lynamic input to a measure- '¢ which has a definite periodic cycle wt is called steady state periodic input. May take the form of : ® purely sinus; the inp is input 0 ‘oidal input like the a.c voltage With a frequency of 50 Hz or a temperature: bath Wherein the temperature vanes gycli- a cally with a frequency of say 0.01 Hz. "D8 complex time varyin repetitive input which is a combination ef hen »mbination of the fundamental and harmonics, inputs a js a vibrations, re encountered in study of measurement systems to not important during, _The Feasurement systems, when subjected to Periodically varying inputs exhibits their response, a foe aude and phase relationship which different from that of the input signe! herent of the energy The output isnot a faithful represen The dynami characteristics of a Measurement system are = O° > measurement (@ Speed of response (ii) Measuring lag (iii) Fidelity (iv) Dynamic error ‘The characteristics listed on the left are desirable While those listed on the right are undesirable: Thees characteristics are defined below « LE Speed of Response. It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the measured quantity, 7 LE Measuring Lag. Its the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the measured quantity. The measuring lags are of tun TP tet type. In this case the response ofthe measurement system begins immediately after change in measured quantity has occurred, Ci) Te dy peo hs ne he espns of he system begins after a dead time ater the riereation of the input. Dead time simply shifts the ie same system along the time scale and causes response o} . onic Measuroments an, 82 Eloctrical ond Electronic M 'd Ising, si a corresponding dynamic error. The lags ofthis type are very small and are of theg, fraction of a second and hence can be ‘ignore an, the measurement system is subjected yg. Pay! varying inputs, the performance of the system dead time is not satisfactory. And ig the ohn quantity varies ata fast rate, the dead time 3 adversg effect on the performance of the System ely, Wis defined as the degree tg measurement" sysem indices change "Akh measured quantity without any dynamic in ye error, Dynamic Error. ILis the difference by tue value of the quantity (under meg the changing with time and the value indicateg ™) measurement system if no static errors aga also called Measurement Error, U4. i, any, 4.2 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS ‘The dynamic behaviour of mea is studied in two domains vi A Time Domain, and A Frequency Domain, SUTEMENt systemy 1. Time Domain Anolysis In most measurement systems, time is used as an independent variable and therefore it is of interea b evaluate the time domain response of the system, The ‘input signal is applied to the system, and the behaviour of the system is studied as a function of time The tnarut ofa measurement system is supposed tooling the input as closely as possible and therelore ito important to compare the output and the input variables at all times, In time domain analysis, the dynamic response of the system to diffe "tent types of inputs, which are a function of time, is analysed at different intervals o time after the application of input signal In practice, the input signals applied to a measunement systers {re not known ahead of time. In most eases, the actual ‘et signals vary in random fashion with respect © time and therefore cannot be mathematically defined. However, forthe purpose of analysis and design iis Aecessary 10 assume some basic types of input signals which can be easily defined mathematically, so that the performance of a system can be analysed with these Standard signals, In the time di stand: lomain analysis, the following ard test signals (inputs) are used : (0 Step input, A step input represents 3 application of a suddi we! len change. It may represen al Scanned with CamScanner—_—_— 4.43. TRANSFER FUNCTION ‘Transfer function plays an important role in the characterization of linear time invariant systems. In fact transfer function along with block diagrams and signal flow graphs forms the basis of representing the input-output relationships of linear time invariant systems. This is because in so many other areas of engineering applications like circuit theory, vibrations theory, automatic control theory, aerospace theory and control, and stability studies, the most widely used mathematical model for analysis of system dynamic response is described with the help of linear differential equations involving constant co-efficients ie, model for linear time invariant systems. The starting point of defining the transfer function is the differential equation which defines the dynamics of a system. Consider a linear time-invariant system which is defined by an nth order differential equation : act alot) c(t) 1 a, EP + 40, BP tape) amy(t) a(t) bn eth +h FP tart) (4.68) where ¢(t)= output variable, and r(f)=input variable, Hyp srry 118y ANA — yy ByymerBy gr by AFC Constants which represent combiantions of system Parameters with n> m. The differential Eqn. 4.68 represents a complete description of the system between the input r(t) and the output c(t), Any easy and convenient way of describing linear systems is the use of transfer function. The transfer function of a linear time invariant system is defined as, the ratio of Laplace transform of the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable with all initial conditions equal to zero. Thus, in order to obtain the transfer function of a linear system represented by Eqn. 4.68 we take the Laplace transform on both sides of the equation assuming all initial conditions to be zero. Hence, [ay3" +445" +4454 ag) C(5) [by 5 + by 1 ST Ht bys + By) RS) Therefore, the transfer function of the system is, as) ls) _ Lb pS +b 191 +. BS +g) = ns +P +t ys bo) RS) [a,s" 4a, 1s" 1 +..