DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, ACCELERATION, FORCE, TORQUE AND SHAFT POWER MEASUREMENT 4, Measurement of displacement-Measurement of linear displacement-Measurement of angular sisplacements 10.2. Measurement of velocity/speed-Measurement of linear velocity-Measurement of ular velocity; 10.3. Measurement of acceleration-Piezoelectric accelerometer-Seismic accelerometer, 10.4. Measurement of force-Scales and balances-Springs-Proving rings-Load cells: 40.5. Measurement of torque-Introduction—Torque measurement methods; 10.6. Measurement of shaft power-Mechanical brakes-Fluid friction (hydraulic) dynamometer-Eddy current dynamometer— gel transmission dynamometer-D.C. dynamometers-Bevi's gibson flash light torsion dynamometer; Highlights-Objective Type Questions-Theoretical Questions. oa MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT 40.1.1. Measurement of Linear Displacement linear displacement may be measured by the following transducers : 1. Resistive potentiometers. 2. Strain gauges. 3. Variable inductance transducers. 4. Linear variable differential transducers (LVDT). 5. Capacitive transducers. 6 Piezoelectric transducers. 1. Hall effect transducers. 8. Electronic transducers. 9 Tonization transducers. Digital transducers. » Acoustic transducers. ® Mechanical displacement may be converted into an electrical variable by the simple expedient of adjusting resistance in an electrical circuit. A slide-wire resistor, having a movable contact attached to the part whose displacement is to be measured, may be connected through a 2-conductor circuit toa steady-voltage source in series with an ammeter (or milliammeter) calibrated in terms of the displacement. If the resistor is connected as a voltage divider, the need for a regulated supply is eliminated, and with a 3-conductor circuit the display instrument may be a ratio-meter or Potentiometer, Such combinations are common and are available for both D.C. and A.C. operation, Scanned with CamScannerMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION z ——4 D MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT, der of 0.25 mm, measurement may be made by y,. re small, of the oF 7 @ Where deflection differential transformer. | Roe ‘The lincar or differential transfor © Popa me ‘0.25 mm. This device (see Fig. 10.1) is generally prodye, snl Lor surement of smal displacements + along a common axis and havin, i measuring small displacements of the order of a single primary winding and two seco I magnetic circuit a moveable iron core longitudinally secondaries may be connected additively or differential instrument based either by shifting the core of a similar trans! of a slide wire potentiometer. ly and may be included in the cireuitofg yyy Jormer excited from the same source or by °F Y thee [— Amplifier and motor control Transformer ‘AC. supply transformer transducer with servo-activated receiver. Fig. 10.1. Schematic diagram of differe Linear transformers are regularly supplied for operation at all frequencies upto 30000 Hz. The sensitivity, of course, increases with the frequency. Linear transformers may be interconnected in a great variety of arrangements to perform computations er to express desired mathematical functions of measured variables, 10.1.2. Measurement of Angular Displacement ‘The following transducers are used for angular displacement : 1. Resistive potentiometer. 2. Variable inductive transducers. 3, Synchros. 4, Capacitive transducers. 5. Rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT), 6. Variable reluctance transducer. Variable reluctance transducer :Fig, 10.2, shows a variable reluctance transducer for measureme! angular displacement. L, and L, are the two identical coils connected in series opposition. These coils are so placedpastor! with respect to a cam shaped iron core that, when the core is in the mull position, the impedances of 18 HEGRE 7 are same, Hence, voltage aeross the two coils ae the same, though they are 180° out of iS be ad Scanned with CamScannerMEASUREMENT OF VELOCITYISPEED a ent from the null position results i -aspeement aa Pea ae pu in a differential voltage ouput proportional to the 0 I placemen and anticlockwise angular displacements produce different outputs re opposite i phase. Thus the angular displacement may be measured in magnitude and direction. Ly dential fig. 10.2. Variable reluctance transducer for measurement of angular displacement intese transducers, angular changes from null position to + 45° may be sensed. [fl MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY/SPEED 40.2.1. Measurement of Linear Velocity efdlowing types of transducers are used (in the analogue methods) feemegsurement of linear velocity (first derivative of displacement). 4 Velocity Connected to device whose velocity is being measured 1, Electro-magnetic transducers () Moving magnet type. —_ (ii) Moving coil type. 2 Seismic type transducers. Uectro-magnetic transducer An electro-magnetic transducer utilizes the voltage produced in a colon account of change in flux linkages resulting from change in ‘ductance, This is the most commonly used transducer for easurement of linear velocities. anette magnet type. A moving type electro-magnetic matin uses permanent magnet which provides @ constant Wid Bie Fig. 10,3 shows such a transducer. It consists of rod isa pled ta the device whose velocity is being measured. The Permanent magnet which is surrounded by a coil. Workin . ‘ng. When the magnet moves a voltage is induced in the coil Fig, 10.3. Moving magnet type Coil i Output ig ite cilteely proportional to the velocity. The voltage induced transducers. (placed in a magnetic field) is given by ke e=BANV (10.1) Sn ory (10.2) B= Flux density, W/m, A= Area of coil, m’, N= Number of turns of coil, and V= Relative velocity of magnet with respect 10 coil. The direction of motion is determined by the polarity of the oupur voliage. ou Scanned with CamScannerCy Advantage MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION D> MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY/SPEED. 1, The output voltage is linearly proportional to velocity. 2. Negligible maintenance (due to absence of mechanical surfaces/contacts). vexpensive to manufacture, 3. Can be employed as event markers which are robust and in Disadvantag 1, Limited frequency response. 2. Unsuitable for measurement of vibrations. 3. Stray magnetic fields adversely affect their performance. (i Moving coil type. This type of transducer operates essential 4a magnetic field: the voltage generated in the coil being proportional to the velocity of the coil y through the action of a coil moving ig The advantages of this type of transducer are : © Reduced stray magnetic fields effects due to the whole device being contained in an antimagnetc case. © More satisfactory arrangement, as the system forms a closed magnetic circuit with a constant air gap, 10.2.2. Measurement of Angular Velocity Angular velocity may be measured with the help of a “tachometer”. A tachometermay be defined as follows : “An instrament which either continuously indicates the value of rotary speed or continuously displays a reading of average speed over rapidly operated short-intervals of time.” Or “An instrument used for measurement of angular velocity, as of shaft either by registering the total number of revolutions during the period of contact, or by indicating directly the number of revolutions per minute.” Classification of Tachometers The tachometers are classified as follows : I. Mechanical tachometer : (i) Hand speed indicator. (ii) Revolution counter and timer. (iii) Tachoscope. (iv) Centrifugal tachometers. (v) Vibrating reed tachometers. Il, Electrical tachometers : ( D.C. tachometer generators (ii) A.C. tachometer generators 1) Photoelectric tachometers (or Speed-meter) ( (iv) Eddy current or drag-cup tachometer. (v) Capacitive tachometer. (vi) Stroboscopic tachometers. Scanned with CamScannerCEMENT, VELOCITY, ACCEL SPA ERATION, FOR fORQUE AND SHAFT POWER MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT OF VELOGITYISPEED | mechanical tachometers 2 a . 