Group 5 : LOGIC Part 1

Members : 1. Ratna Annisa (2020205058)

2. Indah Wulandari (2020205059)
3. Muhammad Arif AlDAffa (2020205060)
4. Imam Haidar Fathuljalal (2020205061)
5. Cindi Maharani (2020205062)

1. About Logic
Logic is a word that means many things to different people. Many everyday uses of the
words logic and logical could be replaced by expressions such as reasonable behaviour and
reasonable.You may say, for instance,‘Sue acted quite logically in locking her door’, meaning
that Sue had good, well thoughtout reasons for doing what she did. Logic deals with meanings
in a language system (i.c. with propositions, etc.), not with actual behaviour, although logical
calculations are an ingredient of any rational behaviour. Logic deals most centrally with
PROPOSITIONS. The terms ‘logic’ and ‘logical’ do not apply directly to UTTERANCES
(which are instances of behaviour).
Example (of rational behaviour)
Goal: to alleviate my hunger
Assumptions and knowledge: Hunger is alleviated by eating food.
Cheese is food.
There is a piece of cheese in front of me.
I am able to eat this piece of cheese.
Calculations:
If hunger is alleviated by eating food and cheese is food, then hunger is alleviated by
eating cheese. If hunger is alleviated by eating cheese, then my own hunger would be alleviated
by eating this piece of cheese in front of me, and eating this piece of cheese would alleviate my
hunger, and my goal is to alleviate my hunger, so therefore eating this piece of cheese would
achieve my goal. (Rational) action: eating the cheese.
Sentence pairs with similar or identical grammatical forms sometimes have different
logical forms. To state the rules of calculation, or ‘rules of inference, completely systematic.
These rules must work on the representation of the logical form of the sentence, not on the
grammatical form of the sentence itself.
Example:
Plants usually give off oxygen
A geranium is a plant because of that
Geraniums usually give off oxygen
Generic sentences have a different logical form from non-generic sentences. The two
sentence types express logically different types of proposition. They would therefore be
represented by different types of formulae in logical notation and the logical rules of inference
working on these formulae would arrive at different conclusions in the two cases, as is
appropriate.
2. A Notation For Simple Propositions
Logic provides a notation for unambiguously representing the essentials of
propositions. Logic has in fact been extremely selective in the parts of language it has dealt
with; but the parts it has dealt with it has treated in great depth.
Example
Abraham died would be represented by the formula a DIE:
Fido is a dog by f DOG;
Ted loves Alice by t LOVE a;
Phil introduced Mary to Jack by p INTRODUCE m j

Practice
Translate the following into this simple notation:
(1) Arthur dreamed ......................................................................................
(2) Bill gulped ......................................................................................
(3) Charlie swore ......................................................................................
(4) Patrick cursed ......................................................................................
(5) Ben cycles ......................................................................................

Feedback (1) a DREAM (2) b GULP (3) c SWEAR (4) p CURSE (5) b CYCLE

Articles, a and the, do not affect the truth of the propositions expressed by simple
sentences. Accordingly, they are simply omitted from the relatively basic logical formulae we
are dealing with here. This is an example of the omission of material from logical formulae on
principled grounds. In the case of some, but not all, prepositions, e.g. at, in, on, under, there
are similar principled reasons for not including them in logical formula.
Logical formulae for simple propositions are very simple in structure. It is important to
adhere to this simple structure, as it embodies a strict definition of the structure of simple
propositions. The definition is as follows:
Every SIMPLE proposition is representable by a single PREDICATOR, drawn from the
predicates in the language, and a number of ARGUMENTS, drawn from the names in the
language. This implies, among other things, that no formula for a simple proposition can have
TWO (or more) predicators, and it cannot have anything which is neither a predicate nor a
name.
Example
j LOVE m is a well-formed formula for a simple proposition
j m is not a well-formed formula, because it contains no predicator
j IDOLIZE ADORE m is not a well-formed formula for a simple proposition, because it
contains two predicators
Practice
(1) Can a generic sentence in English have the grammatical
structure ‘subject-verb-object’? Yes / No
(2) Can a non-generic sentence in English have the grammatical
structure ‘subject-verb-object’? Yes / No
(3) Do the following sentences all describe the same situation?
(They may emphasize different aspects of the situation, but is
it the same situation that is being described in all cases?) Yes / No
Lightning struck the house
The house was struck by lightning
What struck the house was lightning
What was struck by lightning was the house
It was the house that was struck by lightning
What happened was that lightning struck the house

Feedback (1) Yes (2) Yes (3) Yes, and one can think of many more paraphrases beside these.

Logical notation provides one type of formula (which we shall not meet here) for
generic sentences, and a different type of formula for non-generic sentences. One can see from
the formula itself what type of meaning it has. One does not need to appeal to the context, as
one often does in interpreting a sentence in a natural language. Logical notation is austere, in
that it does not provide the rich variety of structures seen in question (3) above. Corresponding
to each of these sentences, and all their other paraphrases, there would only be one formula in
logical notation. There are no stylistic variants of formulae in logic.