typically perceive Of course, the Prospector strategy also has
more environmental change and uncertainty it costs. Although the Prospector's continuous
than managers of the Defender (or the other exploration of change helps to protect it from a
two organization types). changing environm ent, this type of organization
To serve its changing domain properly, the runs the prim ary risk of low profitability and
Prospector requires a good deal of flexibility in overextension o f resources. W hile the Prospec
its technology and administrative system. Unlike tor's technological flexibility permits a rapid re
the Defender, the Prospector's choice of prod sponse to a changing domain, complete effi
ucts and markets is not limited to those which ciency cannot be obtained because of the pres
fall within the range of the organization's pres ence of m ultiple technologies. Finally, the Pros
ent technological capability. The Prospector's pector's administrative system is well suited to
technology is contingent upon both the organ maintain flexibility, but it may, at least tempo
ization's current and future product m ix: entre rarily, underutilize or even misutilize physical,
preneurial activities always have primacy, and financial, and human resources. In short, the
appropriate technologies are not selected or de Prospector is effective — it can respond to the
veloped until late in the process of product de demands of tomorrow's world. To the extent
velopm ent. Therefore, the Prospector's overall that the world of tomorrow is similar to that of
engineering problem is how to avoid long-term today, the Prospector cannot maximize profita
com m itm ents to a single type o f technological bility because of its inherent inefficiency. Table
process, and the organization usually does so by 2 summarizes the Prospector's salient character
creating m ultiple, prototypical technologies istics and the major strengths and weaknesses
which have a low degree of routinization and associated with this pattern of adaptation.
m echanization.
Analyzers
Finally, the Prospector's administrative
problem flows from its changing domain and Based on our research, the Defender and
flexible technologies: how to facilitate rather the Prospector seem to reside at opposite ends
than control organizational operations. That is, of a continuum of adjustment strategies. Be
the Prospector's administrative system must be tween these two extremes, a third type of organ
able to deploy and coordinate resources among ization is called the Analyzer. The Analyzer is a
numerous decentralized units and projects rath unique combination of the Prospector and De
er than to plan and control the operations of the fender types and represents a viable alternative
entire organization centrally. To accomplish to these other strategies. A true Analyzer is an
overall facilitation and coordination, the Pros organization that attempts to m inim ize risk
pector's structure-process mechanisms must be w hile maximizing the opportunity for profit —
"o rg an ic" (8). These mechanisms include a top- that is, an experienced Analyzer combines the
management group dominated by marketing strengths of both the Prospector and the De-
554 Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process
E n tre p re n e u ria l P rob lem En g in ee rin g P rob lem A d m in istrative P rob lem
Problem : Problem : P ro b le m :
1. Broad and co n tin u o u sly 1. Flex ib le , p ro to typ ical 1. M a rk etin g and rese a rch and d e v e l
d e v e lo p in g d o m a in . tech n o lo g ies. o p m e n t exp erts most p o w erfu l
2. M o n ito rs w id e range of e n v iro n 2. M u ltip le te ch n o lo g ie s. m e m b e rs of the d o m in an t c o a li
m ental co n d itio n s and events. 3. Low d e g re e of rou tin izatio n tion.
3. C re a te s ch a n g e in the industry. and m e c h a n iza tio n ; tech n o lo g y 2. D o m in a n t co alitio n is large, d iv erse,
4. G ro w th throu gh p ro d u ct and e m b e d d e d in p eo p le. and tran sitory; may in c lu d e an
m arket d e v e lo p m e n t. in n e r circle .
5. G ro w th may o c c u r in spurts. 3. T e n u re of d o m in a n t co a litio n not
alw ays len g th y; key m an agers may
b e h ired from o u tsid e as w ell as
p ro m o ted from w ithin .
4. P lann in g is c o m p re h e n siv e , p ro b
lem o rie n te d , and can n o t be
fin alized b efo re action is taken.
5. T e n d e n c y tow ard p ro d u ct stru ctu re
w ith low div isio n of labor and low
d e g re e of fo rm alizatio n .
6. D e c e n tra liz e d co n tro l and short-
lo o p ed h o rizo n tal in fo rm atio n
system s.
7. C o m p le x c o o rd in a tio n m e c h a n
isms and co n flic t reso lved throu gh
integrators.
8. O rg a n iz a tio n a l p e rfo rm a n c e
m easu red against im p ortan t c o m
p etito rs; rew ard system favors
m arketin g and rese arch and d e v e l
o p m e n t.
