STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS DYNAN CHARACTERISTICS 2.4.3, ‘Dynamic’ Analysis of Measurement Systems ‘The dynamic behaviour of measurcment systems is studied in the following two domains: 1. Time domain analysis 2. Frequency domain analysis. Hy nivs 1, ‘Fie domain In this the input signal is applied to the measurement system and the behaviour of the system is studied as a Junction of time. The dynamic response of the system to different types of inputs, which are a function of time is analysed at different intervals of time after the application ofthe input signal. In most cases, the actual input signals vary in random fashion with respect to time and therefore cannot be mathematically defined. Consequently the performance of a system can be analysed (in the time domain analysis) by using the following standard fest signals/inputs: (#) Step input; (ii) Ramp input (iii)Parabolic input; (iv) Impulse input. 2, Frequency domain analysis: This type of analysis of a system pertains to the steady state response of the system to a sinusoidal input. Here, the system is subjected to a sinusoidal input and the system response is studied with frequency as the independent variable. © Frequency response. It is the maximum frequency of the measured variable that an instrument is capable of following without error. The usual requirement is that the frequency of measurand should not exceed 60 per cent of the natural frequency of the measuring instrument. Standard test signals/inputs: ‘The most common standard inputs used for dynamic analysis are discussed below: 1. Step function: Refer to Fig, 2.9(a). It is a sudden change from one steady value to another. Itis mathematically represented by the relationship: x=0 at 1<0 x=x, at 120 where x, is a constant value of the input signal x, © The “transient response” indicates the capacity of the system to cope with changes in the input signal. 2. Ramp or linear function: In this case, the input varies linearly with time. This input is mathematically represented as: x=0 at 1<0 x=w at 120 where, y is the slope of the input versus time relationship. Scanned with CamScanner AFe ME 2 CHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION D> DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS # The ramp-response becomes indicative of the steady state error in following the changes in the gg, “ J Vf ~ Sinusoidal Step function funetion Quantity —> Quantity —> Quantity —> Time —» Time —>- ) @ Fig. 2.9. Standard input functions. 3. Sinusoidal function: In this case the input varies sinusoidally with a constant maximum amplitude. It is represented mathematically as follows: 1, = Asin ox A = Amplitude, and @ = Frequency in rad/s. where, The frequency or harmonic response is a measure ofthe capability ofthe system to respond to int of cyelic nature, ‘A general measurement system can be mathematically described by the following differential eq (Ay DY + Ay j DON ees FAD +A) [p= By D" + Brat D4... ByD+ By) I; afl) ‘As and B's = Constants, depending upon the physical parameters of the system, D* = Operative derivative of the order k, 1,, = The information out of the measurement system, and 1, = The input information. ‘The order of the measurement system is generally classified by the value of the power of n. where, © Zero-order system: n= and Ay, Ay. Ay «= © First-order system: n= Land Ay Ay. Ag © Second-order system: n=2and Ay, Ag As A, =0 ‘The above method of classification is used for most of the instruments and systems. Although general equation can be solved by various methods, we shall be using method of ‘D-operator fot getting its solution. 