0g speed indicator: This tachometer has an i Har > 1 Hatatch and counter with automatic disconnect rhe spindle operates when brought in contact with th shaft; the counter, however, does not function until the start and wind button is pressed to start the mae and engage the automatic clutch. Depressing of the starting button also serves to wind the starting watch, _ The revolution counter automatically gets after a fixed interval, usually 3 t0 6 seconds, egral Spindle Starting and reset ngaged — bution ‘The instrument indicates the average speed over the short imerval; the dial is designed to indicate the rotational speed directly in r-p.m. ‘These tachometers can be used to measure speeds within range of 20000 to 30000 r.p.m. These units have an accuracy of I per cent of the full scale. Fig. 10.4. Hand speed indicator. 2. Revolution counter and timer: The revolution counter employs a timing device and counts the umber of revolutions in a measured length of time. Thus this device measures an average rotational speed rather than an instantaneous rotational speed. Itconsists of a worm gear which is also the shaft attachment and is driven by the speed source. The worm drives the spur gear which is turn actuate the pointer on a calibrated dial. @- Such speed counters are limited to low speed engines which permit reading the counter at definite time intervals. The speed upto 2000-3000 r.p.m. can be measured satisfactorily by a properly designed and manufactured revolution counters. 3.Tachoscope: It consists of a revolution counter incorporating a built-in-timing device. The two components are integrally mounted and start simultaneously when the contact point is pressed against .d from the readings of the counter and timer. the rotating shaft. The rotational speed is compute: Tachoscopes can be used to measure speeds upto 5000 r-p.m. 4. Centrifugal tachometer: A centrifugal tachometer operates on Proportional to the speed of rotation. -t rights) are Fig. 10, «¢ arrangement of such a tachometer. Two fly-balls (small weie! Se ae nate. Cent roe developed by these rotating balls works tocompress arranged about a central spindle. Centrifugal fo 0 he the spring as a function of rotational speed and accordingly positions pointer. the principle that centrifugal force is © They are suitable to measure speeds upto spring = Centrifugal 40000 rp.m and are usually used to make Cent and break circuit for speed control. * The accuracy of such tachometers is of ia ae * Pointer Other types of centrifugal type tachometer Divs Provide the constraining force bY sig. ans, Conus atone. . ity i f amospherie pressure or gravity instead 0 spring, Scanned with CamScannerMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION D MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY/SPEED 5. Vibrating reed tachometers: In this type of tachometer, a series preonseeutively timed stea 7 used to determine the speed on the basis of rations created bythe se ete rods are, Of diffe cy lengths. On one side the rods are fixed to a base which is kept in contact with any non-mo\ jg, ra the machine and on the other side they are attached to a part at the bottom of which 3 ey calibrated. The reed timed to resonance with the machine vibration frequency responds visi indicates speed on the scale. “4 © These tachometers can be used in the speed range of 600 to 10000 r.p.m. © The accuracy of such tachometers is of the order of +0.5%. 10. .2 Electrical tachometers Electrical tachometers ae prefered, as compared to mechanical tchometes, in view of advantages they as electrical transducers, 1. D.C. tachometer generator: Ina DC. generator the e.m-f. generated depends upon the following two factors : @ Field excitation (ii) Speed. If for the field system permanent magnet pole pieces are used, then the generated voltage depen on the speed, Hence the speed can be computed by measuring the generated e.m.f. A D.C. tachometer generator is shown in Fig. 10.6. Commutator Shaft N (speed to be measured) - va Brushes Armature 3 ae = : ne Jos | ee Fig. 10.6. D.C. tachometer generator. © The shaft whose speed is to be measured is coupled to the armature, © A moving coil voltmeter is connected across the brushes to measure the generated voltage. Th variable resistance R is incorporated to limit the current through the voltmeter. Since voltage is proportional to speed, the voltmeter may be calibrated in terms of speed (rp.m): 2.A,C, Tachometer generator: The inherent demerits associated with D.C. tachometer generator, due to the provision of commutor ad brushes, are eliminated in A.C. tachometer generator. ‘An A.C. tachometer generator is shown in Fig. 10.7. © Itconsists of, like an alternator, a stationary armature (stator) and a rotating field system (rot0r)-O'%"E to the generation of e.m.f. in a stationary coil on a stator, commutation problems no longer ¢* @ The alternating e.m-f. induced in the stationary coil is rectified and the output D.C. voltages me with the help of a moving coil voltmeter (V), © The ripple content of the rectified voltage is smoothened by the capacitor filter (C)- Scanned with CamScannerLACEMENT, VELOCITY, acc ELERATION, FORCE, TORQUE AND SHAFT POWER MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITYISPEED Stator coil a onan! | A Moving coil voltmeter Fig. 10.7. A.C. tachometer generator. ‘¢ As the speed eee both the amplitude of the voltage and frequency, any one of them can be used as ameasure of the speed. In an A.C. tachometer, itis the induced voltage that is considered as the required parameter. Photoelectric tachometer: Fa. 108 shows a photoelectric tachometer. Light sensor ae Light Opaque dise . 10.8. Photoelectric tachometer. It consists of an opaque disc mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be measured. The disc has a number of equivalent holes around the periphery. On one side ofthe disc there isa source of light (L) while on the other side there is a light sensor (may be a photosensitive device or photo-tube) in line With it (light-source). © Onthe rotation of the disc, holes and opaque portions of the disc come alternatory in between the light source and the light sensor. When a hole comes in between the no, ight passes through the holes and falls on the light sensor, withthe result that an output pulse is generated. But when the opaque portion of the dise comes in between, the light from the source is blocked and hence there is no pulse output. Thus whenever a hole comes in line with the light source and sensor, a pulse is generated. These Pulses are counted/measured through an electric counter. The number of pulses generated depends upon the following fa ( The number of holes in the disc; . (ii) The shaft speed. ie the number of holes are fixed, therefore, aft only. The electronic counter may therefore Advantage, Ibis a digit ige, It is a digital instrument. - : oo Disadvantage, Is required to replace the light source periodically and if the grating period is small then os 2 Ez Might creep in the output. ictors : the number of pulses generated depends on the speed of tbe calibrated in terms