.

ipdtcd I'syckology
•' ; 49, Ko 5, 363-367

PERCEIVED AND ACTUAL CHANGE IN JOB SATISFACTION1

EINAR HARDIN
School oj Labor and Industrial Relations, Michigan State University

Analysis of identified questionnaire data collected from 196 office employees

at the start and end of a 6-month period showed that change in overall job
satisfaction as perceived at the end was a very poor, though statistically sig-
nificant, proxy measure of change as computed from initial and terminal reports
on levels of satisfaction. Perceived change in job satisfaction had zero regression
on initial satisfaction but regressed very significantly on terminal satisfaction
and on change in 14 job aspects as perceived at the end of the period The
findings cast serious doubts on the usefulness of the quasi-longitudinal design
in studies of the impact of technological and organizational changes upon job
satisfaction.

':; psychological study of technological, best they merely increase the unexplained
-jzational, and other change phenomena variance and hence the standard errors of esti-
: often benefit greatly from the avail- mates. At worst, by enhancing or reducing
;. of successive measures of attitudes the probability of the change event occurring
•<£ same group of individuals. When a in certain types of situations, they seriously
red experiment is not feasible, such a bias the comparisons.
.iudinal design may be barred by several A quasi-longitudinal design, in which retro-
instances. The would-be experimenter spective questions are asked about changes in
not know of the change event until the respondent's attitudes, might seem like an
is progressed far or already been com- ideal solution to the researcher's problem.
.-l He may not be given enough lead Many research workers have used this design
to gain access to the research site and and have by and large interpreted the findings
.etelop his design and instruments. The as if they had resulted from a genuinely
Jiood of a researchable event occurring longitudinal study with successive measure-
. given site within an acceptable period ments of attitudes (see, for instance, Faunce,
.me may be too small to warrant the 1958; Hardin, 1960a, 1960b; Mann & Hoff-
/ed anticipatory expenditure of time man, 1960), and similar use has been made
efiort. in opinion polls, such as one conducted by
;:ed with such circumstances, the re- Boyle (1961). While answers to retrospective
•aer may have to choose between a cross- questions may have phenomenological interest
onal design and a quasi-longitudinal de- regardless of their relationship to actual
The former design consists in comparing change in attitudes, their use in the quasi-
":des at a given point of time in situations longitudinal design would be warranted only
J
t the change phenomenon took place with to the extent that they can be substituted
-Tides existing in otherwise similar situa- without serious bias and loss of accuracy for
-in which the change did not occur. The genuinely longitudinal measures. Little work
weakness of this approach as compared appears to have been done on the relation-
the genuinely longitudinal approach is ship between perceived change and measured
persistent situational characteristics af- before-after change. A decade ago Baum-
-i? attitudes often fail to cancel out. At gartel (1954) stated two findings: (a) change
""as study was supported by the School of in supervisory behavior was perceived more
' and Industrial Relations, Michigan State often in an experimental group of employees
c-jty, which also financed the automation re- whose supervisors had been given an intensive
- project from which the data were obtained. training program, and (b) perceptions of
i'Jihor acknowledges the assistance of Frank J. supervisory-behavior changes were associated
-" m communicating with the CDG 3600 com-
- system. with attitudes toward the corresponding be-
363
 364 ElNAE HAEDIN
havior aspects. As commented by Hardin and
Hershey (1960),