2.4.4. Zero, First and Second Order Systems 2.4.4.1. Zero-order systems Fig. 2.10 shows the block diagram of a ‘Zero-order system’. In this case the output of the measuring system 4 y (ideal) is directly proportional to input, no matter how t varies. The output is faithful reproduction of gy, 2.40. Block di i er syste 10. Block diagram for Zero-ord the input put is fa EY any distin or tie lg. Scanned with CamScannerSTATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS ‘The behaviour of the zero-order system is represented by the following mathematical solution: 1, =SI, en(2.12) where, 1, = Information out of the measuring system, S = Sensitivity of the system, and J, = Input information ‘This equation is obtained by putting n = 0 in the general equation (2.11, ie, A,l, = By, Fay esp oa(2.13) qin or, a The zero-order system is characterised only by the static sensitivity (parameter), the value of which is obtained through the process of static calibration. Examples of zero-order system: © Mechanical levers; © Amplifiers; © Potentiometer (It gives an output voltage which is proportional to wiper's displacement) ete. 2.4.4.2. First-order systems Fig. 2.1] shows the block diagram of a ‘First-order system’, The behaviour of a first-order system is given by 4 following first-order differential equation: A fe, Al, = Boh e214) Fig. 2.11. Block diagram for First-order ae? system. (This equation is obtained by inserting n= | in the general equation). Eqn. (2.14) may be written in standard form as follows: (2.13) or, (216) where, t= SL =Time constant, and A 4o a. = sensitivity. lo Using D-operator, we get: [vm D= wiI,+!, = Sh; or, 1,(:D+1) = SI, sa Scanned with CamScannerMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION > DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS 5 2.17, “+O or, .st-order system. Equation (2.17) gives the standard form of transfer operator for fi Examples of first-order system : © Vetocity of a true falling mass; © Air pressure build-up in bellows; © Measurement of temperature by mercury-in-glass thermometers © Thermistors and thermocouples; © Resistance-capacitance network. 2.4.4.3. Second-order systems Fig. 2.12 shows the block diagram of ‘Second-order 8 system’: I 1+ Qrlo,)D + (Wak)D* The behaviour of a second-order system is given by the following differential equation (obtained by _Fig. 2.12. Block diagram for Second-order putting n = 2 in the general equation); system. #1, , dy . Ay TE tA GP + alo = Bl 2.18) Dividing the above equation by A,, we have: 2 Ay dle A lo 7 = Boy, (2.194) Ay d? Ag dt Ao Let, 0, = fee = Undamped natural frequency, rad/s, 2 Ay oe Y= = Damping ratio, dimensionless, and 240 8 S= x = Static sensitivity or steady-state gain. Then, by substituting these values in eqn. 2.19 (a), we get: 2, L dy, 2y dl Gao, tle SI, (20) or, in terms of D-operator, we have: Ftp a or, 2) Pat @, Scanned with CamScannerSTATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS ! » Exaniples of second-order system : © Piezoelectric pick-up; © Spring-mass system (used for acceleration and force measurements); © Pen control system on X-Y plotters; © U,V. galvanometer, etc. Damping ratio : In the design of instruments a term which is very frequently used is the ‘‘damping ratio’ (y) defined as the ratio of the actual value of coefficient of viscous friction in movement and the value required to produce critical damping. AL ie, y= tL 2YAoAa This dimensionless term is very useful because to determine its value, itis not necessary that the values of Ay, A and A may be known. In practice itis not easy to determine accurately the values of A, and Ay. Further, even if these values are known, they do not in themselves specify whether the instrument is under, over or critically damped, since a numerical calculation has to be performed with them first. Therefore, designers find “damping ratio” as a very convenient measure of the amount of damping present in the movement. ‘The terms damping ratio (y) and underdamped natural frequency («,) immediately conjure up a physical Picture of the response of an instrument and both of the quantities are very easy to measure. Thus Y and ©, easily do away with quantities Ay, A, and Ay. 2.4.5. First-order