PHARMACEUTICAL

CALCULATION &
TECHNIQUES
UNIT 2

Specific learning objectives in this unit:

- Temperature conversions
- Household measurements
- Metric system
- Apothecary system FORMULA:
- Medication abbreviations
- Calculating dosages when giving Convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit
medications in able or capsule form
9
- Calculating dosages when giving - ∁ × 5 + 32=F
medications in liquid form
- Preparing solutions
- Diluting stock solutions
- Determining the rate of intravenous Convert from Fahrenheit temp. to
medications Celsius temp.
- Dosages based on body weight
5
- Dosages based on body surface area - ( F−32 ) × 9 =∁
- Pediatric dosing

TEMPERATURE SCALE Exampple:

CONVERSIONS
• Convert the following
-The temperature for storing medication is temperatures. Round all your
extremely important for the stability --- and answers to the tenths position
therefore the effectiveness ---- of the • 1) 50º C = _____º F
• 2) 47º C = _____º F
medication • 3) 45º C = _____º F
• 4) 40º C = _____º F
• 5) 37º C = _____º F
• 6) 32º C = _____º F
CELSIUS AND FAHRENHEIT • 7) 30º C = _____º F
• 8) 25º C = _____º F
-2 common temperature scales used in • 9) 22º C = _____º F
• 10) 20º C = _____º F
pharmacy
 • 11) 5º C = _____º F
• 12) 2º C = _____º F
• 13) 0º C = _____º F
• 14) 90º F = _____º C
• 15) 89º F = _____º C
• 16) 82º F = _____º C
• 17) 80º F = _____º C
• 18) 79º F = _____º C
• 19) 75º F = _____º C
• 20) 70º F = _____º C

2. 5) An autoclave is usually set to

-Specific storage conditions are 250° F to sterilize medical
required to be printed in product instruments. What is the equivalent
literature and on drug packaging and temperature in degrees Celsius?

drug labels to ensure proper storage

and product integrity.
The conditions are defined by the following
terms :

• Cold: any temperature not exceeding

8° C

• Freezer: -25° to -10° C

• Refrigerator: 2° to 8° C

• Cool: 8° to 15° C
Example 3:

• Room temperature: the temperature Convert the following refrigerator

prevailing in a working area
• Controlled room temperature: 15° to
30° C
• Warm: 30° to 40° C
temperatures and record them in the
appropriate spaces on the log below.
Note any temperatures out of the safe
range (2° to 8° C).

• Excessive heat: any temperature

above 40° C

Example 2:
1. A prescription is sent to the pharmacy
requesting a substance to be heated
in a 300° F oven for 12-18 hours. At
what Celsius temperature does the
oven need to be set?
WORKING WITH PESCRIPTIONS
-Prescriptions have been obfuscated by a
combination of Latin and English
abbreviations ( sometimes they even throw in
Greek words)

-Commonly used on prescriptions to

communicate essential information on
formulations, preparation, dosage regimens
and administration of the medication. Our
goal is to demystify this drug nomenclature.

COMMON MEDICAL
ABBREVIATIONS
Categories – for ease of memorization, the
abbreviations have been broken up into

5 CATEGORIES:

1. Route
2. Form
3. Time
4. Measurement
5. And other

Meaning

- Need to place an abbreviation in

context to know its meaning ( e.g., IV
could mean a dosage form as in an “IV
bag”, it could mean a route f
administration as in to “ to give a
medication IV”, or it could even be the
roman numeral meaning “ four”).

