Engineering Mathematics-I

Department of Mathematics
Notations and Definitions

N = set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, · · · }

Z = set of integers = {x : x = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, · · · }
R = set of real numbers = {x : x ∈ (−∞, ∞)}
Q = set of rational numbers
= {x : x = pq , q 6= 0 and p, q ∈ Z}
Qc = set of irrational numbers, i.e. Qc = R − Q
R2 = {(x , y ) : x , y ∈ R}
√
C = set of complex numbers = {x + iy : x , y ∈ R, i = −1}

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Interval

Given any a, b ∈ R, we define

the open interval from a to b to be the set,
(a, b) := {x ∈ R : a < x < b}

the closed interval from a to b to be the set,

[a, b] := {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}

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 the semiopen interval from a to b to be the set,
(a, b] := {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}

the semiclosed interval from a to b to be the set,

[a, b) := {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b}

Note: 1. In other words (a, b] = [a, b] \ {a} and

[a, b) = [a, b] \ {b}.
2. The set R together with the additional symbols ∞ and −∞ is
sometimes called the set of extended real numbers,
i.e. −∞ < a < ∞, ∀a ∈ R.

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Semi-infinite intervals

For any a ∈ R, we define the following semi-infinte intervals:

(−∞, a) = {x ∈ R : x < a}
(−∞, a] = {x ∈ R : x ≤ a}
(a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : x > a}
[a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : x ≥ a}
Bounded subset of R
If a and b are real numbers, then (a, b), [a, b], (a, b], [a, b) are
bounded subsets of R.
e.g. (5, 6), [−7, −3] ⊆ R.

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Chapter 1. Functions and Their Geometric Properties

Definition (Function): A function f from a set A to a set B (i.e

f : A → B) is a rule that assigns a unique (single) element
f (x ) ∈ B to each element x ∈ A.

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 Definition (Domain): The set A of all possible input values is
called the domain of the function.
Definition (Codomain): The set B in the definition of function
is called codomain.
Definition (Range): The set of all output values of f (x ) as x
varies throughout A is called the range of the function.

Note: The range may not include every element in the set B.

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Examples

Function Domain (x) Range (y)

y = x2 (−∞, ∞) [0, ∞)
(−∞, 0) (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) (0, ∞)
S S
y = 1/x
√
y=√ x [0, ∞) [0, ∞)
y =√ 4 − x (−∞, 4] [0, ∞)
y = 1 − x2 [−1, 1] [0, 1]

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 Q1. Find the domain and range of following functions.

1. f (x ) = 1 + x 2
Domain = (−∞, ∞)
Range = [1, ∞)
√
2. f (x ) = 1 − x
Domain = [0, ∞)
Range = (−∞,√ 1]
3. f (x ) = 5x + 10
Domain = [−2, ∞)
Range = [0, √∞)
4. g(x ) = x 2 − 3x
Domain = (−∞, 0] [3, ∞)
S

Range = [0, ∞)

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 4
5. f (t) = 3−t
Domain = (−∞, 3) (3, ∞)
S

Range = (−∞, 0) (0, ∞)

S
2
6. g(t) = t 2 −16
Domain = R \ {−4, 4}
Range = (−∞, −1 8 ] (0, ∞)
S

7. f (x ) = x 21−1
Domain = R \ {−1, 1}
Range = (−∞, 1] (0, ∞)
S

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Graphs of Functions

If f is a function with domain D, its graph consists of the points in

the Cartesian plane whose coordinates are the input-output pairs
for f .
In the set notation, the graph is {(x , f (x )) : x ∈ D}

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Vertical line test for a function

A function f can have only one value f (x ) for each x in its

domain, so no vertical line can intersect the graph of function more
than once.

e.g. A circle can not be the graph of function x 2 + y 2 = 1

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 Q2. Which of following graphs are graphs of functions of x and
which are not ?.