The former finding was interpreted as a demonstra-
tion that perceived change measures had some degree
of validity as measures of actual change. However,
the report left some doubt as to whether the percep-
tions of change had their correlates in actual changes
in supervisory behavior or were perhaps induced by
the very knowledge that the supervisors in the
experimental group had gone through a training
program. The latter finding was taken to mean that
attitudes influenced the perception of change, but
the data presented also seemed consistent with the
hypothesis that perception of change affected the
attitudes.
Hardin and Hershey analyzed the relation-
ship between the 6-month change in pay
("much more now," "more now," "no
change," "less now," and "much less now")
as reported by the respondents and the change
in dollars of salary per week over the same
period of time as shown in the employer's
personnel record. Actual and reported changes
were associated significantly (p < .01), even
though a very strict criterion of correctness
was used: actual change was defined to mean
any change at all in weekly salary, reported
change was defined to mean any other re-
sponse than "no change," and a dichotomous
classification was used. Reported change,
therefore, had some degree of validity as a
measure of actual change. But this validity
was low because one-third to one-fourth of
the respondents gave erroneous reports. The
average frequency of change was furthermore
biased downward, for failure to report change
that had actually occurred was significantly
more likely (35%) than reporting of change
when none had actually taken place (18%).
Errors of reporting were uncorrelated between
two consecutive 6-month periods, which sug-
gested the absence of persistent personal dif-
ferences in accuracy. They were also unre-
lated to errors in reports on current pay.
Failure to report was more common when the
actual pay raise was small than when it was
large. Persons reporting increases in many
other job aspects (see below) were more
likely than others to report changes in pay,
thus showing a smaller frequency of failure
to report actual raises and a higher frequency
of reporting raises that had not occurred.
Satisfaction with pay, supervisor, and the job
as a whole were unrelated to accurac
reporting.
This paper analyzes the perception (re
ing) of change in overall job satisf-
over a 6-month period in comparison
overall satisfaction as existing and rep
at the beginning and end of the period,
data source was the same as for the H#
and Hershey study.
RESEARCH SITE AND DATA
Data used in this study were collect!
two identified questionnaire surveys
ducted 6 months apart in a mediurr
casualty insurance company. The ques
naires were designed to study the effec
an IBM 650 electronic data processing
chine, which the company installed and p
use in the interviewing period. The «e
job satisfaction question, "Taking every'
into account, how satisfied are you with
job?" was asked identically in the two
veys, with the response categories "compl
satisfied," "very satisfied," "quite satist
"somewhat satisfied," and "not satisi
Computations in this paper were basci
assignment of values of 5, 4, 3, 2, and
these response categories as ordered.
The second survey also contained
question, "Considering everything, would
say you are now more satisfied or less -
fied with your job than you were six mi
ago?" Values of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 wer
signed to the response categories ''much
satisfied now," "more satisfied now,"
more, no less satisfied now," "less sat
now," and "much less satisfied now."
Finally, the second survey containe
checklist form a series of 14 questions
cerning perceived changes in specific as
of the job. The job aspects were desc
as follows:
The amount of variety in my work
The amount of work required on my jof>
The degree of accuracy demanded by rm jo
My control over the pace of my work
The importance of my job for tie companv