System Responses The complete solution of an equation which describes the dynamical behaviour of a system consists of the following two parts: () Complementary function. /t corresponds to the short time or transient response. (i) Particular integral. It refers to the long time steady state response. The transfer operator form of the first-order system is given by : I, __S 7; 1+D ‘When $ ( static sensitivity or steady state gain) equals unity, we get: (1+tD)I, =], Now we shall obtain the solution of this equation for different standard inputs (The solutions are not ‘mathematically rigorous, but are practical). Transient response (Complementary function): The transient response from the auxiliary equation is obtained by putting input J, equal to zero; jew (i+w), =0 (subscript refers to the transient value) (2.22), (2.23), : Scanned with CamScannerSTATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS. WORKED EXAMPLES (ii) As frequency ratio — 0 : Amplitude ratio > 0; Phase lag + 180° (iii) When frequency ratio = 1 : Amplitude ratio — o» in undamped systems (y= 0) Phase lag —>— 90° in all the systems. ‘This condition is known as “resonance” and can system. (iv) When the amplitude ratio is uni ideal. The nearest response to between 0.6 and 0.7 for both th result in destructive oscillations in lightly damped ity for all frequencies the frequency response is considered to be this effect is achieved when the value of y (damping ratio) lies step and sinusoidal inputs. WORKED EXAMPLES FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS (a) How is the order of the system determined ? - (6) The following equation characterises the dynamic response of.a temperature measuring instrument : aly = MU,-1,) where, 1, = Indicated temperature, 1, = Input temperature, and C =A numerical constant (i) Determine the transfer operator form of the equation. (ii) What is the order of the system ? ESE ©) Given equation dl cCU-1) dt ( Transfer operator form : The given equation can be rewritten as : | 1 dl, Aide yy Cc da or, att, or, fem OT, = 1; (where, t= time constant = os, (D+DL, =], The transfer operator form of the equation is given by: “ Scanned with CamScannerMENTATION MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRU! D> WoRrKED. EXAMPLES th tee inthe denominator OF te taney. Gi) Order of the systenn : Since the highest AATERET A ' aysrorder system, , oat ring in mn we meastl i y, the temperature meas ; cording to the order g unity, therefore, the tempé systems is done ac 1g 1 the hin, 1 : The grouping of the measurement and conn transfer operation. differential in the denominator of the syste! Examples: 2 © First-order system: aD Second ordi Sor © Second order system BpaD es f . —_4_ 7, (03D) (1+0.2D)' SESE - $$ ——_——_—_————. —~ for afirst-order s ure measurement by a thermal measur Formulate the governing equation for a first-order system-tempera element (say a thermometer or thermocouple). | Solutions Mc to Fig. 2.21. Let, ‘Temperature of the medium, Temperature indicated by the thermal ‘measuring instrument (say a thermometer or thermocouple), o A = Exposed area of the thermal measuring element, Medium measuring elenet temperature , temperature 8, ‘A = Convective heat transfer coefficient, m = Mass of thermal element, and © = Specific heat of the element. Then, the rate of heat flux into the element is, Fig. 2.21, Thermal element. = hAG,- 6,) 0 The rate of enthalpy gain by the element 8, : me Be ti) Since the rate of heat flow equals the rate of enthalpy gain by the element, therefore, equating (i and (i) we get: or, where, t= “© is known as time constant of the system. * TS ha Scanned with CamScannerSTATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS WORKED EXAMPLES {terms of resistance Steady state gain x change of fermperature = 0.296 x 80 = 23,68 Q step input In terms of {In order (0 determine the time domain equation for resistance, the value of added to