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Criteria to find domain and range of function

For Domain:
Here we are considering only real valued functions.
To find domain, consider only that real number for which
image is real valued i.e. collect all x ∈ R for which f (x ) ∈ R.
√
e.g. f (x ) = x , here if x ∈ R− i.e. x is some negative real
√ √
number, then x ∈ / R and if x ∈ R+ , then x ∈ R.
To find sdomain of function like
(x − a1 )(x − a2 ) · · · (x − am )
f (x ) =
(x − b1 )(x − b2 ) · · · (x − bn )
We can find domain of this function by wave curve method.

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Wave Curve Method

Find the root of each factor, which are

a1 , a2 , · · · , am , b1 , b2 , · · · , bn respectively and mark these
roots on real line.
Now draw a wave curve from right point to left point. The
interval in which wave curve lies above real line, function
always give positive value on that interval and the interval in
which wave curve lies below the line, function always give
negative values.
Therefore, by above method we can find domain of function
f (x ) by collecting all real number for which f (x ) gives
positive values.

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 If a1 < a2 < · · · < am < b1 < b2 · · · < bn , then

Therefore, domain of f (x ) = union of all those intervals on which

f (x ) is positive.

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Examples to find domain

s
(x + 1)(2x − 1)
1. f (x ) =
(x − 3)(x + 2)

Domain = (−∞, −2) [−1, 1/2] (3, ∞)

S S

at x = −2 and x = 3, f (x ) is not defined.

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 q q
2. f (x ) = (x 2 − 3x ) = x (x − 3)

Domain = (−∞, 0] [3, ∞).

S

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 s s
(x + 1)(2x + 1) (x + 1)2(x + 1/2)
3. f (x ) = =
(x − 3)(x + 2) (x − 3)(x + 2)

Domain = (−∞, −2) [−1, −1/2] (3, ∞)

S S

at x = −2 and x = 3, f (x ) is not defined.

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 s
(x − 1)2 (x − 2)3 (x − 5)
4. f (x ) =
(x + 1)(x − 3)4
In above function (x − 1)2 , (x − 3)4 is always positive, hence these
all are defined for all real numbers.

Domain = (−1, 2] [5, ∞)

S

at x = −1 and x = 3, f (x ) is not defined.

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 For Range:
Case I: If f (x ) does not contain square root, then define
f (x ) = y and express x = f (y ) (i.e. x as a function of y ).
Now, domain of f (y ) function (or x ) will be range for original
function f (x ).
Case II: If f (x ) contains some square root terms, then go
through same procedure in case I, only remove negative real
number from domain of f (y ) that will be the range for
original function f (x ) (because, negative numbers can not be
in the range of square root).

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 1
Example: Find domain and range of the function f (x ) =
1 − x2
Answer: Given f (x ) is rational function
For domain, 1 − x 2 6= 0 i.e. denominator 6= 0
Domain D = R \ {−1, 1}
For range, define f (x ) = y i.e. solve interm of x

1
∴y =
1 − x2
y (1 − x 2 ) = 1
1 1
(1 − x 2 ) = ⇒ −x 2 = − 1
y y
s
2 1 y −1
⇒x =1− ⇒x = (1)
y y

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 1
Now, domain of above function will be range for f (x ) = .
1 − x2
Now domain of right hand side term of equation (1) is

D = (−∞, 0) [1, ∞)
S

∴ range of f (x ) = (−∞, 0) [1, ∞)

S

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Types of Functions

one-one (1-1) function: We say a function f : A → B is

one-one if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 , ∀x1 , x2 ∈ A.
i.e. distinct elements in domain has distinct images in
codomain.
or
x1 6= x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )
e.g. 1. f : R → R defined by, f (x ) = x
2. f : R → R defined by, f (x ) = x 3 .

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 onto function: A function f : A → B is said to be an onto
function if every element of B has at least one preimage in A
i.e. f (A) = B. or range of f is the codomain of f .
e.g. 1. f : R → R defined by, f (x ) = x
2. f : R → R defined by, f (x ) = x 3 .