of speed (r.p.m.) Scanned with CamScanner168) MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION = D MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY/SPEED ae 4. Eddy current or drag cup tachometer: In this type of tachometer (Fig. 10.9) the tes shaft rotates a permanent magnet and this induces edd : torque whi Cute in a drag cup or disc held close to the magnet. The eddy currents produce a orgue which tse against the torque of a spring. The dise turns in the direction of fvating agnetic Field uni the 4, developed equals that of the spring. A pointer attached to the cup indicates the rotational speed on g cai scale. i Re Dial tating eat Pointer n\ swing | T = 10 | N “LS A emetic Stel cup Fig. 10.9. Eddy current or drag type tachometer. ® The automobile speedometers operate on this principle. © These tachometers are used for measuring rotational speeds upto 12000 p.m. with an accuracy of per cent. Capacitive tachometer: Refer to Fig. 10.10. A capacitive pick-up tachometer consists of a vane attached to one end of t the rotating machine shaft. When the shaft rotates between the field capacitive plates, there occurs a change in ie capacitance. The capacitor forms a part of an oscillator tank so that number of frequency changes per unite; time is a measure of the shaft speed. The pulses thus produced are amplified and squared, and may then be ed 10 frequency measuring unit or to a digital counter so as to provide a digital analog of the shaft rotation. | oe vse Rozsa ma mts tome — Anan. [= eae Frequency meter © ceric (ieee Fig. 10.10, Capacitive pick-up tachometer. 6. Stroboscopic tachometers: its working principle is to synchronise a flashing light with rotation of shaft, making it appear stands Usually, a reference mark is put on the rotating body and the speed of oscillation of flash produced fm stroboscope itself is a measure of rpm. of rotating body, without requiring any contact. These tachometers are most oftenly used in experimental work. © Its disadvantage is that it cannot be used where ambient lighting is above a certain valve; for it 0% most effe: e, the surrounding light must be subdued, San enes Draw an instrumentation scheme to measure the spei explain the principle behind its operation. er and ‘ed of a motor cycle using a magnetic transdtet (Banglore U ’ fhe The block diagramatic representation of the instrumentation scheme for the measuremen©! speed of the motorcycle using a magnetic transducer is given as followe eri Scanned with CamScanner< LACEMENT, VELOCITY, ACCELERATION, FORCE, TORQUE AND SHAFT POWER MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION MEASUREMENT OF FORCE — Advant 1, Small size and a small weight. 2. High output impedance. 3. Can measure acceleration from a fraction of g to thousands of g. ty 5. High frequency response (10 Hz to 50 kHz). 4. High sens isad vantage 1. Unsuitable for applications where the input frequency is lower than 10 Hz. 2. Subject to hysteresis errors. 3. Sensitive to temperature changes. 10.3.2. Seismic Accelerometer Ina seismic (displacement sensing) accelerometer, the displacement of mass resulting from an apt g, is measured and correlated to the acceleration. A schematic diagram of this accelerator is shown in Fig. 10.13. The mass is connected through jy Parallel spring and damper arrangement to the housing frame. The housing frame is connected to the source of vibrations whose characteristics are to be measured. The mass has tendency to remain fixed in is pang Position so that the vibrational motion is registered as a relative displacement between mass cand housing frame. This displacement is sensed and indicated by an appropriate transducer. Housing frame Displacement transducer Fig. 10.13. Schematic diagram of a seismic transducer. © This accelerometer may also be used oscillations of a system). i ra MEASUREMENT OF FORCE is est Foreeis defined as any cause tha produces stops or changes the motion ofa body or tends to produce effecis. z yelie 48 a vibration sensor (vibration refers to the repeated & 626 Scanned with CamScanneré pLACEMENT, VELOCITY, ACCELERATION, FORCE, TORQUE AND SHAFT POWER MEASUREMENT ol MEASUREMENT OF FORCE <4 mn force may be measured by the methods incorporating the following principles = 1g te force against a known gravitational force on a standard mass. ..Seales and balances unk 1. Batanci ing the force (0 a fluid pressure and then measuring the resulting pressure. sHydraulic and pneumatic load cells ig the force to some elastic member and then measuring the resulting deflection. .-Proving ring 9. translatt s.applying suapplving the force to a known mass and then measuring the resulting acceleration. 5, Balancing: the force against a magnetic force developed by interaction of a magnet and a current carrying coil 40.4.1. Seales and Balances « Aweighing machine, commercially known as scales is used for the measurement of force and torque by comparison of weights. It is based on the principle of equilibrium, produced by two torques as a result of forces acting at equal or different distances from the fulcrum. The “even-arm balance” and “even-arm scale” are seldom used for force measurement because of the sine consumed in the measuring operation. © The beam scaleis used for spring-testing devices because its accuracy permits testing a wide range of springs with high accuracy. ¢ The use of pendulum scales requires that the force should be steady for 2 to 3 seconds for the scale to come to rest. 10.4.2. Springs «© The springs are frequently used for the measurement of force. © The spring scales are available in capacities from a few grams to 20000 kg or more. © Spring alloys are used for spring materials and refinements in construction are effected in order to attain high accuracy over the ambient temperature range from approximately 0°C to 50°C. © The ordinary springs are capable for giving results accurately within the accuracy of 0.5 to 1.0%. |< External boss ‘43. Proving Rings Internal fred ning Fingsare steel rings which are used as h oa cabttdards. They are particularly wseful for i —_ re dead, material testing machines in situations ils vite aecouy weight standards are impracticable to use t of their physical bulk. sicrmeter rin Pe Proving rings are most commonly used in lustries for measurement of very heavy forces. The Proving (stress) ring is a ring of known Physical dimensions and mechanical t cegbertes, On the application of an external iPressive or tensile load to the lugs or external a |. 10.13(a). Proving ring. Scanned with CamScanner_MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION > MEASUREMENT OF FORCE bosses, the ring changes in diameter; the change being proportional 0 the applied forcy deflection of the ring is measured by means of a micrometer screw anda vibrating reed which attached to the internal bosses, During use the tip of the micrometer is advanced and its contact. a the rod is indicated by considerable damping othe reed vibration. The difference in readings gh Inierometerbefore and after the application of Toa gives the amount of compression othe ctonga® of the ring. iad — The deflection ofthe ring can also be measured by using LVDT which senses the movement ou, which is attached to the ring and moves due to deflection of the ring. " © The maximum deflection is typically of the order of | percent of the outside diameter of the ting, © Proving rings are normally used for force within the range of 2 KN to 2MN. © The rings are very stable-and accurate to 40.1 percent but because deflection is not linear iy actual force is determined by reference to a calibration curve. 