it, stance, nitial resistanice must te R= 2.68(1 64) 4.90 (Ans soe Time domain equation The value of resistance at ¢= | Ry = 23.68 (1 PAN) 400% HLTA Q (Ans.) Emme — A thermometer initially at a temperature of 15°C is suddenly plunged into a liquid bath maintained et 140°C. After a time interval of 4 seconds, the thermometer indicated a reading of 75°C, Determine : (i) The time constant for the thermometer, (ii) The indicated temperature ater five times constant; comment upon this resulh SOME Given ( Thetimee When a first-order system is sul by the relation ; Fria = 15°C: 1) = 0°C, t= 4851, = 75°C, stant for the thermom ts ibjected to a step input from Aaiig #0 4, the indicated temperature is given J = 4+ Canale 75 = 140+ (15 ~ 140 Je on eu, 1-140 weg (2.291 15-140 or, eM 5 1,923 Taking logs on both sides, we get: 4 = = 0.6539 rc Ts 6128 (Ans) Scanned with CamScannerI STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS WORKED EXAMPLES (i) Indicated temperature after five times constant, 1, : Substituting the value in the above equation, we get J, = 140 + (15 ~ 140) eS = 104 (15 = 140) Comments ; After a time interval equivalent to five times constants, the thermometer reaches the equilibrium condition (i.¢., it indicates a temperature which is approximately equal to the maximum step input). 139.16°C (Ans.) Atemperature sensitive transducer used to measure the temperature of a furnace has been idealised as a first- order system subjected to ramp input, If the maximum permissible error in temperature measurement is limited to 3.9°C calculate the time constant of the transducer when the furnace temperature increases at the rate of 0.2°C/s. Given : Dynammic error, Ey, =3.9°C: slope; y=0.2°C/s, For the ramp input, the input signal varies linearly with time (J, ~ ye) and the dynamic or measurement error, yt wret’* sof Eqn. (2.38)] Sealy “Traslent with time, we hi Since the transient error gradually vani Ey, = *. ‘Time constant, EEE — A balloon (weather) carrying a temperature sensing device (of first-order, time constant 8 seconds) rises through the atmosphere at 5 rvs. It supplies information about temperature and altitude through radio signals, At 2500 m height, a temperature indication of 30° C has been received. Ifthe temperature varies with alitude ata uniform rate of 0.011°C/m, determine the true altitude at which 30°C temperature occurs. Time constant of temperature sensing device, + = 8s Rate of rise of the balloon = 5 m/s 2 1958 (A thease 1.58 (Ans,) Temperature indicated at an altitude of 2500 m = 30°C Rate of temperature variation with altitude = 0.01 icin ‘True altitude at 30°C : Rate of change of temperature with time y = 0.011 x 5 = 0.055°C/s For a ramp signal applied to a first-order system, the error, when transient oscillations d = 0,055 x 8 = 0.44°C yy, = ce Error in amplitude a Actual altitude = 2500-40 = 2460 m (Ans. Scanned with CamScannerMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION WORKED ExampLes Examplel2i26 _ ———— ing temperature cycling with sq ~ A thermometer with time constant of 50 seconds is used for measuring (erp 8 wiht period. Calculate, (i) The ratio of ouput to input. (i) The time lag BESTE Time constant of Thermometer. t= 505 Time period, 1 = 500 s Now, frequency of temperature variation, Qn 2n = =0,01257 rad/s 500 ° 1 (The ratio of output to input, IL 1 Vise? fir oo1s7x50)? (ii) Time lag : Phase shift = tan“'(«ot) = tan (0.01257 x 50) = 32.15° or 0.561 rad. =0.8467( Ans.) Time lag = -Lx phase shift in radian a 1 = 0.561 = 01257 «070! = 44.635 (Ans.) During a particular process, the air temperature cycle at the rate of 1 cycle eve! constant of the temperature measuring device is 20 seconds, Determine : 4 minutes. The tine (i) The variation in the indicated temperature if true (input) temperature has a sinusoidal variation of +25°C. . | (ii) The time by which the maximum reading of the thermometer lags the true maximum value SEMEN