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 Many-one function: A function f : A → B is said to be
many-one function if two or more elements of set A (if exist)
have same image in B.
e.g. f : [−1, 1] → R defined by, f (x ) = x 2 .

Bijective function: The map f : A → B is bijective if it is

1 − 1 as well as onto.
Note: Let f : A → B be a function, then total number of functions
from A to B are |B||A| , where |B| = number of elements in B.

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 In general, functions are classified into two ways:
1 Algebraic function
2 Transcendental function
1. Algebraic function: Any function constructed from
polynomials using algebraic operations ( i.e. sum, subtraction,
product and division of terms) is called algebraic function.
Polynomial function: A function of the form
p(x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n where, n is non negative
integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , · · · , an are real constant
(called the coefficient of polynomial).
Domain of polynomial function = (−∞, ∞).

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Some polynomial functions with graphs

Identity Function: y = f (x ) = x

Domain = R
Range = R

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 f (x ) = x 2

Domain = R
Range = [0, ∞)

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 f (x ) = x 3

Domain = R
Range = R

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 f (x ) = x 2n , n ∈ N

Domain = R
Range = [0, ∞)

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 f (x ) = x 2n−1 , n ∈ N

Domain = R
Range = R

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 Modulus function: Modulus function is denoted by |x | and is
defined( by,
x if x ≥ 0
|x | =
−x if x < 0

Domain of modulus function = (−∞, ∞).

Range = [0, ∞).

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 Greatest integer function: The function whose value at any
number x is the greatest integer less than or equal to x , is
called greatest integer function.
It is denoted by the symbol bx c
i.e. bx c = nearest and smallest integer equal to x .
e.g. b2.4c = 2, b1.8c = 1, b−0.3c = −1, b5c = 5.

Domain of modulus function = (−∞, ∞).

Range = Z.
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 Least integer function: The function whose value at any
number x is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x , is
called least integer function.
It is denoted by the symbol dx e
i.e. dx e = nearest and largest integer equal to x .
e.g. d2.6e = 3, d1.3e = 2, d−1.2e = −1, d5e = 5.

Domain of modulus function = (−∞, ∞).

Range = Z.
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 Note: In general, greatest integer function and least integer
function are the left hand and right hand side functions
respectively. i.e if n ≤ x < n + 1, then bx c = n and if
n < x ≤ n + 1, then dx e = n + 1.
Fractional part of a function: The fractional part or decimal
part of a real number x is the excess beyond that number’s
integral part .
i.e. frac(x ) = x − bx c

Domain = (−∞, ∞)
Range = [0, 1)
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 2. Transcendental function: The functions which are not
algebraic, called transcendental functions.
They include trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential and
logarithmic functions.

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Geometric properties of function

1 Boundedness: In general, we say that a function is bounded if

its range is a finite interval.
Let D ⊆ R and f : D → R be a function.
Bounded above function: a function f is said to be bounded
above on D, if there is α ∈ R such that f (x ) ≤ α for all
x ∈ D, any such α is called an upper bound.
Bounded below function: a function f is said to be bounded
below on D, if there is β ∈ R such that f (x ) ≥ β for all
x ∈ D, any such β is called a lower bound.
Bounded function: f is said to be bounded on D, if it is
bounded above as well as bounded below on D.
Note: f is bounded on D if and only if, there exist γ ∈ R such
that |f (x )| ≤ γ, ∀x ∈ D.

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 Example 1: The function f : R → R defined by f (x ) = x 2 is
bounded below on R.

(this function is not bounded, as f is not bounded above)

Example 2: The function f : R → R defined by f (x ) = −x 2 is
bounded above on R.

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 Example 3: Let the function f : R → R defined by,
x2
f (x ) = 2 . Is f (x ) bounded ?
x +1
x2
Solution: Given function is f (x ) = 2 .
x +1
Domain of this function is R and
x2
as 0 ≤ x 2 < x 2 + 1 ⇒ 0 ≤ 1 <1
x +1
i.e. 0 ≤ f (x ) < 1, ∀x ∈ R.
⇒ bounds of f (x ) are 0 and 1.
∴ given function is bounded.