10.4.4. Load Cells Load cells are elastic devices that can be used for measurement of force through indirect methods ie, through use of secondary transducers. Load cells utilize an elastic member as the primary transducer and strain gauges as secondary transducer, When the combination of the strain gauge-elastic member is used for weighing, it is called a “load cell" While designing load cells using strain gauges the following factors should be considered : (0 Stiffness of the elastic element. (i) Optimum positioning of gauges on the element. (iii) Provision for compensation of the temperature, When large loads are to be measured, the direct tensile-compressive member may be used, whereas, in case of small loads, strain amplification provided by bending may be used with advantage. 10.4.4.1. Hydraulic load cell Fig. 10.14 shows a hydraulic load cell. Here the force variable is impressed upon a diaphragm which deflects and thereby transmits the force to a liquid. The liquid medium contained in a confined space, has a preload pressure of 2 bar. On the application of the force the liquid pressure increases and equals the force magnitude divided by the effective area of the diaphragm. The pressure is transmitted to and read on an accurate pressure gauge calibrated [EN RR directly on force units. WES © These cells have been used to Fluid filled space measure loads upto about 25 MN (with an accuracy of 0.1% of full scale); resolution is about 0.02 per cent. Fig. 10.14, Hydraulic load cell. Scanned with CamScannerLACEMENT, VELOCITY, ACCELERAT; re? —SAATON, FORCE, TORQUE AND SHAFT POWER MEASUREMENT ——— —— SHA MEASUREMENT OF FORCE 2, pneumatic load coll he qperates on the force-balance principle, i employs a nozzle | ee al ey syStem For any constant applied foreetic system attais ) pd corresponding Presse is indicated bythe hein of mer pe commercially available load cells (opera i a Operating on this principle) can mea aos Be N with an accuracy of 0.5% of full scale. ans lapper transducer similar to the ibrium ata spe vreury column in a manometer. nozzl 143. Strain gauge load cells oan cells convert weight or force into electri can be connected {0 various measuring led by the strain gauges; these . Fecording and controlling the “usually the strain gauges are directly ‘applied t0 the. aint strain-gauge output. | These are excellent force-measuring devices, Particularl «These are used in conjunction with CRO (for di loads. ‘force-developing device and the device is calibrated ly for transient and non-steady force lay purposes) for measurement of rapidly changing Caastruction and workin; of the load cell : fi 1015 shows a simple strain gauge load cell. It consists ofa steel cylinder, on which are mounted four ‘tmtcal strain gauges. The gauges R. 1 and Ryg are along the ditection of applied load and the gauges Ry and cue tached circumferentally o gauges R,, and Ry All the four gauges are connected electrically the ‘our limbs of a wheatstone bridge circuit, Load (force) vo Key (a) Load cell (b) Wheatstone bridge Fig. 10.15. Strain gauge load cell. When there i have the same resistance (i. Rey = Roo = Ryy= Rey). is no load on the cel, all the four gauges x ea Rea) ou : i idge is balanced a I voltage is te, Sly the terminals B and D are at the same potential, the bridge is balanced and the output voltage is ie =y, (10.3) Yan =¥an= 3 : A104) Yap~ Yap = Yo> $ y lig O™I application ofa compressive load to the unt, the vertical gauges (R,, and R,,) undergo compression * Mepative Strain) and, therefore, there is decrease in resistance. The circumferential gauges Rey and Ry ang Scanned with CamScannerMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION > MEASUREMENT OF FORCE Simultaneously, undergo tension (i.e, positive strain) leading to increase in resistance, The ya st Not equal; these are related to each other by a factor, H, the Poisson's ratio. Thus when strained, the re, i ay of various gauges are : me Rae Rey = RAR (compress Roz Rg=RtaR " a= a3 “(lensing / Ru R-aR a : Potential at terminal B, , Fat ha” (Rodty+(R+ Ha) ~ Rede, © 2R-dRU~p) “ Pa . Re eae xv tential at terminal D, v4 Ratha’ (RepdR)+(R-aR) ees nan ~ 2R=aR(I=p) 2 The changed output voltage, RewdR , xv TR-aR—w) *” ~-[Using () and iy aR y wld 105) svi magni Since the output voltage v= 0 under unloaded conditions, therefore, change in output voltage due» applied load becomes : aR v dvy=2(1 +p) Ra (10.6) Obviously, this voltage is a measure of the applied load. The use of four identical strain gauges in each arm of the bridle provides full temperature compensa and also increases the sensitivity of the bridge 2(1 + 41) times, Uses. The strain gauge load cells find extensive use in the following : (i) Road vehicle weighing devices, (ii) Draw bar and tool-force dynamometer (iti) Crane load monitoring etc, The following data relate to strain gauge load cell arran Fig. 10.15 : Diameter of the steel cylinde Supply voltage (v) = 6 A . ‘ put it nged with four identical strain gauges as sho 0: 2) 60 mm; Nominal resistance of each gauge = 120.0; Gauge factr=? Modulus of elasticity for steel = 200 GNin?: Calculate the sensitivity of the load cell, Go & Given: d=60mm=0.06 m; R, (each gi 0, v=6V; auge) Scanned with CamScannergpLACEMENT. VELoeh ACCELERATION, FORCE, TORQUE AND SHAFT POWER MEASUREMENT ol MEASUREMENT OF FORCE <4 ay ofthe load cell oad of L KN applied to the load cell, sa ” Load 1x10? ; Stress (0) = ae bet ‘ross-sectional area Exo.057 0.3537 x 10° Nien 6 Strain, € = Stress (6) 0.353710 ——_Stress(o)__ 0.353710 _ 6 Modulus of elasticity (BE) ~ 200x107 = 17685 10 sexton change in resistance, * € = 2.0 x 1.7685 x 10° = 3,537 x 10% Output voltage, dy, =2(1 +) (4 2) R4 - (Eqn. (10.6)} $) = 13.79 x 10° V = 13.79 wV Hence, the sensitivity of the load cell = 13.79 wV/KN (Ans.) | Fg. 10.16 shows a strain transducer, intended to be used for the measurement of forces in the range 15 to 1WON; the gauges are electrically connected so as to form a full Wheatstone bridge circuit. Supply voltage =6V; gauge factor = 2; modulus of elasticity of cantilever = 200 GN/m?. =2(1+0.3) (2.37 x10 x® ow (i) Ifthe stress o on the surface of the cantilever is given by the relation : 6 = ——>-, and | = 120 mm, b= 24 mm and the maximum stress at the section XX is 80 MN/n?, calculate the thickness of the cantilever beam. (ii) Calculate the minimum unbalance voltage that would be indicated on a detector of finite resistance. ‘W(Load) x oa) my PR Kb —+ Res othe Rs" Gauges Cantilever beam Gauges Lex Fig. 10.16. 2 pion) : Given ; Range of loads/forces : 15 to 100N, v=6V; G,=2.0; E=200GN/m?; 20m ™ = 0.12 m; b = 24 mm = 0,024 m; Maximum stress at the section XX, 6,4, 0 Sn ae = 80 MN/m?; Thickness ofthe beam,t: ow imax “py Maximum stress, 6, Scanned with CamScannerGy MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION D MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE 6WL Sm XD Thickness, = ( 6.124 x 10 m or 6.124 mm(Ans,) or, 6x100 x0.12 - ( 80 x 10° x 0.024 (i) Minimum unbalanced voltage : Stress corresponding to minimum force, 15 : gin = 80 55g = 12 MN GSyig __12X10° te ir 760% 10° x Minimum strain = Fractional change in resistance, aR y= Gp. € = 2.0% 60 x 10° = 120% 10% The output of a Wheatstone bridge circuit employing four active gauges, 6 =4x 120% 10% x 7 =0.72x 107 V or 0.72 mV(Ans.) 10.4.4.4. Piezoelectric load cells Theprinciple of working ofa piezoelectric load cell is that when pressure is applied across certain ena (quartz etc.) then an electrical charge proportional to the pressure is developed across certain well deny faces of the crystal, © These are used for measuring forces, particularly of a transient or rapidly changing varie © Suitable for measuring forces from 5 N to 20 kN. te MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE 10.5.1. Introduction To transmit energy by rotation it necessary to apply a turning force. In case of a shaft ifthe fore is appl tangentially and in the plane of transverse cross-section the torque or twisting moment may be calculatdby multiplying the force with the radius of the shaft. If the shaft is subjected to two opposite turning momens it is said to be in pure torsion and it will exhibit the tendency of shearing off at every cross-section whichis perpendicular to the longitudinal axis ‘The measurement of torque is carried out because of the reasons : (i) It is of considerable interest fois ‘own sake; (ii) It is required to obtain load information necessary for stress and deflection analysis; i often associated with determination of mechanical power. 