Prod uct and m arket in n o vatio n T e ch n o lo g ic a l flexibility perm its a A d m in istrative system is ideally
protect the o rg a n izatio n from a rapid resp o n se to a ch an g in g d o m ain , suited to m aintain flexibility and e ffe c
ch an g in g e n v iro n m e n t, but the o r but the o rg an izatio n can n o t d e v e lo p tiveness but may u n d e ru tilize and
gan ization runs the risk of low p ro fita m axim um efficie n cy in its p ro d u ctio n m isu tilize re so u rces.
bility and o v e re x te n sio n of its re so u rces. and d istrib u tio n system b ecau se of
m u ltip le te ch n o lo g ie s.
S o u rce : R aym o n d E. M ile s and C h a rle s C . Snow , O rga nizat io nal Strategy, St ru ct u re , an d Proce ss (N ew Y o rk : M c G ra w -H ill, 1978),
T a b le 4-1.
Academy of M anagement Review - July 1978 555
fender into a single system. This strategy is diffi pector's technological orientation. In manufac
cult to pursue, particularly in industries charac turing organizations, it frequently includes a
terized by rapid market and technological large group of applications engineers (or their
change, and thus the word that best describes equivalent) who are rotated among teams
the Analyzer's adaptive approach is "b alance". charged with the task of rapidly adapting new
The Analyzer defines its entrepreneurial product designs to fit the Analyzer's existing sta
problem in terms similar to both the Prospector ble technology.
and the Defender: how to locate and exploit The Analyzer's dual technological core thus
new product and market opportunities while reflects the engineering solutions of both the
sim ultaneously maintaining a firm core o f tradi Prospector and the Defender, with the stable and
tional pro d u cts and custom ers. The Analyzer's flexible components integrated primarily by an
solution to the entrepreneurial problem is also a influential applied research group. To the extent
blend of the solutions preferred by the Prospec that this group is able to develop solutions that
tor and the Defender: the Analyzer moves to match the organization's existing technological
ward new products or new markets but only af capabilities with the new products desired by
ter their viability has been demonstrated. This product managers, the Analyzer can enlarge its
periodic transformation of the Analyzer's do product line without incurring the Prospector's
main is accomplished through imitation — only extensive research and development expenses.
the most successful product or market innova The Analyzer's administrative problem, as
tions developed by prom inent Prospectors are w elt as its entrepreneurial and engineering prob
adopted. At the same tim e, the majority of the lems, contains both Defender and Prospector
Analyzer's revenue is generated by a fairly stable characteristics. Generally speaking, the admin
set of products and customer or client groups — istrative problem of the Analyzer is how to d if
a Defender characteristic. Thus, the successful ferentiate the organization's structure and p ro c
Analyzer must be able to respond quickly when esses to accom m odate both stable and dynamic
following the lead of key Prospectors while at areas o f operation. The Analyzer typically solves
the same time maintaining operating efficiency this problem with some version of a matrix or
in its stable product and market areas. To the ex ganization structure. Heads of key functional
tent that it is successful, the Analyzer can grow units, most notably engineering and produc
through market penetration as well as product tion, unite with product managers (usually
and market development. housed in the marketing department) to form a
The duality evident in the Analyzer's domain balanced dominant coalition similar to both the
is reflected in its engineering problem and solu Defender and the Prospector. The product man
tion. This type of organization must learn how to ager's influence is usually greater than the func
achieve and p ro tect an equilibrium betw een tional manager's since his or her task is to identi
conflicting dem ands fo r technological flexibility fy promising product-market innovations and to
and for technological stability. This equilibrium supervise their movement through applied en
is accomplished by partitioning production ac gineering and into production in a smooth and
tivities to form a dual technological core. The timely manner. The presence of engineering and
stable com ponent of the Analyzer's technology production in the dominant coalition is to rep
bears a strong resemblance to the Defender's resent the more stable domain and technology
technology. It is functionally organized and ex which are the foundations of the Analyzer's
hibits high levels of standardization, routiniza- overall operations. The Analyzer's matrix struc
tion, and m echanization in an attempt to ap ture is supported by intensive planning between
proach cost efficiency. The Analyzer's flexible the functional divisions of marketing and pro
technological com ponent resembles the Pros duction, broad-gauge planning between the ap-
556 Organizational Strategy , Structure, and Process
P ro b le m : P ro b le m : Pro b le m :
H ow to locate and exp loit n ew H ow to be e fficie n t in stable p ortio ns H ow to d ifferen tia te the o rg a n iz a
p ro d u ct and m arket o p p o rtu n itie s of the d o m ain and flex ib le in ch ang ing tion's stru ctu re and p ro ce sses to a c
w h ile sim u ltan eo u sly m a in tain ing p ortions. co m m o d ate both stable and d yn a m ic
a firm base of trad itio nal p ro d u cts areas of o p era tio n .
and cu stom ers.