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 2 Monotonicity: Monotonicity is a geometric property of a real
valued function defined on a subset of R that corresponds to
its graph being increasing or decreasing.

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 Let D ⊆ R be such that D contains an interval I and f : D → R
be a function.
Monotonically increasing function:
We say that f is monotonically increasing on I if,
x1 , x2 ∈ I, x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 )
e.g. y = loga (x ) if a > 1

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 Monotonically decreasing function:
We say that f is monotonically decreasing on I if,
x1 , x2 ∈ I, x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 )
e.g. y = loga (x ) if 0 < a < 1

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 Convexity:
A function is convex if the line segment joining any two points
on its graph lies on or above the graph.
f is convex on I if,
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
x , x1 , x2 ∈ I, x1 < x < x2 ⇒ f (x ) − f (x1 ) ≤ (x − x1 )
x2 − x1
OR
Let f (x ) be a function defined on an interval I and let x1 , x2
are any two points of I and for any t ∈ R satisfying 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
such that
f (tx1 + (1 − t)x2 ) ≤ tf (x1 ) + (1 − t)f (x2 ).

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 f is concave on I if,
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
x , x1 , x2 ∈ I, x1 < x < x2 ⇒ f (x ) − f (x1 ) ≥ (x − x1 )
x2 − x1
OR
Let f (x ) be a function defined on an interval I and let x1 , x2
are any two points of I and for any t ∈ R satisfying 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
such that
f (tx1 + (1 − t)x2 ) ≥ tf (x1 ) + (1 − t)f (x2 ).

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 Example: Show that f (x ) = x 2 is convex on R.
Solution: Given f (x ) = x 2 , then f (x1 ) = x12 and f (x2 ) = x22
Claim: f (x ) is convex on R?
i.e. to show that
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
x , x1 , x2 ∈ I, x1 < x < x2 ⇒ f (x ) − f (x1 ) ≤ (x − x1 )
x2 − x1
Consider,

f (x ) − f (x1 ) = x 2 − x12
= (x − x1 )(x + x1 ) (1)

and

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 f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) x 2 − x12
(x − x1 ) = 2 (x − x1 )
x2 − x1 x2 − x1
(x2 − x1 )(x2 + x1 )
= (x − x1 )
x2 − x1
= (x2 + x1 )(x − x1 ) (2)
Let x1 < x < x2 , then (x − x1 ) > 0
Now concider,
x < x2 add x1 , then
(x + x1 ) < (x2 + x1 ) Now multiply by (x − x1 )
(x − x1 )(x + x1 ) < (x2 + x1 )(x − x1 )
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
⇒ f (x ) − f (x1 ) < (x − x1 ) (from equations (1) and (2))
x2 − x1
Hence f (x ) = x 2 is convex on R.

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 Example: Check by definition f (x ) = |x | is convex (concave up) or
not on R.
Solution: For any t ∈ R, satisfying 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 such that
f (tx1 + (1 − t)x2 ) ≤ tf (x1 ) + (1 − t)f (x2 )
Here f (x ) = |x |
f (tx1 + (1 − t)x2 ) = |tx1 + (1 − t)x2 |
≤ |tx1 | + |(1 − t)x2 | (∵ |x1 + x2 | ≤ |x1 | + |x2 |)
≤ t|x1 | + (1 − t)|x2 |
≤ tf (x1 ) + (1 − t)f (x2 )
Therefore, f (x ) is concave up or convex function.
Graphically,

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Local extrema
Let D ⊆ R and c ∈ D be such that D contains an interval
(c − r , c + r ) for some r > 0.
Given f : D → R, we say that
f has local maximum at c, if there is δ > 0 with δ ≤ r such
that f (x ) ≤ f (c), ∀x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ).
f has local manimum at c, if there is δ > 0 with δ ≤ r such
that f (x ) ≥ f (c), ∀x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ).