10.5.2. Torque Measurement Methods Torque may be measured by the following methods : 1. Gravity balance method. 2. Mechanical torsion meter. . — Scanned with CamScannerArm seal torsion meter- 07 al torsion meer ec : sei 08 torsion meter. we ald patance method ic 46 shod is illustrates in Fig. 10.17. Amassm = 7 paren gan arm until the value ofthe torque rae 8 zB py mass balances the unknown torque, 7” ;yune"" (m) 2c gnowsn torque. T= Fxr (10.7) we pemg= force exerted by the mass ea pone se. ‘ ring 7 je method writizes the movement of a - sean mass ET 8 variable distance. Fig. 10.17. Gravity balance method. jematively, magnitude of the mass may be varied, keeping the radius (r) constant. inboth of the above cases, the arm must be kept horizontal so that arm distance is perpendicular to the tpof action of force. Since the shaft is supported at the bearing, there may be a friction torque (due to the seting on the bearing) leading to error in the measurement of torque. This error may be eliminated by tmangng 10 apply equal and opposite force. 1. Mechanical torsion meter: refullowing relationship holds good (within elastic imits) for the angular deflection of a shaft subject 10 toue : T t © 7 = TF (10.8) I, iD I shee, T= Torque transmitted by the shaft, = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft section, ‘= Maximum shear stress induced at the outside surface, = Radius at which maximum shear stress occurs, C= Modulus of rigidity of the shaft material, = Angular twist, and = Length of the shaft over which the twists measured. The above relation gives, (10.9) Ip T=|-2|xt or T=constantxT r (10.10) r 1 and, T= () x@ or T=constant x8 Th 7 ' fg, MS-torque (7) can be calculated by measuring either the maxim 1m shear stress (t) or the angle of twist Ia - ais chanical torsion meter (Fig. 10.18) the angular defl e teat torque. The angular twist over a fixed length of the bar is observed on a calibrated disc (attached to tat b " H ing shat) by using the stroboscopic effect oF intermittent viewing and persistence of vision, the Sten ogg "UE Changes, the system gives a varying angle of twist between the driving engine and the Scanned with CamScanner 633MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION D MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE 3. Optical torsion meter: In this meter the angular twist of a rotating shaft is detected by an optical method. 4. Electrical torsion meter Fig. 10.19 shows such a system using two photoelectric or ‘magnetic transducers, involving two sets of measurements : (0 A count of the impulse frcm either slotted wheel: this count gives the frequency or shaft speed. (ii) A measure of the time between pulses from the two wheels, this signal is proportional to the ‘twist 8 and hence T, in the shaft. Fig. 10.18, Mechanical torsion mare Slotted dise —_ ~ Slotted dise Leads 10 electronic unit Fig. 10.19, Electrical torsion meter. By combining the above two signals, Tand « the power being transmitted by the shaft can be calculte! 5. Strain-gauge torsion meter: Fig. 10.20 shows a general configuration of a strain gauge bridge circuit widely employed for tone ‘measurement from a rotating shaft. UT Fig. 10.20. Strain gauge torsion-meter, ad Scanned with CamScannerpISPLACEMENT. VELOCITY, ACCELERATION, FORCE, TORQUE AND SHAFT POWER MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE <4 yn, Four bonded-wire strain gauges are mounted on a 45° helix with the axis of rotation: and are i pairs diametrically opposite. When the gauges are accurately placed and have matched characteristics. {tinh emperatie compensated and insensitive to ending and thrust r pall effects, Any cha ose uit then results only from torsional deflection. ge when the shaft is under torsion, gauges I and 4 will cloned chin Seat stress on one diagonal axis, while 2 and 3 will cont ein aA as a result of the tensile component 1 due to compressive component on the oy giagonal axis. These tensile and compressive principal strains can be measured and hence shaft torque ‘pxolated. grants: ve rangement has the following advantages : "1, Fally temperature compensated, + Gives the maximum sensitivity for a given torque. x. Provides automatic compensation for bending and axial loads. Limitation: ‘pe main limitation/ difficulty associated with the use of this arrangement is the connection of the bridge t© ts power source and display arrangement, Slip rings are used for this purpose. These are conducting rings weed to the shaft, but insulated from it with one of the slip rings connected to each of the bridge terminals. ‘are mercury filled and transmit the signal to a stationary member where itis amplified and displayed «Good results from the strain gauge method are available only when the shaft exper strain to produce a measurable output signal. In case the torque is small the gauge bridge will not give adequate output signal for measurement. In such cases a flexible coupling is introduced in the shaft. The coupling incorporates one or more elastic members (clastic member may be a different shaft or a commercial torque meter) to which the gauge may be attached. The elastic members are so designed that they produce sufficiently large deflection even under light load conditions. This large deflection produces large strains resulting in large output of the strain gauge brid riences sufficient gi ze GE A shaft running at a constant speed of 1500 r.p.m. transmits maximum power of 60 kW, Measurements of ‘orgue are made by a pair of strain gauges which are bonded on a specially machined portion of the shaft. Each gauge has a nominal resistance of 100 Q. gauge factor of 2.0 and are connected electrically to the nwo ams of a half-activated Wheatstone bridge circuit which is energised with an excitation voltage of 6 V. The {24ges have a maximum strain of 0.0012. The shear modulus of elasticity of the shaft material is 200 GN/n’. Calculate the following : (i) The diameter of the shaft. (ii) The ouput voltage and the sensitivity of the measuring system. RARE Given: v= 1500. p.m. p = 60 KW; Nominal resistance of each gauge . G, =2.0; v=6V; € =0.0012; C= 200GNim’, Diameter of the shaft : 2nNT 0 1000 a = 28x15 xT 0 x 1000 00.2; p: where Tis in Nm a Scanned with CamScannerMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION > MEASUREMENT OF SHAFT POWER 60 x 0 x 1000 =381.97Nm 2nx1 | Also, c= or t=Cxe | x 6 2 on t= 200 x 10? x 0.0012 = 240 x 10° N/m? Using the relation : 381.97 _ 240x108 Ras d Exa a2 2 da (19 ¢ 381.97 ~ Un” 240 x10 ‘The output voltage (dv,) and the sensitivity of the measuring system : 1 002m or 20mm (Ans) (i Fractional change in resistance, aR TR = GX =2.0x 0.0012 = 0.0024 The ouput voltage of an equal arm bridge using two active elements (half-activated) bridge i, ua( God) ORR =2x(o.oms x .2x103V or 7.2mV (Ans.) Overall sensitivity of the measuring system 1. =~ = 0.12 mV/KW (Ans.) ci) EOGY_MeAsuremeNT | SHAFT POWER | A dynamometer is a device used to measure the torque being exerted along a rotating shaft soast0 determine the shaft power input or output of power-generating, transmitting and absorbing machine The dynameters are classified as follows : {- Absorption dynamometers. The work on the principle that the power measured is converte itt heat by friction or by other means. The power absorbed is lost as heat and dissipated to the suo where it serves no useful purpose Examples : () Mechanical brakes : © Prony brakes. © Rope brakes, Scanned with CamScanner" pISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, ac ‘CELERATION, FORCE, TORQUE AND SHAFT POWER MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT OF SHAFT POWER (i Hydraulic oF fuid friction brakes, (i) Bady current dynamometer. ‘transmission dynamome 2 Tete dynamometer isnt aba bean the surroundings in a useful mechanical or eleetneal for Examples : , () Torsion and belt dynamometers. (i Epicyclic tain dynamometer. (ii Strain gauge dynamometers. 3, Driving dynamometers. These instruments measur r re ri y iment ve " ‘measure power and also supply energy to operate the Example : Electric cradled dynamometer (a typical example). 40.6.1. Mechanical Brakes JheProny and rope brakes are the two types of mechanical brakes widely used for the measurement of power. 106.11. Prony brake dynamometer Fig. 1021 shows thc schematic arrangement of a simplest form of an absorption type dynamometer. -}—— Si a VT] ] > sens Levee l = Counter i weight IS weaten — f 1 /# blocks Ww Pulley F = Frictional resistance between the pulley and the blocks Fig, 10.21. Prony brake dynamometer. da pulley fixed to the shafi of an engine whose means of two bolts and nuts. A helical spring is re on the pulley to control its speed. The inter weight is placed uration, Itconsists of two wooden blocks placed aroun Poviteg to be measured. The blocks are clamped by per between the nut and the upper block to adjust the pressu lock has & long lever attached to it and carries a weight W atts outst end, A cout ‘other end of the lever which balances the brake w ded. In order to limit the motion of the lever, sl : slops are provided as shown in Fig. 10.21. Works, ‘in. When the brake is to be operated, the long end o! heme unit the engine shaft runs ata conse spee ig Onitions the moment due to the weight W must balance the moment ca orks and the pulley. shen unloai fever is loaded with suitable weights Wand nuts dd and the lever is in horicontal position. Under of frictional resistance between Scanned with CamScannerID INSTRUMENTATION _ MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AN! > MEASUREMENT OF SHAFT POWER 1 = Weight atthe outer end of the levers N(newtons), Let, W= Weigl he weight W from the centre of the pulley, = Horizontal distance of Lee ven the block and the pulley, N F = Frictional resistance bet R= Radius of the pulley,” N= Speed of the shaft, r-P.™- i 1 torque of the shal, and Now, the moment of the frictional resistance 0 T=WxL=FxRNm ned) = 7x 2 Nm Work done in one revolution = 7 x 0 (angle tur +. Work done per minute = Tx 22.V Nm <. Brake power of the engine, N pe anne (WL) X20 ats P= 0 (0. © When the driving onque onthe shafts not uniform, this dynamometer is subjected to severe ost, 10.6.1.2. Rope brake dynamometer This type of absorption dynamometer is most commonly used. Its schematic arrangement is shown in Fig. 10.22. Construction. tconsists of one, two or more ropes wound around the flywheel or rim of a pulley fixed rigidly to the shaft of the engine. The upper end of the ropes is attached to a spring balance while the lower end of the ropes is kept in position by applying a dead weight as shown in Rope < Fig, 10.22. In order to prevent the slipping of the rope | over the flywheel, wooden blocks are placed at intervals i | around the circumference of the flywheel. ae i | Working. For the operation of the brake, the engine is \\ ' made to run at a constant speed. The frictional torque, due to rope, must be equal to the torque being transmitted | by the engine. Let, W= Weight at the end of the rope, N, ‘S= Spring balance reading, N, N= Engine speed, r.p.m., aoe D= Diameter of the brake wheel, m, d= Diameter of the rope, m, and Fig. 10.22. Rope brake dynamomelet (D+d)= Effective diameter of the brake wheel. Then, Work/revolution = Torque x angle tumed per revolution = ww-sx( 284) ag W-S)x(D+d) xx Scanned with CamScannerMEASUREMENT OF SHAFT POWEF Work done/min, = (iy_ 5 (D+ dyn NN Work done/sec, = W=S)n(D+ ayy = SID SAN (10.12) woifdis neglected ..(10.12a) of ‘ di si Hea dias ite engine is absorbed by the frictional resistance of the brake and is ertec flowing into the ris ‘sary to keep the brake Wheel cool with soapy water. The water is kept casually owing im and is drained away by a sharp edged scoop on the other side. « “Rope brake dynamometer” is cheap and easily cent . 'Y Constructed but not very accurate because of changes in friction coefficient of the rope with temperature. ° de Thefollowing data ‘ere recorded with rope brake dynamometer ina laboratory ¢ Diameter ofthe brake wheel = 1.44 m : Diameter of the rope 15mm Speed of the engine =240 rpm. Dead load on the brake 720.N Spring balance reading = 180N Calculate the brake power of the engine. Given: D=1.44m;d=15mm=0.015 m;:N=240r.p.m., W=720N: S=180N. (W-S)n(D+aN ee 60 x1000 180) (1.44 +0. =98TKW. (Ans) 01000 we 10.6.2. Fluid Friction (Hydraulic) Dynamometer This type of dynamometer uses fluid friction rather than dry friction for dissipating the input energy. ind a stationary casing, The Fig. 10.23 shows a water vortex dynamometer. It consists of a rotating Mating disc is keyed to the driving shaft of the prime mover and it revolves ‘asingis mounted on antifriction bearings and has a brake arm and a balanes 'Sintwo halves, one of which is placed on either side ofthe rotating disc. Semi-elliptical recesses atch with the corresponding grooves in the rotating disc to form chambers throush whic! is maintained, While the brake is water follows a helical path in the chamber, consequently the vortices Mediycmens ae an ire ae eee te ce We darts the direction of ‘ation of the shaft. This tendency is opposed by the brake arm and balance system due to which the torque ‘Measured, & Scanned with CamScannerMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION = D> MEASUREMENT OF SHAFT POWER | fe Rotating disc staf coupled 10 ' Stationery Ye ‘engine under test } casing fee ] " | pivoted on bearing Yj ae ' Na | Fig, 10.23. Water vortex dynamometer. i - varying either the quantity of water “The control ofthe braking action is carried out by varying either the quantity Oris en, stationary casing. the distance between the rotating disc and the lows : © Power absorption (P) in this dynamometer varies as fol PAN? (d)' approx.. where, Nis the rotational speed and d is the rotor diameter. © Speed limit = 10.000 r-p.m. (approx.); Usual power limit = 25000 H.P- Advantages: (i) In addition to braking action, the constant supply of water provides coolit (ii) High absorption capacity at low cost and in a small space. (iii) By providing a dashpot-damper system it is possible to have protection from hunting effects. ing effect. 