1. H ybrid d o m ain that is both 1. D ual te ch n o lo g ica l c o re (stable 1. M ark etin g and e n g in e e rin g most
stable and ch ang ing . and flex ib le co m p o n e n t). in flu en tial m em b ers of d o m in an t
2. S u rv e illa n ce m ech a n ism s m ostly 2. Large and in flu en tial a p p lied co alitio n , fo llo w e d clo sely by
lim ited to m arke tin g ; so m e e n g in e e rin g gro up . p ro d u ctio n .
research and d e v e lo p m e n t. 3. M o d e ra te d e g re e of tech n ica l 2. In tensive p lan n in g b etw e en m ar
3. Steady grow th thro u g h m arket rationality. keting and p ro d u ctio n co n ce rn in g
p en etration and p ro d u ct-m a rk et stable p ortio n of d o m a in ; c o m
d e v e lo p m e n t. p re h e n siv e p lan n in g am ong
m arketin g, e n g in e e rin g , and p ro d
uct m anagers c o n c e rn in g new
p ro du cts and m arkets.
3. " L o o se " matrix stru ctu re co m b in
ing both fu n ctio n a l d ivisio n s and
p ro d u ct gro up s.
4. M o d e ra te ly ce n tra lize d co n tro l
system w ith vertical and h o rizo n tal
feed b a ck loops.
5. Extrem ely co m p lex and ex p en sive
co o rd in atio n m ech an ism s; som e
co n flict reso lu tio n thro u g h p ro d u ct
m anagers, so m e th ro u g h norm al
h ie ra rch ica l ch a n n e ls.
6. P erfo rm an ce appraisal based on
both effectiv en ess and e fficie n cy
m easures, most rew ard s to m ar
keting and e n g in e e rin g .
Low in vestm ent in rese a rch and D ual te ch n o lo g ica l c o re is ab le to A d m in istrative system is ideally suited
d e v e lo p m e n t, c o m b in e d w ith im ita serve a hyb rid stab le-chang in g to b alan ce stability and flexibility, but
tion of d e m o n strab ly su ccessfu l do m ain , but the te ch n o lo g y can n ever if this b alan ce is lost, it m ay be difficu lt
p ro d u cts, m in im ize s risk, but d o m ain be co m p le te ly effective or efficient. to restore eq u ilib riu m .
must be op tim ally b alan ced at all
tim es b etw e en stability and flexibility.
S o u rce : R aym on d E. M ile s and C h a rle s C . Sn o w , O rgan izat ional Strategy, S tru ctu re , an d Process (N ew Y o rk : M c G ra w -H ill, 1978),
T a b le 5-1.
plied research group and the product managers ized control mechanisms in the functional divi-
for the development of new products, central- sions and decentralized control techniques in
Academy of M anagement Review - July 1978 557
the product groups, and so on. In sum, the key aggressively in the future. Thus, the Reactor is a
characteristic of the Analyzer's administrative "residu al" strategy, arising when one of the oth
system is the proper differentiation of the organ er three strategies is im properly pursued.
ization's structure and processes to achieve a Although there are undoubtedly many rea
balance between the stable and dynamic areas sons why organizations become Reactors, we
of operation. have identified three. First, top management
As is true for both the Defender and Pros may not have clearly articulated the organiza
pector, the Analyzer strategy is not without its tion's strategy. For example, one company was
costs. The duality in the Analyzer's domain headed by a "one-m an" Prospector of immense
forces the organization to establish a dual tech personal skills. A first-rate architect, he led his
nological core, and it requires management to firm through a rapid and successful growth pe
operate fundamentally different planning, con riod during which the company moved from the
trol, and reward systems simultaneously. Thus, design and construction of suburban shopping
the Analyzer's twin characteristics of stability and centers, through the construction and manage
flexibility limit the organization's ability to move ment of apartment complexes, and into consult
fully in either direction were the domain to shift ing with municipal agencies concerning urban
dramatically. Consequently, the Analyzer's p ri planning problems. W ithin ten years of its incep
mary risks are both in efficiency and in effective tion, the company was a loose but effective col
ness if it does not maintain the necessary balance lection of semi-autonomous units held together
throughout its strategy-structure relationship. by this particular individual. When this individ
Table 3 summarizes the Analyzer's salient char ual was suddenly killed in a plane crash, the com
acteristics and the major strengths and w eak pany was thrown into a strategic void. Because
nesses inherent in this pattern of adaptation. each separate unit of the company was success
ful, each was able to argue strongly for more
Reactors
emphasis on its particular domain and opera
The Defender, the Prospector, and the Ana tions. Consequently, the new chief executive of
lyzer can all be proactive with respect to their en ficer, caught between a number of conflicting
vironm ents, though each is proactive in a differ but legitimate demands for resources, was un
ent way. At the extremes, Defenders continually able to develop a unified, cohesive statement of
attempt to develop greater efficiency in existing the organization's strategy; thus, consistent and
operations while Prospectors explore environ aggressive behavior was precluded.