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Examples
1 The function f : R → R defined by f (x ) = −x 2 has has local
maximum at the origin.

2 The function f : R → R defined by f (x ) = |x | has has local

minimum at the origin.

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Point of inflection
c is a point of inflection for f if there is a δ > 0 with δ ≤ r such
that f is convex in (c − δ, c) while f is concave in (c, c + δ) or
vice-versa. i.e. f is concave in (c − δ, c) while f is convex in
(c, c + δ).
e.g For the function f : R → R defined by, f (x ) = x 3 , the origin is
the point of inflection.

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Intermediate Value Property (IVP)
Statement: If f is continuous function on a closed interval [a, b]
and if y0 is any value between f (a) and f (b), then y0 = f (c) for
some c in [a, b].

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Consequence for root finding

The solution the equation f (x ) = 0 is root of equation or zero of

the function f .
IVP tells us that if f is continuous, then any interval on which f
changes sign contain a zero of the function.
Note: 1. Graph of function, continuous on an interval can not
have any breaks over the interval. It will be connected i.e a single
unbroken curve.
2. If f is discontinuous at every point of the interval, then IVP of
function fails.

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 Example. Show that there is a root of the equation x 3 − x − 1 = 0
between 1 and 2.
Solution: Let f (x ) = x 3 − x − 1
since, f (1) = 1 − 1 − 1 = −1 < 0
and f (2) = 5 > 0
Here, f changes sign at point 1 and 2 and given function is
continuous on interval [1, 2]
Therefore, by IVP, we say that there is root of given function f
between 1 and 2.

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 Example. Explain why the equation cosx = x has at least one
solution .
Solution: Given equation, cosx = x can be written as
f (x ) = cosx − x
This function f (x ) is continuous everywhere, so domain is R
We can also take this function as continuous on [0, π/2].
Now, f (0) = cos0 − 0 = 1 > 0
and f (π/2) = cos(π/2) − π/2 = 0 − π/2 = −π/2 < 0
Therefore, f changes sign on [0, π/2],
so by IVP f has at least one solution between [0, π/2].

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 Example. Show that the equation x 3 − 15x + 1 = 0 has three
solutions on the interval [−4, 4].
Solution: Given equation x 3 − 15x + 1 = 0 can be written as
f (x ) = x 3 − 15x + 1 = 0
As f is a polynomial, so it is continuous on [−4, 4]
Claim: f has three solutions on [−4, 4]
We can show this by considering three distinct susets of [−4, 4] on
which f changes its sign and by applying IVP we get our result.
1. Consider the interval [−4, −1]
On this interval f is continuous and
f (−4) = −64 + 60 + 1 = −3 < 0, f (−1) = −1 + 15 + 1 = 15 > 0
As f changes sign on [−4, −1] so, by IVP f has at least one
solution in [−4, −1].

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 2. Consider the interval [0, 1]
On this interval f is continuous and
f (0) = 0 − 0 + +1 = 1 > 0, f (1) = 1 − 15 + 1 = −15 < 0
As f changes sign on [0, 1] so, by IVP f has at least one solution
in [0, 1].
3. Consider the interval [2, 4]
On this interval f is continuous and
f (2) = 8 − 30 + 1 = −21 < 0, f (4) = 64 − 60 + 1 = 5 > 0
As f changes sign on [2, 4] so, by IVP f has at least one solution
in [2, 4].

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Examples on local maximum and local minimum values of
function
Example. Find local maximum and local minimum values of the
function f (x ) = x 2/3 , −2 ≤ x ≤ 3.
Solution: Given f (x ) = x 2/3 define on domain [−2, 3]
√3
Now, f (−2) = (−2)2/3 = 4, f (3) = (3)2/3 = 2.08 and at x = 0 ∈ [−2, 3], f (0) = 0 at end point −2 and

3, we get local maximum value and at x = 0 we get local minimum value.

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