Given: Air temptation variation = | cycle every 4 minutes Time constant of the device, t = 20s Sinusoidal variation of the input, J; = + 25°C Now, 1 =4 minutes 1 = @ = 2nfs RX = 0.0262 rads (i) The variation in the indicated temperature (/,,): ‘The steady state (when transient errors are omitted) solution for the sinusoidal input is given 38 = LL sintwr-9) seul (2 i fa+on? Scanned with CamScannerSTATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERIATICH OF INSTRUMENTS WORKED EXAMPLES. where, 4, © Output temperature ay indicated by the thermometer, f= Prue temperate, and tan aur), Oe Phase tay Substituting the valte of « and (ealeutated above) in the above equation, we 1 4 14 0.0262 s 2097 ss 4 = 0.880 #£SNON8O 6 ASC (Ans) 4) The lag (in seconds) Phase lag © win kan), on = tan’ (0.0262 x 20) » 27,65" oF 0826 nad, ‘The lag in seconds l = Sy phase fag in radian Pawel = x04 0282 $26 = 182 seconds (Ans.) Biinnwer A first-order instrument having an input of sin response of 120 eveles per second, If'an amplitude inaccuri ‘maximum time constant and time lag at 90 cycles per second. ewaave pattern ix required fo measure signals with frequency of 4 percent iy permissible, calculate the KSEE Given: Input frequency = 120 eyeles per second; Amplitude inaccuracy permissible = Now, = Qnfs nx 120 = 754 rads. ~ ‘Maximum time constant accuracy, the amplitude ratio of output and input signals is Corresponding to 4% amplitude 4 — | =0.96, im) ae Fora first-order instrument; the amplitude ratio is given as : 4, 1 4 hewn? 0,96 —eeeeeemmse or, > Vassar —_} Loss 0.96 14754t = L046 517 x 10% (Ans,) (1+ 7540) Scanned with CamScannerMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION second : We know that, for a sinusoidal input, 7 6 = tanont) = tan !(2n x 90 x 5.517 x 10") = 1.787" or 0.03119 Time lag = ax phase Jag in radian o 0.03119 =5.515 x 10s (Ans.) 20x90 zee ee —~ fa fnaaa ia °C and 580°C with a periodic tine The temperature of a furnace is found to vary sinusoidally between 520°C 50 seconds. A thermocouple system with a time constant of 10 seconds is employed to measure the furnace temperature. Determine : (1) The maximum and minimum values that wil be indicated by the thermocouple. (1) The phase hifi andthe corresponding time ag between the temperature signals and the thermocouple ‘input signals, SESEGN Given -Range of variation of temperature = 520° to 580°C Periodic time, r = 50 seconds Time constant of the thermocouple system, t = 10 seconds, @ The maximum and minimum values of the temperature : 580 +520 The temperature would oscillate about the mean value of 280520 _ 5.n, C, with an amplitude of 30, Angular frequency of oscillation, 2n 2x = 2nfs 2% 2F 9 O= Inf= * = 5 =0.1256 rads ‘The amplitude ratio, after the transient effects die away, is given by: 1 == = 0.6229 bl yl+ (on? Vi+ (01256107 1, = 0.6229 x 30 = 18.7°C + Maximum temperature = 550+ 18.7=568.7°C —(Ans,) Minimum temperature = 550-18,.7=531.3°C (Ans,) (i) Phase shift and time lag: Phase shift = tan“(on) = tan“'(0.1256 x 10) =51.47°, or, 0.898 rad (Ans,) Time lag = ix phase shift in radian 1 q 0.1256 0.898 =7.15s(Ans.) Scanned with CamScannerSTATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS WRLED ELIAS Fig. 2.22 shows the variation of actual and indicated temperatures of furnance. Temperature *¢) —» Fig. 2.22. Variation of actual and indicated temperatures of furnance. Eee A first-order instrument is subjected to.a sinusoidal input given by relation : I, = 0.35 sin 25t. Ifthe instrument has a time constant of 0.3 second, develop an expression for the corresponding output. EXNGN Given :Sinusoidal input relation, 1, = 0.35 sin 25 1 Time constant of the instrument, t = 0.3. Expression for the output: ‘The amplitude ratio, after the transient effects die away, is given as : Jo Tr 1 —— = 0.132 5 Vive? fivesxos .. Magnitude of output, I, (Here, w= 25 from the given relation) 0.132 x magnitude of input = 0.132 x *0.35 = 0.0462 o = tan (at) (* from the given relation) = tan“!