mental change in search of new opportunities. A second and perhaps more common cause
O ver time, these action modes stabilize to form of organizational instability is that management
a pattern of response to environmental condi does not fully shape the organization's structure
tions that is both consistent and stable. and processes to fit a chosen strategy. Unless all
A fourth type of organization, the Reactor, of the dom ain, technological, and administra
exhibits a pattern of adjustment to its environ tive decisions required to have an operational
ment that is both inconsistent and unstable; this strategy are properly aligned, strategy is a mere
type lacks a set of response mechanisms which it statement, not an effective guide to behavior.
can consistently put into effect when faced with O ne publishing company wished, in effect, to
a changing environment. As a consequence, Re become an Analyzer — management had arti
actors exist in a state of almost perpetual insta culated a direction for the organization which in
bility. The Reactor's "adaptive" cycle usually volved operating in both stable and changing
consists of responding inappropriately to envi domains within the college textbook publishing
ronmental change and uncertainty, performing industry. Although the organization was com
poorly as a result, and then being reluctant to act prised of several key Defender and Prospector
558 Organizational Strategy, Structure , and Process
characteristics such as functional structures and stable strategies of Defender, Analyzer, or Pros
decentralized control mechanisms, these struc- pector.
ture-process features were not appropriately
linked to the company's different domains. In Management Theory Linkages to
one area where the firm wished to "prospect", Organizational Strategy and Structure
for example, the designated unit had a function
al structure and shared a large, almost mass-pro- Organizations are limited in their choices of
duction technology with several other units, adaptive behavior to those which top manage
thereby making it difficult for the organization ment believes will allow the effective direction
to respond to market opportunities quickly. and control of human resources. Therefore, top
Thus, this particular organization exhibited a executives' theories of management are an im
weak link between its strategy and its structure- portant factor in analyzing an organization's
process characteristics. ability to adapt to its environment. Although our
The third cause of instability — and perhaps research is only in its prelim inary stage, we have
ultimate failure — is a tendency fo r manage found some patterns in the relationship between
ment to maintain the organization's current management theory and organizational strategy
strategy-structure relationship despite o ver and structure.
whelm ing changes in environm ental conditions. A theory of management has three basic
Another organization in our studies, a food- components: (a) a set of assumptions about hu
processing company, had initially been an indus man attitudes and behaviors, (b) managerial pol
try pioneer in both the processing and market icies and actions consistent with these assump
ing of dried fruits and nuts. Gradually, the com tions, and (c) expectations about employee per
pany settled into a Defender strategy and took formance if these policies and actions are im
vigorous steps to bolster this strategy, including plemented (see Table 4). Theories of manage
limiting the domain to a narrow line of prod ment are discussed in more detail in Miles (14).
ucts, integrating backward into growing and har During the latter part of the 19th Century
vesting, and assigning a controller to each of the and the early decades of the 20th, mainstream
company's major functional divisions as a means management theory, as voiced by managers and
of keeping costs down. Within recent years, the by management scholars, conformed to what
company's market has become saturated, and has been termed the Traditional model. Essen
profit margins have shrunk on most of the firm's tially, the Traditional model maintained that the
products. In spite of its declining market, the or capability for effective decision making was nar
ganization has consistently clung to a Defender rowly distributed in organizations, and this ap
strategy and structure, even to the point of cre proach thus legitimized unilateral control of or
ating ad hoc cross-divisional committees whose ganizational systems by top management. Ac
sole purpose was to find ways of increasing effi cording to this model, a select group of owner-
ciency further. At the moment, management managers was able to direct large numbers of
recognizes that the organization is in trouble, employees by carefully standardizing and rou-
but it is reluctant to make the drastic modifica tinizing their work and by placing the planning
tions required to attain a strategy and structure function solely in the hands of top managers.