LATIN ROOT

-not all the words on this list are derived from

Latin words, nor is it necessary to know the
Latin words to be able to understand the
abbreviations, but it is simply provided to o.s. Left eye Oculus sinister
help you understand how some of these o.u. Each eye Oculus utro
abbreviations were derived per neb By nebulizer
p.o. By mouth per os
p.r. rectally per rectum
p.v. vaginally
ABBREVIATIONS SC, SQ subcutaneousl
y
-can often be written w/ or w/out the “ S.L. Sublingually
periods” and in upper or lower case letters ( under the
( e.g., p.o. and PO both mean “ by mouth”) tongue)
top topically

ROUTE FORM
Abbrevia Meaning Latin root
tion
amp. ampule
aq, aqua water Aqua
caps capsule capsula
cm. Cream
elix. Elixir
liq. Liquid Liquor
sol. Solution
supp. Suppository Suppositorum
Abbrevia Meaning Latin Rot SR, XR, XL Slow/extended
tion release
a.d. Right ear Auris dexter syr. Syrup Syrupus
a.s. Left ear Auris sinister tab. Tablet Tabella
a. u. Each ear Auris utro ung., oint ointment ungentum
IM Intramuscular
IV Intravenous
IVP Intravenous TIME
push
IVPB Intravenous Abbrevia Meaning Latin Root
piggyback tion
KVO Keep vein a.c. Before food, Ante cibum
open before meals
n.g.t. Naso- gastric a.m. morning Ante meridian
tube atc Around the
n.p.o. Nothing by Nasquam per clock
mouth os b.i.d., bid Twice a day Bis in die
nare nostril b.i.w., biw Twice a week
o.d. Right eye Oculus dexter h, ° hour Hora
h.s. At bedtime Hora somni I,L Liter
p.c. After meals Post cibum mcg, µg Microgram
p.m. evening Post meridian mEq milliequivalent
p.r.n., prn As needed Pro re nata mg Milligram
q.i.d., qid Four times a Quarter in die ml, mL Millilitre
day q.s. A sufficient Quantum
q Each, every quaque quantity sufficiat
q.d. Every day Quaque die q.s.ad Add sufficient Quantum
q_h, q_° Every hour(s) quantity to sufficiat ad
qod Every othe make
rday ss One-half
stat Immediately statim Tbs,T Tablespoon
t.i.d., tid Three times a Ter in die tsp,t teaspoon
day U Unit
t.i.w., tiw Three times a > Greater than
week < Less than
c with cum
disp Dispense
MEASUREMENT f,ft Make, let it be fac, fiat, fiant
made
n/v Nausea &
Abbrevia Meaning Latin Root
vomiting
tion neb Nebulizer
i,ii,… One,two, etc. NR No refill
a.a.,aa Of each ana NS Normal saline
ad to, Up to ad s without sine
aq.ad Add water up Sig Write/label Signatura
to SOB Shortness of
BSA Body surface breath
area T.O. Telephone order
cc Cubic ut dict, As directed ut dictum
centimeter u.d.
dil dilute dilutus V.O, Verbal order
f, fl. Fluid
fl.oz Fluid ounce
G,g,gm Gram
Examples:
1) i gtt ou bid x7d
MEASUREMENT
2) i tab po q6h prn pain
Abbrevi Meaning Latin Root
a 3) i tab po qid pc
tion 4) iss tsp po tid prn cough
gr. Grain
5) iii gtt ad q4h x5d
gtt Drop (s) Guttae
6) i supp pr q4h prn n/v - is a written order for compounding,
dispensing and administering drugs to
7) i cap po tid ac + hs
a specific client or patient and once it
8) i tab sl q5 minutes prn chest pain, is signed by the physician it becomes a
may repeat up to 3 times. legal document.
- Required for all medications that
require the supervision of a physician
9) ii tabs stat, then i tab po qid x10d must be controlled since they are
addictive and carries the potential of
being abused
- Could cause health threats from side
effects if taken incorrectly ( e.g.,
INTERPRETATION cardiac medications, controlled
substances and antibiotics)
OFPRESCRIPTION AND
MEDICATION ORDER
MEDICATION ORDERS
- Typical medication order form used in
Learning the Parts of a
the hospitals
Prescription and how to - Forms may be used within a hospital
incorporate Medical by specialized units such as infectious
disease, cardiac care, paediatrics,
Abbreviations
obstetrics, orthopaedics and others
- Drug-specific forms also may be used
as heparin dosing, electrolyte
“ PRESCRIPTION” infusions, and morphine sulphate in
patient-controlled anaesthesia.
-means “ to write before”
- reflects the historical fact that a prescription
traditionally had to be written before a drug MILITARY TIME
could be mixed and administered to a patient
- Used not only in the military but
Prae= a prefix meaning before civilian life as well, such as in hospitals,
other patient-care institutions,
Scriber= a word root meaning to write
emergency services ( e.g., paramedics,
law enforcement )