(25 x 0.3) = 82.4° 0.0462 sin (25¢-82.4°) ...(Required expression) (Ans.) Phase shift, A thermometer (its glass bulb protected by a well) is subjected to a temperature which is changing = 20° every 120 seconds. The measurement system may be idealised by a double capacity system with time constant of 18 seconds for the bulb and 36 seconds for the well. Determine the maximum value of temperature indicated by the thermometer. After how much time of the ‘actual occurrence of temperature, it will be indicated by the instrument (i.e, time lag) ? EEE Given : Rate of change of temperature : + 20° every 120 seconds Time constant for the bulb = 18 seconds Time constant for the well = 36 seconds. Scanned with CamScannerMa: MUM value of the temperature indicated : The amplitude ratio (,/1,) for a double capacity system iS fh | xe 1” Teeonr irene and, the angle of lag. 0 = tan" (or, + tan (3) From the given data : @t, = 0.05236 x 18 = 0.9425 6 x 36 = 1.885 or, = 0 1 1 i i+ (0.9425)? * 1+ (1.885) = 0.7277 x 0.4686 = 0.341 + Maximum indicated temperature = £20x0,341 =#6.82°C (Ans.) Time lag: Angle of lag = tan“"(0.9425) + tan"'(1.885) = 43.30° + 62.05° = 105,35° or 1.839 rad Time lag (delay) = ix angle of lag (in rad) 1 0.05236 1,839 = 35.12 seconds (Ans.) Sane ae ee An input of 2 sin 21 + 0.5 sin 10t is applied to a Find the output, SSEEG Given : input equation : Time constant, t = 0.3 s Output: The output of the instrument to an input 2 sin 2r+0.5 sin 10 when time constant is 0.3 s, n (2r ~ tan”! (2x 0,3)] + u sin[10r - tan“"(10x0.3)) ir axo ye fi+doxoa eo = 0.857 sin(2~ 30.96°) + 0.316 sin(10¢—71.56°) (Ans,) is givens Scanned with CamScannerSTATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS WORKED EXAMPLES 2 Afirstorder system having a time constant of relation: I; = 2sin 21 + 0.2 cos 8t. Develop an 0.15 second is used t0 measure a signal prescribed by the expression for the corresponding output. [SSMIEL Given: Relation followed by the signal : 1 = Time constant of the system, t= 0.15 s n for the output: sin 21 + 0.2 cos 81 Expr ‘The concept of sinusoidal transfer function can be applied forthe frequency response only if input. fis either asine wave or sum of sinewaves of different frequencies and amplitudes. In order to satisfy this condition, the given input need to be rewritten in the following form : J,= 2sin 210.2 sin (81 +m (or 180°)] Further, the first ‘order measuring Systems are linear one, and therefore the output can be obtained by using the superposition principle. ¢ For the sinusoidal input : 1,= 2sin2r L fo = 1. 1 __ 99578 i N+(o? y+ (2x 0.15) Magnitude of output = 0.9578 x 2 = 1.9156 \ Phase shift, = tan“'(ct) = tan“"(2 x 0.15) = 16.7° 3 Output, 1, = 1.9156 sin(2r— 16.7°) © For the sinusoidal input: j, = - 0.2 sin (81 + x) 1 I + = 0.6402 wi+(8x0.15)? 1, lb i+ (wr) Magnitude of output = 0.2 x 0.6402 = 0.128 Phase shift, > = tan~!(qt) = tan™(8 x 0.15) = 50.19° Output, J, = ~ 0.128 sin(8r +m - 50.19°) Hence, overall output, I, = 1:9186 sin(2t ~ 16.7°) - 0.128 sin(8t +m - 50.19°) (Ans.) SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS Elm ss Formulate the governing equation for a second-order system-spring mass system with damping. BSMEG Referto Fig. 2.23. Let, x, = Input displacement, Output displacement, Stiffness of the spring, Viscous damping coefficient, and oo 7 ‘y= Damping ratio. Scanned with CamScannerThe forces acting on the mass are 7 refore. (0) As both ends of the spring are free to move. the eal Spring force = Spring stiffness displace! of the spring relative to other = k(x, -x,), acting downward. n, ; ing in the (ii) One end of the dashpot fixed: there is a reaction force acting 1" upward direction. , - ; ity Damping force = Damping coefficient x velocity c.f Fig. 2.23. Spring-mass ‘system. For translational systems, the Newton's law states that, a 2 Force = Mass x acceleration = m= a @& =<, andD?