10.6.3. Eddy Current Dynamometer An eddy current dynamometer (absorption) operates Coles on the principle that when an isolated conductor cuts, eee ee across magnetic flux, voltage is induced and local freee currents (called “eddy currents”) flow ina short circular Cast-iron stator VEE | path within the conductor. These eddy currents get (section) A Exctingsed | dissipated in the form of heat. Fig, 10.24 shows an eddy current dynamometer. It Toothed ——| Nae consists of a roothed steel rotor mounted on the shaft of |—_ steel rotor "beating the test-engine, it rotates inside a smooth bared castiron ez stator; the clearance between the stator and motor being very small. The stator carries an exciting coil, which is bred energised by D.C. supply from an external source. The stator is cradled on antifriction bearings and is provided with a brake arm to which is attached a spring balance or a scale pan, When the dynamo is operated, the rotor turns and causes a constant change in flux density on all stator ~ Contig water points. Consequently eddy currents are induced which oppose the rotation of the rotor. The moment of resistance is measured by the brake arm and then torque and shalt power may be calculated. Fig. 10.24. Eddy current dynamometer ‘The mechanical power supplied to the dynamometer shaft is converted to heat which is carried partly by air circulation (induced by the rotor teeth) and partly by water circulation (see Fig. 10.24) @ Usual power limit of the dynamometer = 300 H.P.; Speed limit = 6000 r.p.m. (approx.) ED _—f Scanned with CamScannerCITY, ACCEL ERAT) MEASUREMENT OF SHAFT POWER est one cone! TOW Fang speeds, OO omparatively smal size fora give (able For higher speed range, ‘io a capacity, 164 Belt Transmission Dynamometer 0.6 weer is being transmitted by the belt from one set Fr ual tothe difference between the tensions in 2d jyed to measure directly the ditt il Pulley to another, the tangential effort on the driven s the tight art slack sides of the belt, A belt dynamometer nee between the tensions of the belt, while it is runnin dynamometer (called called driving pulley) whi nsmission eaneter) Itconsists Of a pulley A (¢ aa wer is to be measured. There is 4 Froude or Throneycratt transmission, his rigidly fixed to the shatt of am ¢ ‘ strom pulley is tran another pulley B (called driven pulley) mounted on another shatt spate power from pulley is transmitted, The pulleys and B are connected by me Pr gground two pulleys Cand D which are mounted on ene is controlled by 10 stops as shown in Fig, 10 since the tension in the tight side of the belt (7)) is greater than the tension in the slack side of getelt (7) therefore, the total force acting on the pulley C (ive, 27,) is greater than the total force singonthe putley D (i.¢., 27). Itis thus evident that the frame causes movement about Ein the anticlochow ise econ. In order to balance it, a weight Wis applied ata distance L trom E on the frame (See Fig. 10.28) Taking moments about the pivot E, neglecting fri bch T-shaped frame, The frame is pivoted at E n, We have: 27, xt= 27x14 Wx L cn, UT, -T,)= Wx we = or, T,-T, a (LOLS D= Diameter of the pulley A,m, and N= Speed of engine shaft, .p.m.. Then, work done/revolution = (7, ~ 7) RD N-m Work done/min, =(T,-T,) RDNN-m (=T)nDN a gi See Brake power of the engine, B.P. =~ 24 ogy) Driving pulley. Engine shaft Continuous belt - Fig. 10.25. Belt transmission dynamometer. Scanned with CamScannerMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION > MEASUREMENT OF SHAFT POWER 10.6.5. D.C. Dynamometers D.C. electric type dynamometer is the most versanle ¢ 1 and is widely used for power and torque measurements of This is a cradied dynamome # Intemal combustion engines. © Small steam turbines. © Pumps and other mechanical equipment. The basic arrangement of a D.C. dynamometer i when it is coupl ene 1ed to the machine w motor and generator. It works as a g% generating machine. The power generated by the & recovered as a useful power. Thus, the D.C. machine ean act both as absorption dima ie and torque is measured through a force/torque arm attached to the casing: of the D.C. machine. B the field excitation of the generator the output voltage and hence the power can be consoled a D.C. motor. It may act as driving ¢ device like a pump. The output powe: CC, motor by varying cither the arma dynamometer. The DC When the D.C. machine is made to work as motor may drive a test machine which is a power absorbing may be smoothly controlled by controlling the speed of the D. or field current D.C. machine casing x PH | Fig. 10.26. D.C. dynamometer. Bearing | 10.6.6. Be Gibson Flash Light Torsion Dynamometer This dynamometer is based on the fact that for a given shaft the torque transmitted is 10 the angle of nvist. The twist is measured and the corresponding torque is calculated from t @ here the symbols have usual meanings. After calculating the torque the shaft powers o% T=, 2nNT x 1000, KA, where by using the relation : P is the shaft speed in r.p.m. and Tis in New. ‘Note: The useful range of a dynamometer is usually governed by the following factors (i) Load limiting torave. ii) Mechanical limit torque and centrifugal limit (ii) Friction and windge torque. (iv) Cooling limit. Scanned with CamScannerCEMENT, VELOC! shometer is an instrument whi, 1. Amachome splays radi ich either continuously indica: continuously ling of average speed over rapidly o; . rapidly ope: ical tachometers are preferre h lectrical tact i i Preferred, as compared to mechani fey offeras electrical transducers, tes the val ed short cal tachome 4. The acceleration of a moving body is generally measured by means of j.anunknown force may be measured by the following: (i Scales and balances: (i) Springs: (ii) Proving rings: (iv) Lood cells. «Load cells are elastic devices that can be used for measurement of force * rough use of secondary transducers, oo 4 Torque may be measured by the following methods : ( Gravity balance method (ii) Mechanical torsion meter (iii) Optical torsion meter (iv) Electrical torsion meter. (») Strain-gauge torsion meter. sensors cal 4, Adynamometer is a device used to measure the torque being exerted along a determine the shaft power input or output of power-generating. transmitting The dynamometers are classified as : (9 Absorption dynamometers. (i) Transmission dynamometers. (ii) Driving dynamometers. OBJECTIVE E QUESTION: A.Choose the Correct Answers : 1, Elastic elements used for measurement of force give (a) high sensitivity and slow response if they are sti (©) low sensitivity and fast response if they are stilt (0) low sensitivity and slow response if they are stiff (d) none of the above. 