PRESCRIPTION
The following is a list of the parts
of a prescription, and in bold are
the most significant portions:
 Patient information
 Superscription
 Inscription
 Subscription
 Signatura
SUPERSCRIPTION
 Date
 Signature lines,
signature, degree,
generic substitution
 Prescriber
information INSCRIPTION
 DEA# if required
- Instructions are preceded by the
symbol “S”, or “ Sig”. ( means “ write”
or “ label”
- Whenever translating the signatura
into instructions for a patient, begin it
with an action verb such as take,
inhale, spray, inject, place, swish, or
whatever other verb seems
appropriate for the medication.
- consists of the heading where the
symbol Rx ( recipe/ take thou) is found
- the Rx symbol comes before the
inscription
- the body of the prescription
- Provides the names and quantities of
the chief ingredients of the
prescription
- You can find the dose and dosage
form, such as tablet, suspension,
capsule, syrup

SUBSCRIPTION
- Gives specific directions for the
pharmacist on how to compound the
 Refills medication
 Warnings - Directions are usually expressed in
contracted Latin or may consist of a
short sentence such as: “ make a
solution”, “ mix and place into 10
SIGNATURA capsules”, or “ dispense 10 tablets”
- Also called sig, or transcription
NOTE : that was in the old days. Today...
- Gives instructions to the patient on
doctors just name the pill!
how, how much, when and how long
the drug is to be taken.
DATE AND PATIENT
INFORMATION
- Consists of the name of the party for
whom it I designed and the address
- Occupies the upper part of the
prescription
INSTRUCTION
- “ take as directed” = not satisfactory/
should be avoided
- The directions to the patient should
include a reminder of the intended
purpose of the medication by including
such phrases as "for pain," "for relief
of headache," or "to relieve itching"
● And if the patient is to receive a brand
name medication, rather then generic, the
physician enters NO SUBSTITUTIONS at the
end of the prescription.
● If there are no refills to be dispensed,
it is advisable not to enter the number 0,
because it can be altered by adding numbers
before the zero, thus making it a 10 to receive
ten refills (or more!).
NOTE : Always write out the word None, or
No Refills!!!
DOSES:
TAMPER- RESISTANT Prescription
Pads
- To prevent the unauthorized copying,
modification or counterfeiting of
prescriptions
E- PRESCRIBING/ E-
PRESCRIPTION
- The inpatient or outpatient setting, a
medication order, for a patient is
entered into an automated data entry
system as a personal computer ( PC)
or a handheld device loaded w/ e-
prescribing software and sent to a
pharmacy
NOTE : Advantages cited fore-
prescriptions over traditional paper
prescriptions are:
 reduced errors due to prescription
legibility; concurrent software
screens for drug interactions;
 reduced incidence of altered or forged
prescriptions; efficiency for both
prescriber and pharmacist;
 convenience to the patient, whose
prescription would likely be ready
for pick-up upon arrival at the
pharmacy
RANGE OF PRESCRIPTION AND
MEDICATION ORDER
CALCULATIONS
- Including the quantity of a prescribed
dose, the total number of doses
prescribed, and the number of days
the prescribed medication will last
COMPLIANCE :
- The patient’s or caregiver’s
compliance in meeting the prescribed
direction for dosing
DRUG CONCENTRATION:
- The quantity of an active therapeutic
ingredient to use to achieve the
desired drug concentration
RATE OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION:
- The quantity of drug administered per
unit of time to meet prescribed dosing
schedule ( e.g., mg/min, drops/
minutes, or mL/hr for the
administration of an intravenous fluid)
CHEMICAL- PHYSICAL FACTORS:
- Including calculations to make
solutions isotonic, iso-osmotic,
equimolar orbuffered
PHARMACOECONOMICS:
- Including medications, cost-benefit
analysis, cost-effectiveness analysis,
alternative treatment plans, and
medication pricing
COMPOUNDING:
- The quantities of active and inactive
components to use in the
extemporaneous preparation of a
pharmaceutical product, including the
use of stock solutions and/ or
prefabricated dosage units in the
process.
PRESCRIPTIONS AND
MEDICATION ORER ACCURACY
- It is the responsibility of the
pharmacist to ensure that each
prescription and medication order
received is correct in its form and
content; is appropriate for the patient
being treated; ad is subsequently
filled, labelled and dispensed, and
administered accurately
ERROS AND OMISSIONS
- To ensure such accuracy , the
pharmacists is obliged to review each
prescription and medication order in a
step- by- step manner to detect erros
of omission
Pharmacist should check for the
correct reading and interpretation of a
prescription or medication order are:
1. prescriber information, including
address and telephone number
2. date of the order and its
currency to the request for
filling;
3. patient information, including
dose-relevant information, such
as the age and/or weight of the
patient if the dose of the drug is
so based;
 4. drug prescribed, including dose,
preparation strength, dosage
form, and quantity
5. clarity of any abbreviations,
symbols, and/or units of
measure;
6. clarity and completeness of
directions for use by the patient
or caregiver
7. refill and/or generic substitution
authorization
8. need for special labeling, such as
expiration date, conditions for
storage, and foods and/or other
medications not to take
concomitantly
USE OF ROMAN NUMERALS ON
PRESCRIPTION
- Roman numerals are used commonly
in prescription writing to designate
quantities, as the:
(1) Quantity of medication to be
dispensed and/ or
(2) Quantity of medication to be taken
by the patient per dose
The student also may recall that
the following rules apply in the
use of Roman numerals:
• . A letter repeated once or more,
repeats its value (e.g., xx 20; xxx 30).
• 2. One or more letters placed after a
letter of greater value increases the
value of the greater letter (e.g., vi 6;
xij 12; lx 60).
• 3. A letter placed before a letter of
greater value decreases the value of
the greater letter
EDICATION SCHEDULING AND
PATIENT COMPLIANCE
MEDICATION SCHEDULING
- May be defines as the frequency ( i.e.,
times per day) and duration ( i.e..
length of treatment ) of a drug’s
prescribed or recommended use
PATIENT COMPLIANCE
- w/ prescribed and non-prescribed
medications is defind2 as patient
understanding and adherence to the
director for use.
PATIENT NONCOMPLIANNCE
- The failure to comply w/ a
practitioner’s or labled direction in the
self
NONCOMPLIANCE
- underdosage or overdose
 - incorrect duration of treatment MATHEMATICAL METHOD / FORMULA
- incorrect duration of treatment
• Dimensional Analysis or Ratio
- drug abuse or misadventuring w/
Proportion
medications
DO THE MATH

ratioproportion
dimensionalanalysis
BASIC MEDICATION 50 mg mL
50 mg 100 mg
=
× =0.5mL /dose N mL
dose 100 mg
CALCULATIONS N =0.5 mL

DOES THE ANSWER MAKE SENSE?

Calculating Dosages When Giving

Medications in Tablet or Capsule Form

STEP METHOD AND DIMENSIONAL

ANALYSIS
• the quantity of medication per
dose,

• the strength of the tablet,

• how often the doses are being

given,

• how long of a time frame we

need to cover with these doses

Example:

An order for 50 mg of a drug is received. A 10

mL vial with 100 mg/mL is available. How
many mL should be withdrawn from the vial?

QUESTION

• How many mL should be withdrawn

from the vial?

DATA

• 50mg/dose 10mL/vial 100mg/mL