= 5) (where D= 7 and D?= 5) onRequired equation which is an equation of second-order type. (Ans.) Comparing the above expression with the standard second-order form, we have: Undamped natural frequency, o, = fF m and Se ok Cay Ca o Damping ratio, 7 = ing rato, y= — Sr or, r= 2k the motion of linear and rotational displacement systems of (a) Write down the expressions describing the second-order. wRequired eq Scanned with CamScannerSTATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS WORKED EXAMPLES EGIL (@) © The expression for linear displacement (spring-mass-damper) system is given by: aly dy + Cy 2+ k I, Hkh, ) dt m a? where, m = Mass (kg), where, J = Inertia (kg m?), and 4 = Torsional stifiness. Comparing these expressions with differential equation in the standard form, st Se, <1, we ger: Natural frequency, w, = E 5 f + as the case may be. (Ans.) m VJ (6) Given : m=4.5 g; Percentage increase required = 15%. Using subscripts 1 and 2 for initial and final values respectively, we have: k 2 of, =~, and, my my But, Sze A second-order system follows the differential equation given below: 2 £1 , 30 4301, = 301, a? dt Where, I, and I, are the output and input quantities respectively. Determine the following: Scanned with CamScanner_MECHANI HCAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION >» WORKED EXAMPLES ( Damping ratio. (1) Damped natural frequency. Gi) Static sensitiviay (v) Time constant, s given as: BESET The standard form Of the differential equation of a second-order system is given as; 0, dr Since the term J, in eqn. (i) has a unit coefficient, therefore to recast the given equation in the tandary form, let us divide it throughout by 30: we get: 1 dh, 1 dl, iy 1m), 10 dt 30 ar Comparing eqns. (i) and (i), we get: of = 30; 20 , Natural frequency, «, = J39 = 5.477 rad /s (4) Damping ratio, 7: 2 cotory= Sexo y= x01 20.274 (Ans. or 2 (i) Damped natural frequency. a, : by % = w, yi-7 = 5.477 V1-0274 =5.267 rad/s (Ans) (iti) Static sensitivity: (iv) Time constant; t: SE . ing transducer connected t0 the shaft of an electric motor wh The following data pertain to a torque sen drives a load: Input torque = Sinusoidal with frequency vai + 8 percent; Moment of inertia of load, J = 0.14 kg Calculate the following: (i) Natural frequency. £0 | (ii) Damping ratio. ying at 1.95 rad/s; Maximum permissible error = m*, Torsional constant of the shaft, q = 1.22 Nm/rad. es Scanned with CamScannerSTATIC AND DYN /AMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS WORKED EXAMPLES (iii) Damped natural frequency (iv) Time constant of the system, EEE Given: = 1.95 radios 4 ax. permissible error = (i) Natural frequency, «, “me J= 0.14 kgm: q = 1.22 Nmirad, 12 ——= =295 . Vous rad/s (Ans.) (i) Damping rati Yr Also, normalized frequency ratio Corresponding to maximum permissible error of ratio (M) is prescribed by the wk + 8%. the amplitude ratio is 1.08. Further the amplitude M=—— VO-P) +2? or, jo lll—0.6612)? + 290.6607 0.31741 WIP or, Ai y= 05: (ii) Damped natural frequency, @,2 ol-7 = 2.95 f1-(0.555) 2.484 rad/s (Ans.) (iv) Time constant, t: = —L £03398 (Ans) 2.95 (a) Discuss the time domain parameters for the response of step input to second-order system. (b) When a step input was given 10 a second-order system, the measurements revealed that the systent had an overshoot of 12 per cent in a rise time of 0.22 second, Determine: (i) Effective damping ratio. (ii) Undamped natural frequency of the system, BRINE (0) In an under-damped system, the time domain parameters of interest are (Refer to Fig. 2.24) : [RE Scanned with CamScanner> WORKED EXAMPLES cally reach (9 How long does the system take to practically its final steady value? applied (i) How fast the system moves to follow the #PP I input? z la is the system? Zz (iii) How oscillatory is the sys required 6 © Settling time (f, is defined as the tine for the system to reach a steady state. © Rise time (,)is the time required for the system to rise from 0 to 100% of its final value. © Peak time (t,) isthe time taken 10 reach the ‘first peak (overshoot). The percentage overshoot = “2 x 100 |ENTATION \ MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUM he pon Time —> Fig, 2.24. Step response illustrating response, rise and settling times that: Mathematical analysis of the under-damped system would show x Rise time (t,) = yi 5 @,VI-7 Peak time (1,) = a-7) (b) Given : Percentage overshoot = 12 %; Rise time = 0.22 s. (i) Effective damping ratio, 7: Pema ovr or or, 12 = exp or, ? | .