+0,5+a5) jmsn (4.69) We can summarize the properties of a transfer function as 1. The transfer function can be defined for a linear time invariant system. The transfer function between an input variable and an output variable of system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of tne input with all initial conditions of the system. assumed to be zero. 2 3. All transfer functions are independent of the input excitation. ‘The dynamics of a mass-spring-dashpot has been described earlier by Eqn. 4.44. The differential equation describing the dynamics of the system is : ____ Scanned with CamScanneryo f= MEO* #80 variable, where x(t), the displacement is rable and f(t) the force is a each 07 of ue ace wansfor of gitons ar ‘Taking the Lapl a : equation and assuring that all i zero, we Nate y= MAX(E)+ XE) Le : MO) 2 are K «transfer function GUS) “pig) + BE £ the complex variables cent eight power oft genes Senne ee ne tans Function tem MBS denomiayotem. Te mase-SPIBE'GS complex oro erction whose denominat emis a4 2 table = with highest power - THYS ‘and order system. 4.14 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION : ‘Transfer function is an expression in ¢ domat Jinear time which relates the output to the input fora line put invariant system. Although it describes the inP¥ output behaviour of the system, it does not fuss any information regarding the jnternal structure of the system. In order to study the dynamics of a system, the process done on the input to get the output (for the purpose of analysis), is in the form of a mathematical expression which is a representation of a physical system. Thus when transfer function of a physical system is determined, the system can be represented by a block diagram which is a shorthand pictorial representation of cause and effect relationship existing between input and output of the system. The transfer function as shown by a block represents a functional operation of a sytem which can be more easily visualized through a block diagram than with the help of differential equations. Thus a system can be represented as : C(s) = G(s) Rs) (4.70) This representation is pictoriall : : ly represented block diagram as shown in Fig. 4.18. ° Be Fig. 4.18 Block diagram representation of a system Scanned with CamScannerie nore of cfore the system behaviour to any kind of op fe predicted by studying its response to one et tandard signals. The standard input signal Te Sor is pupose isa step input ibe studying the response ofr, fist and Mr order systems when subjected to step inputs. reorder systems, can, in most ofthe cases, be spe tinted as second order systems, 0 sg 22R0 ORDER SYSTEMS o order instrument is one where the highest wee the derivative describin, ‘ighes ris zero. Therefore from Eqn jqament is described by : Aydt) = byt saamining Eqn. 473, we find that it agstraic equation. ny system that closely obeys Eqn. 4.73 over its apoperating range is defined as.a zero order system, We can rewrite Eqn. 4.73 as : utput c(t) = (b / 49) 18) = Sr(t) where $=bp/ 4 = static sensitivity (steady state gain) Now Eqn. 4.74 is a simple algebraic equation and fterefore no matter how the input r(¢) varies with tine, the output follows it perfectly and faithfully. ‘his means that neither there is a distortion in rupnitude nor any time lag. A Linear potentiometer shown in Fig. 4.19 may be considered as a zero order instrument. a Linear potentiometer Sliding contact (@) Output voltage, ¢ OF Displacement, X; o Linear potentiometer and its input-output characteristics. ies of Instrume: instruments and Measurement Systoms 95 Suppose ¢;= supply voltage to potentiometer ; V, L= length of potentiometer ; m, (1) = displacement of stiding contact at any time, t;m, and ¢(t)= output voltage at any time t ; V- Since the resistance of potentiometer is linear distributed along its length, Voltage per unit length -4 Vim +: Output voltage e,(!)= Sh =Sx,(t) (4.77) 4 L From Eqn. 4.78 itis clear that a linear relationship exists between the input displacement and the output voltage as shown in Fig. 4.19(b).. 4.19 FIRST ORDER ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS The highest order of derivative in first order system is one. First order systems are commonly found in measurement systems. Let us analyze a common R-C circuit which is a typical example of a first order system. Figure 4.20 shows a series R-C circuit wherein a step input voltage E; is applied to the circuit when the switch is closed. where static sensitivity $ AA-78) 20 R-C circuit. Let the current in the circuit by i(#) at any instant ‘All initial conditions are assumed to be zero. Bulty= R()+ 4 ‘Taking Laplace transform, we have, Feiss) or = RE Ks) s cs = £h 5( RC 4 1 ) 2 MO= Tepes RUTs RCS) RLS + 17 RC. Taking the inverse Laplace transform, i()= Fexp(-t/ RO= Blexpl-t/ 9) (4.79) where t= time constant = RC (4.80) I hould be understood et) = output (@)=input and & and by are om: Scanned with CamScanner ») at96 Electrio The plot of current i versus time ¢ is en Fig. 4.21(a). The current decays exponentially wi " time. The initial current is E; / R while the final current is zero which occurs only at t= ©. eg = E; {1 expt- #9)] Time, t> (@) Variation of current. () Variation of capacitor current. Fig. 4.21 Step response of a series R-C circuit. Let us consider the voltage across the capacitor, a e(t) = el idt Differentiating the above equation, we have, r Meth} : die = cileswil —t/ RO)] Now take the Laplace transform of the above, ti sE(3) = : (1+sRC) v i E Fol)= aa sRO) (tse) 2 By factorizing, we get, E,(s) = af; t | Ss + 5ST. The Inverse Laplace transform yields the result as : ey = E,l1exp(-t/7)] (4.81) The variable of voltage across the capacitor with time is shown in Fig, 4.21(b). Scanned with CamScanner