better suited to the changing market conditions. Under this type of management system, em
Unless an organization exists in a "p ro ployees could be expected to perform up to
tected" environment such as a monopolistic or some minimum standard, but few would be
highly-regulated industry, it cannot continue to likely to exhibit truly outstanding performance.
behave as a Reactor indefinitely. Sooner or later, Beginning in the twenties, the Traditional
it must move toward one of the consistent and model gradually began to give way to the Hu-
Academy of M anagem ent Review - July 1978 559
Ass u m p t io n s A s s u m p t io n s A s s u m p t io n s
1. T h e m an ag er's basic task is to 1. T h e m an ag er's b asic task is to m ake 1. T h e m an ager's b asic task is to
clo se ly su p e rv ise and co n tro l his e a ch w o rk e r feel useful and m ak e use of his (her) " u n ta p p e d "
(her) su b o rd in a te s. im p ortan t. h u m an reso u rces.
2. H e (she) m ust b re ak tasks d o w n 2. H e (she) sh o u ld k e e p his (her) su b 2. H e (she) must create an e n v iro n
into sim p le, rep etitiv e, easily o rd in a te s in fo rm e d and listen to m en t in w h ich all m em b ers may
le a rn e d o p era tio n s. th eir o b je c tio n s to his (her) plans. co n trib u te to the limits of their
3. H e (she) m ust estab lish d e ta ile d w ork 3. T h e m an ag er sh o u ld allow his (her) ability.
ro u tin es an d p ro c e d u re s and su b o rd in a te s to e x e rc ise so m e self- 3. H e (she) must e n co u ra g e full
e n fo rc e th ese firm ly but fairly. d ire c tio n an d se lf-co n tro l on p articip atio n on im p ortan t m at
ro u tin e m atters. ters, co n tin u a lly b ro ad e n in g su b
o rd in a te self-d irectio n and co n tro l
1. P eo p le can to lera te w o rk if the pay 1. S h arin g in fo rm atio n w ith su b o r 1. Exp and ing su b o rd in a te in flu e n ce ,
is d e c e n t and th e boss is fair. d in ates an d in vo lvin g them in se lf-d ire c tio n , and self-co n tro l w ill
2. If tasks are sim p le en o u g h and ro u tin e d e cisio n s will satisfy their lead to d irect im p ro ve m en ts in
p e o p le are clo se ly co n tro lle d , basic n e e d s to b elo n g and to feel o rg a n izatio n al p erfo rm an ce.
they w ill p ro d u c e up to stand ard. im p ortan t. 2. W o rk satisfaction may im p ro ve as
2. Satisfying th ese n eed s w ill im p ro v e a " b y -p ro d u c t" of su b o rd in ate s
m o ra le an d re d u c e resistan ce to m aking full use of their re so u rces.
form al a u th o rity — su b o rd in ate s
w ill w illin g ly co o p e ra te and p ro
duce.
man Relations model. This model accepted the this approach urged managers to employ de
traditional notion that superior decision-making vices to enhance organization members' feel
com petence was narrowly distributed among ings of involvem ent and importance in order to
the employee population but emphasized the improve organizational performance. Sugges
universality of social needs for belonging and tion systems, employee counseling, and even
recognition. This model argued that impersonal company unions had common parentage in this
treatment was the source of subordinate resist philosophy. The Depression and World War II
ance to managerial directives, and adherents of both acted to delay the development and spread
560 Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process
of the Human Relations model, and it was not are more likely to be found in Defender and Re
until the late forties and early fifties that it be actor organizations, while Human Resources be
came the prime message put forth by managers liefs are more often associated with Analyzer
and management scholars. and Prospector organizations. But this relation
Beginning in the mid-fifties, a third phase ship appears to be constrained in one direction;
in the evolution of management theory began it seems highly unlikely that a Traditional or Hu
with the emergence of the Human Resources man Relations manager can function effectively
model which argued that the capacity for effec as the head of a Prospector organization. The
tive decision making in the pursuit of organiza prescriptions of the Traditional model simply do
tional objectives was widely dispersed and that not support the degree of decentralized decision
most organization members represented un making required to create and manage diversi
tapped resources which, if properly managed, fied organizations. It is quite possible for a Hu
could considerably enhance organizational per man Resources manager to lead a Defender or
formance. The Human Resources approach ganization. O f course, the organization's plan
viewed management's role not as that of a con ning and control processes under such leader
troller (however benevolent) but as that of a fa ship would be less centralized than if the organ
cilitator — removing the constraints that block ization were managed according to the Tradi
organization members' search for ways to con tional model. Using the Human Resources phi
tribute meaningfully in their work roles. In re losophy, heads of functional divisions might
cent years, some writers have questioned the ex either participate in the planning and budgeting
tent to which the Human Resources model is process, or they might simply be delegated con
applicable, arguing for a more "contingent" the siderable autonomy in operating their cost cen
ory emphasizing variations in member capacity ters.(In Defender organizations operated accord
and motivation to contribute and the technol ing to the Human Resources philosophy, hu
ogical constraints associated with broadened man capabilities are aimed primarily at cost ef
self-direction and self-control. The Human Re ficiency rather than product development.)