The amount of supervision I get on my job
The amount of skill needed on my job
The amount of responsibility demanded by n
The amount of planning I have to do on my
The amount of judgment I have to use on m?
The degree to which my work is interesting
 CHANGE IN JOB SATISFACTION
a amount of security I feel on my job
^"chances for promotion to a better job
x amount of pay I get on my job
reach of these items the respondent was
-ai the question, "How has this aspect of
£ job changed in the past six months?"
ilues of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 were assigned to
, response categories "much more now,"
Sre now," "no change," "less now," and
jjch less now." A score was found by
filing the values of the chosen responses
• all 14 items.
Tne following symbols were used in de-
:3ng the variables in this study:
j. = perceived change in job satisfaction
i,= job satisfaction reported in the second survey
t,= job satisfaction reported in the first survey
I, = computed change in job satisfaction from
the first to the second survey, where Xt = 5 0
+ X, - X,
I,=score for perceived change in amounts of 14
job aspects
Inere were 246 persons who filled out both
ritionnaires. For this study, it was neces-
- to eliminate 24 respondents who failed
answer 1 or more of the 17 questions used
the analysis. Further, the fact that Likert
fas are actually bounded variables made
desirable to eliminate 25 persons who
messed complete satisfaction in both sur-
»s and 1 person who in both surveys was
J: satisfied." Of the 25 persons, 8 reported
j were much more satisfied than 6 months
iier, 6 said they were more satisfied, and
reported no change. The 1 person who was
a satisfied" at both times reported having
come much less satisfied. Had these 26
nervations not been omitted, the measured
jtionship of perceived change to computed
-age in satisfaction (reported below)
aid have been weaker and the relationship
current satisfaction would have been
FINDINGS
Persons who differed in percei\red change
wb satisfaction also differed in computed
\ge, as shown in Table 1. The computed
aage score was higher for persons who
sorted increases in satisfaction than those
.Tting no change or actual decreases. Not
-"prisingly, then, computed and perceived
365
TABLE 1
PERCEIVED AND COMPUTED CIIANGI'
IN JOB SATISFACTION
Computed
change
score
Perceived change ,Y M
Much more satisfied now- 16 6.1
More satisfied now 53 52
No more, no less satisfied now 84 52
Less satisfied now 35 4.5
Much less satisfied now 8 4.8
All categories 196 5.1
Note.—F = 5.«0, df - 4/191, p < .01.
changes were correlated positively (r = 0.28,
p < .01). Classification of respondents on the
basis of perceived change was in some measure
also a classification according to computed
change.
The validity of perceived change as a
measure of computed change was nevertheless
limited. Regression of computed change
linearly upon perceived change showed that
respondents who differed by as much as three
points in perceived change (with a total
range of five points) could be expected to
differ only by one point in computed change
(with a total range of nine points). The
standard error of estimate of computed
change was also about one point. The two
methods of classification were consequently
poor substitutes for each other.
Correspondence between the two classifica-
tion schemes was even poorer, when the
respondents were grouped into the discrete
categories of increased, unchanged, and de-
creased satisfaction according to the two
criteria, as can be seen from Table 2. Only 73
persons, or 37% of the 196 respondents, were
classified alike by the two criteria, and 26
persons, or 13%, were classified by one cri-
terion as showing increased and by the other
as showing decreased satisfaction. Statistically
the two three-level criteria were approxi-
mately independent of each other.
The demonstrated poor correspondence be-
tween the two criteria was not likely to have
resulted from differences in procedure, for
366 ElNAR H A R D I N