2, Piezoelectric type of load cells can be used for measurement of (a) dynamic forces only (6) dynamic forces and static forces provided the load cells have a small time const (dynamic forces and static forces provided thatthe load cells have # large Hime oo (@) none of the above. A Theaverage speed measurements are given by (a) ‘centrifugal tachometer (©) revolution counter and a timer 4. Torque of rotating shafts is measured by mounting 8iven to itand the output from itis taken from by using a (@) only stip rings {b) only rotary transformers (©) lip rings, rotary transformers, telemetry equipment one ofthe above. (by drag cup (a) stroboscope. suge bridge on the shaft, The sopply tothe Br a strain ga Scanned with CamScannerKo MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION we ue D OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS. 5, Asink is : (a) atransmission dynamometer (b) adeiving dynamon (¢)_anabsorption dynamometer (a) any dynamometer, 6, Thestroboscopic method of speed measurement has the advantage that sean (a) the method is simple and straight forward ——(b) the multiples of angular speed can be measured (c)_astationary image can be observed. (d)_ there is no need of any physical contact between the instrument and the routing shalt 7, The seismic mass transducer for the measurement of acceleration and vibration is. (a)_ zero order instrument (b) first order instrument (©) second order instrument (i) none of these, 8, Hydraulic load cells are available which have a maximum capacity of | (a) 10kN (b) 50 kN (9 10MN (a) 50. MN, 9, Pendulum type of scales used for measurement of force work on the principle of (a) comparing the unknown force with a known foree () converting the unknown force to power and comparing it with known power (©) converting the unknown force to torque and comparing it with a known torque (@) alloftheabove, 10, Tachometers are used to measure : (a) displacement (b) angular velocity (© vibration (a) time, 11, The speed of sealed compressor units ean be measured by a (a) stroboscope (b) vibrating reed tachometer (©) capacitive pick-up tachometer (d) tachoscope, A. Choose the Correct Answer: hs ©) peeseera (©) reese @) evveet ay (C) sess S14 (c) SENG) 20 & 9 10, nu ® B. Fill in the Blanks or Say “Yes” or “No”: 1, Mechanical displacement can be converted anelectrical circuit ton electrical variable by the simple expdi of adjusting 2, Linear transformers are generally supplied for operation at frequenci upto 30 Miz 3, Anclectromagnetic transducer utilizes the voltage produced change in ‘count of change in flux linkages resulting 4, Amoving type electro-magnet Angular velocity may be m 6 4. -is an instrument which either continuously indicates the areading of average speed over rapidly operated short inter insducer uses pen went magnet which provides a constant polarizing Felt sured with the help o luc of rotary speed or continously isph)* Is of time, The accuracy of a centrifugal tachometer is of the order of + 0,008%, Electrical tachometers are preferred, as co electrical transducers. to mechanical tachometers, in view of advantages they ll 9, InaD.C. tachometer generator, the speed be computed by measuring the instrument nt, 10, Photoelectric tachometer isa. > pene 11, Eddy current tachometers are used for measuring rotational speeds upto $O0-,pan, with an accuracy of #0278 a — Scanned with CamScannerLACEMENT, VELOCITY, ACCELERATION, FORCE, TORQUE AND SHAFT POWER MEASUREMENT is? OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS 4 sion of a moving body is generally measured by means of sensors called arse» Rew accelerometer is probably the simplest and most commonly used transducers for measuring acceleration. “ a .. accelerometer, the displacement of a mass resulting from an applied force is measured and correlated ' othe sg teaceeer te Tebeam sca 1p The acoelet cecleration. jon may also be used as.a vibration sensor. ois used for spring-testing devices, frmiewseol seales requires that the force should be steady for 210 3 seconds for the scale to come to rest. 1 esprings ar rarely used forthe measurement of eee, fie rina springs are capable of giving results accurately within the accuracy of 05 101.0% standards. bp The proving rings are steel rings and are used as. 31 Te proving rings are rarely used in industries, nnn afe elastic devices that can be used for measurement of the force through indirect methods é.c., through use Giaecondary transducers. 24 When the combination of the strain gauge-elastic member is used for weighing, ‘A. The hydraulic load cells have been used to measure loads upto about 25 MN. 45. Paeumatic Lond cell operates on the foree-balance principle. 2. Sain gauge load cells convert weight or force into electrical output which are provided by the strain gauges. Toad cell works on the principle that when pressure is applied across certain erystals (quartz etc.) then an dlecuical charge proportional tothe pressure is developed across certain well-defined faces of the crystal. 2. mune torsion meter the angular deflection of a parallel length of shaftis used to measure torque. BK isa device used to measure the torque being exerted atong a rotating shaft so as to determine the shaft ‘power input or output of power-generating, transmitting and absorbing machinery. . dynamometers work on the principle that the power measured is converted into heat by friction or by other 2. called a 2. power being transmitted either to or from the dynamometer .» dynamometers work on the principle that the isnot absorbed or dissipated. x. ddynamometers measure power and also supply energy to operate the tested devices 3. Rope brake dynamometer is costly and complex in construction. 34D. electric dynamometer is the most versatile and accurate dynamometer. Bevis Gibson flash light torsion dynamometer is based on the fact that fora given shaft, the torque transmitted is, {itecly proportional to. a i ——— “Fillin the Blanks or Say “Yes” or “No”: | hYes 2No AYes as. Bigs Tachometer G-tachometer S-Yes ao 10.Digital 12-Accelerometers |p ieee Miseismic 16.Yes 1 O pendutu 20 force ayy a 23.Load cell 2.Yes |ao8 22.Load cells Loa : Lge Yes 27 Piezoelectric 28-Mechanical 26.Yes ». 2. | yy Sesometer 30.Absorption 31-transmission 32.Driving No Mayes angle of twist. if a 7 Scanned with CamScannerMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION > THEORETICAL QUESTIONS HEORETICAL QUESTION: How can linear displacement be measured ? Explain briefly. 2. Explain briefly how small displacements can be measured by a linear or differential transformers, 3 Describe briefly witha neat sketch how angular displacement is measured by 2 variable reluctance tansdon 4 Name the transducers which are used for the measurement of linear velocity - 5. Explain with a neat diagram the method of measuring linear velocity with the use of movis 6 How is angular velocity measured ? 7. Whatisa tachometer? 8. How are tachometers classified ? % Explain briefly any two of the follow: ‘ing mechanical tachometers : (® Hand speed indicator (i) Vibrating reed tachometer (iit) Centrifugal tachometer. 10. "Why are electicaltachometers preferred to mechanical achometers? 11. Explain briefly any two of the following electrical tachometers : () DC. tachometer generator (i) A.C. tachometer generator (ii) Photoelectric tachometer. 12. Give the description of an eddy current tachometer, with a neat sketch. 13. Describe briefly a capacitive pick-up tachometer. 14. Whatare accelerometers? 18. Explain briefly the following : (O Piezoelectric accelerometer (ii) Seismic accelerometer. 16. How is an unknown force measured ? 17. What is a proving ring ? How is it used to measure force ? 18. Whatisaload cell? 19. Explain briefly the following load cells : (@ Hydraulic load cell (i) Pneumatic load cell. 20. Describe briefly the construction and wi ‘orking of strain gauge load cell. State its fields of appli 21. Whats the principle of working of a piezoelectric load cell ? 22. Whatis ‘torque’ ? How can it be measured ? Explain briefly any two of the following torque measurement methods : (Gravity balance method (Mechanical torsion meter (iii) Electrical torsion meter Deseribe briefly how a strain gauge torsion meters used to measure the torque, Whatis a dynamometer ? 26. How are dynamometers classified ? 27. Explain briefly the following : (® Prony brake dynamometer (i) Rope brake dynamometer, 28. Describe briefly any two of the following dynamometers : (Hydraulic dynamometer (ii) Eddy current dynamometer (iii) Belt transmission dynamometer 29. Explain with a neat diagram the construction and working of a D.C. dynamometer. gas Scanned with CamScanner