sources model probably still represents the lead The fit between management theory and
ing edge of management theory, perhaps await the strategy, structure, and process characteris
ing the formulation of a successor model. tics of Analyzers is perhaps more complex than
with any of the other types. Analyzers, as previ
Linking the Strategic Typology to
ously described, tend to remain cost efficient in
Management Theory
the production of a limited line of goods or serv
Are there identifiable linkages between an ices while attempting to move as rapidly as pos
organization's strategic type and the manage sible into promising new areas opened up by
ment theory of its dominant coalition? For ex Prospectors. Note that the organization struc
ample, do top executives in Defenders profess ture of the Analyzer does not demand exten
Traditional beliefs about management and those sive, permanent delegation of decision-making
in Prospectors a Human Resources philosophy? authority to division managers. Most of the Ana
The answer to this question is, in our opinion, a lyzer's products or services can be produced in
bit more complex than simply "yes" or "n o ". functionally structured divisions similar to those
One of our studies investigated aspects of in Defender organizations. New products or
the relationship between organizational strate- services may be developed in separate divisions
gy-structure and management theory. Although or departments created for that purpose and
the results are only tentative at this point, rela then integrated as quickly as possible into the
tively clear patterns emerged. In general, Tradi permanent technology and structure. It seems
tional and Human Relations managerial beliefs likely to us, although our evidence is inconclu
Academy of M anagement Review - July 1978 561
sive, that various members of the dominant zations in high-technology industries, etc.), and
coalition in Analyzer organizations hold moder their struggles may well produce a new organi
ate but different managerial philosophies, that zation type and demands for a supporting the
certain key executives believe it is their role to ory of management. Whatever form this new
pay fairly close attention to detail while others type of organization takes, however, clearly its
appear to be more willing to delegate, for short management-theory requirements will closely
periods, moderate amounts of autonomy nec parallel or extend those of the Human Resources
essary to bring new products or services on line model (15).
rapidly. If these varying managerial philosophies
are "m ism atched" within the Analyzer's operat
ing units — if, for example, Traditional managers
Conclusions
are placed in charge of innovative subunits —
then it is unlikely that a successful Analyzer strat O ur research represents an initial attempt:
egy can be pursued. (a) to portray the major elements of organiza
Holding together a dominant coalition with tional adaptation, (b) to describe patterns of be
mixed views concerning strategy and structure is havior used by organizations in adjusting to their
not an easy task. It is difficult, for example, for environments, and (c) to provide a language for
managers engaged in new product or service de discussing organizational behavior at the total-
velopment to function within planning, control, system level. Therefore, we have offered a theo
and reward systems established for more stable retical fram ework composed of a model of the
operations, so the Analyzer must be successfully adaptive process (called the adaptive cycle) and
differentiated into its stable and changing areas four em pirically determined means of moving
and managed accordingly. Note that experi through this process (the strategic typology). In
mentation in the Analyzer is usually quite lim addition, we have related this theoretical fram e
ited. The exploration and risk associated with work to available theories of management (Tra
major product or service breakthroughs are not ditional, Human Relations, Human Resources).
present (as would be the case in a Prospector), Effective organizational adaptation hinges on the
and thus interdependencies within the system ability of managers to not only envision and im
may be kept at a manageable level. Such would plement new organizational forms but also to
not be the case if Analyzers attempted to be direct and control people within them.
both cost-efficient producers of stable products We believe that managers' ability to meet
or services and active in a major way in new successfully environmental conditions of to
product and market development. Numerous morrow revolves around their understanding of
organizations are today being led or forced into organizations as integrated and dynamic wholes.
such a mixed strategy (multinational companies, Hopefully, our framework offers a theory and
certain forms of conglomerates, many organi language for promoting such an understanding.
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