«(Squaring both sides) Scanned with CamScannerSTATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS | WORKED EXAMPLES frequency, f,: Rise Damped natural frequency, a, a = 14.28 rad/s Also, o, (where, ,, = undamped natural frequency) 14.28 8 aS = 174 ad is vi-0.56? 17.24 2n On Sees) _ A second-order instrument has a natural frequency of 5 Hz and a damping ratio of 0.62. If the excitation frequency of the system is 7 Hz, determine the error due to the proximity of excitation frequency with the natural frequency of the system. ESE Given: Natural frequency of the instrument, f, = Damping ratio, y= 0.62 Excitation frequency of the system, f= 7 Hz Now, the ratio of excitation frequency to natural frequency Su =2.74Hz (Ans.) Hz IL la- YU-14°)? + (2x0.62x 14 + The “error” due to proximity of excitation frequency with the natural frequency of the system = (10.504) x 100= 49.6% (Ans.) Sez _ — Write measuring force by a diaphragm type pressure transducer (second-order system), the system is found to ‘have a natural frequency of 800 cycles per second (cps) and a damping ratio of 62 per cent. Determine the frequency range over which the amplitude ratio corresponding to sinusoidal input deviates by a maximum amount of 12 per cent. Natural frequency of the system = 800 eps SSE ive Damping ratio, y = 62 per cent Maximum amount of deviation of amplitude ratio = 12 per cent. Corresponding to a maximum deviation of 12%, the amplitude ratio (M) is either 0.88 or 1.12. 0.504 a Scanned with CamScannerMECHANICAL meAnUREMENTS ANO INSTRU D work rxaupies Now, (i) When M = 1,12 py + (2%0 2 2) 2 Ly =0.797 ea (PP +2062 = 7 14 A224 15387 = 0.797 1 -0.462.7 +0.208 = 0 : ; implies that with 7= 0 or, or. 2, the output would never be 1.12 tiny, The solution has imaginary roots and thi the output for any frequency. (ii) When M = 0.88: 1 O88 = Tye + (2x 0.627) LY ey29 : ~ P+ (2«0.62r)? = | — | = 1.2 or, (=P P+ 2 «0620? = [oe or, 144-2? + 1.538 7 = 1.29 PF - 0.462 P -0.29 = 0 or, 2 = 0.4624 (0.462)? +4x0.29 _ 9 917 or, 2 r = 0.904 o f= f,x r= 800 x 0.904 = 723 cps “Thus, the deviation remains within 12 per cent of output for the frequency range 0 — 723 eps (Ans) See A unit amplitude sinusoidal input signal having a frequency of 0.6 Hz is given to a second-order contra 8 L, system of transfer function: -* = ————, I; D?+4D+20 Develop an expression for the steady state response of the system and determine the correspond ouput amplitude, ouput frequency and phase lag. Frequency, = 2n f= 2n x 0.6 = 3.77 rad/s AAs the sinusoidal input signal has a unit amplitude, therefore, 1, = 1sin.771) or, Scanned with CamScanneree STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS ——___ STATIC Ano pynamic character HIGHLIGHTS Putting D = je in the given relation, we get: 1, ts 8 4 (joy? +4j0+20 — mary 71j) $473.17) +20 = 8 _ 6 _ 1 14.21 +15.087+ 20 5.79+15.08j) 0.724 + 1.485) The denominator has a magnitude of ¥(0.724)° + (1.885) Pc = wr 2.02 204 rad Magnitude of output om" magnitude of input 1 = x1 =0.495 2.02" + The required expression for the output in the sinusoidal form is : I, = 0.495 sin (3.77t - 69°) (Ans.) Hence, corresponding output amplitude = 0.495 (as compared with unit amplitude of input) (Ans.) Output frequency = 3.77 rad/s (same as that of input signal) (Ans.) Phase lag = 69° (between input output) (Ans.) Scanned with CamScanner