TABLE 2
OF RESPONDENTS ACCORDING TO PERCEIVED AND COMPUTED CHANGE IN JOB
S VTISFACTION . A COMPARISON OF T H R E E - L E V E I . CLASSIFICATIONS

Computed change in satisfaction

Increase No change Decrease Total

Perceived change (6-9) (5) (1-4) frequency

Much more or more satisfied 28 23 17 68

now (5, 4)
No more, no less satisfied 36 25 24 85
now (3)
(
Less or much less satisfied ) 14 20 43
now (2, 1)
Total frequence 73 62 61 196

Note—x 8 6'J. df = 4, p > .05

the two surveys contained identical questions
about job satisfaction, were conducted in
identical fashion, and naturally covered the
same group of respondents. There was fur-
thermore no apparent reason to believe one
survey to be more reliable than the other.
The effect of simple unreliability would there-
fore be to reduce the statistical dependence
of perceived change in job satisfaction upon
both current and past job satisfaction, but
the two regression coefficients or beta weights
and the two partial correlation coefficients
would be equal. Multiple-regression analysis
showed, on the contrary, that perceived
change in job satisfaction (A^) regressed on
current job satisfaction (X2) positively and
significantly but bore no relationship to job
satisfaction 6 months earlier (X3), as indi-
cated by the following results:
A', = 1.60 + O.SOA'o - 0.04*3;
(0.070) (0.060)
R= = 0.21, df = 193 /Ji2 = 0.476:
£,.,= -0.039;
SEpi - SEp. = 0.066 r12 H = 0.462;
fis.2 = -0.042.
The test-retest correlation r2a = 0.251 was
not high enough to affect seriously the credi-
bility of these regression coefficients. Any
observed zero-order relationship between per-
ceived and computed change in job satisfac-
tion should therefore be interpreted as re-
flecting via the identity X4 = 5.0 + A': -
the strong relationship existing between p
ceived change and current satisfaction. P
satisfaction and computed change in satisf
tion were therefore dropped as factors
plaining in part the perceived change
satisfaction.
Separate analysis showed that the task
predicting computed change in job satisf
tion (Z 4 ) was no easier when current sa
faction (X2) and perceived change in sa
faction (Xi) were both used than when o
current satisfaction was used. For the part
regression coefficient b^ = 0.05 was not s
tistically significant in the multiple regress
equation
XA = 2.63 +0.05A'! + 0.68A'.;
(.086) (.091)
R2 = 0.28, df = 193
and the value of the multiple correlat
coefficient remained unchanged, when A'. '.
dropped.
Perceived change in job satisfaction T.
also found to be correlated with percei
change in individual aspects of the job F
sons who reported increased satisfaction w
their jobs also tended to report that, as cc
pared with 6 months earlier, there had be
increases in the amounts of all job aspec
except the amount of supervision received
the job, which was approximately unrela
 CHANGE IN JOB SATISFACTION
•x other job aspects. The simple correla-
- coefficients ranged from 0.25 for amount
nj\ to 0.60 for amount of variety and
lor degree of work interest, and their
,;aii value was 0.42. In contrast, the corre-
,,n with amount of supervision was only
' The correlations between current job
^action and perceived change in job as-
.-; were positive and mostly significant.
.lough the perceived changes in job as-
-•; were predominantly in the direction
.!crred by those affected (Hardin, 1960b.
329). the correlations with current job
.-faction were usually much lower, how-
-:. than with perceived change in job
_-iaction. A score for perceived change
<± aspects was accordingly computed by
•M the 14 five-level Likert variables, and
. score was included in variable A'-, in the
session equation. The fitted equation was
.nd to be
A'i = -1.60 + 0.30X2 + 0.08A'.-,:
(.059) (.008)
R2 = 0.47, df = 193.
.- simple correlation between current job
faction (A"2) and the score on job aspect
age (A',-,) was positive and statistically
:mcant (r2.-. = 0.34, p < .01) but not large
jgh to weaken seriously the credibility of
-•regression coefficients. Both of these being
.'stically very significant, perceived in-
ise in job satisfaction varied with per-
•ed increases in the amounts of the job
-<r:ts as well as with the level of current
satisfaction.
One independent variable and the depend-
wiable were five-level single Likert items,
the third variable was the sum of a
-.ber of other five-level Likert items. Par-
-larly the first two variables were very
;e measures. Although the regression equa-
367
tion nevertheless explained about one half of
the total variance in perceived change in job
satisfaction, the introduction of additional
variables seemed to impose more strain than
the data could bear, and none were included.
CONCLUSION
Perceived change in job satisfaction is a
poor predictor of computed change, and the
quasi-longitudinal design seems very weak.
Unless ways can be found to improve the
validity of perceived change responses, a
genuinely longitudinal design should probably
be used, despite its cost and frequent mal-
function, by research workers interested in
actual changes in job satisfaction. For per-
ceived change in job satisfaction reflects
current, not past, job satisfaction, and it is
closely related to perceived change in amounts
of various job aspects, which bears only a
limited relationship to computed change in
satisfaction.
REFERENCES
L, H An analysis of the validity of
"perceived change" measures American Psycholo-
gist, 19S4, 9, 328 (Abstract)
BOYLE, J. Kennedy's popularity soars since election
In, "What America Thinks" poll. Lansing, Mich.-
State Journal, 1961, April 23, p 18
FAUNCE, W. A. Automation and the automobile
worker. Social Problems, 1958, 6, 68-78
HARDIX, E. Compute! automation, work environ-
ment, and employee satisfaction: A case study
Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 1960,
13, 559-567. (a)
HVRDIN, E. The reactions of employees to office
automation. Monthly Labor Review, 1960, 83,
925-932. (b)
HARDIN, E., & HKRSHEY, G. L. Accuracy of employee
reports on changes in pay. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 1960, 44, 269-275.
MANN, F. C , & HOFFMAN, L. R. Automation and the
worker. New York: Holt, 1960 Pp. 73-82.
(Received July IS, 1964)