NOTES OF CHRONOLOGY.

(General Introduction to Ancient Indian Chronology) '

Literature is the mirror of society, so for a deep and analytical study

of literature and any other type of composition, it becomes necessary
to have knowledge of the chronology of a particular book and the
author of the book. The chronology proves to be very useful in
obtaining knowledge from the point of view of the immediate social,
political, economic, etc. situations reflected in the literature. But
ancient India has been a subject of research. Chronology is always
defined in the Concise Oxford Dictionary as follows: The word has
how come to mean, the science of computing and adjusting time and
periods and also of recording and arranging. events in order of time
and assignment of events to their correct dates . Therefore, a
scientific and authentic theory is required to determine the program
of ancient India. Many problems are present while determining the
time period of the compositions and poets of Sanskrit literature. For
example, when many poets of the same name are mentioned at
different places, it becomes difficult to determine the time of the
intended poet. For example, the mention of nine poets named Kalidasa
from the 6th century BCE to the 7th century BCE hinders in
determining the actual Kalidasa's time. Various titles were assigned
to scholars and poets by the patron king in ancient times.

There was a tradition to adorn. As in ancient Tajor state, poets were

greeted with the titles of Abhinav Jayadeva, Abhinav Patanjali.
Similarly Abhinav Baan and Abhinav Kalidas are also mentioned. In the
course of time, due to the similarity of the names of the poets, due
to the disappearance of the Abhinav title, determining the time of
the original poet becomes a difficult task. Not only literature but
some dateless records also present the problem of dating. As in the
inscription engraved on the Iron Pillar situated at Mehroli (Delhi)
without date, the valor of a king named 'Chandra' has been sung.
Making this decision is a matter of research for the scholars. In fact,
the name 'Chandra' and surname have been used with the names of
five rulers in Indian history. Chandravarman, King Chandragupta I of
Pushkarna, described in the Susuniya mountain inscription, about 319-
335 CE, Chandragupta II, about 380-414 AD The beginning of the
third rock inscription of Ashoka is as follows - Devanapriyo Piyadasi
Raja and Ah Dvadasabhisiten Maya Idam Aagyapatam ---- Aagyapt)
(Devanam Priya: Priyadarshi Raja and Ah-Dwadash Varshabhishikten
Maya Idam is not clear. That is to say, '12 years after the coronation
of Ashoka' here, due to incomplete records, the time-ordering is
hindered. Mention of Malvasamvat, Vikram Samvat, Shakasamvat
Gupta Samvat, Valabhi Samvat etc. It is necessary to start these
eras.

General introduction to ancient Indian chronology Balgangadhar Tilak

writes in his book 'Orion' about the chronology of ancient Indian
history- "The birth of Gautam Buddha, the invasion of Alxendra, The
Great, the inscriptions of Ashoka, the accounts of chinese travellars
and the overthrow of Buddhism and Jainism by Bhatta Kumaril and
Shankracharya joined with chronology of the later periods of the
Ancient Indian History. It is said that these texts were not composed
for the purpose of structuring history. They mainly adopted
Kathaprasang in which the facts of different periods were mixed.
That is why they did not prove to be completely authentic in the
determination of history and chronology. has made literary and
astrology the main basis for determining the chronology of ancient
India.

Literary sources - The only book of Sanskrit literature, Kalhana's

composition Rajatarangini (1127-1149 AD) presents an authentic
account of the history of Kashmir from the very ancient times to the
12th century. Vasudev Sharan Agrawal, in his book 'India as known to
Panini', has determined the time of Panini to 5th century BC on the
basis of geographical, cultural, social and religious facts of the
chapter. Foreign description - The knowledge about India acquired by
foreign writers and foreign travelers while visiting India proves to be
sufficiently authentic in chronology. Greek, Roman, Chinese, Tibetan
and Mughal travelers published their own experiences accurately.
Among these travelers, the description of India by the Chinese
traveler Fa-hian (Fa-hian 399-414 AD) Uwang-wang (yuag chawang
629-645 AD) Ilsing (Itsing 673-695 AD) proved useful in the
chronology of ancient India. . The book Takhi-ke-Hind (Tahkik-i-
Hind) of Sanskrit scholar Mughal author Elberuni (1017-1030 AD) was
helpful in determining the time. Alberuno writes that the Shiva
Purana had attained a complete form by the 10th century. Astrology
Western scholars Weber and Jacobi made the basis of astrology in
determining the time of Vedas. Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak among
Indian scholars On the basis of astrological calculations, the
composition of the Vedas was fixed at 4000-2500 BC. Archaeological
sources - Literary sources are not being completely clear in time
determination. But fortunately the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, in his
second and 13th rock inscriptions, while giving proper guidance to
inscriptions, coins and coins, monuments, etc., is known from his
contemporary evidence, mentioning the names of neighboring kings
whose reign dates are different. The Yavana king Antiochus II circa
261-248 BC • Antigonus circa 277-239 BC • Ptolemy II (Egypt) circa
285-247 BC The time of contemporary foreign kings mentioned in the
inscriptions of Ashoka is known. Since the time of Ashoka, historians
have determined about 270-232 BC, the Piprava bone urn inscriptions
of the fourth and fifth centuries BC (approximately helpful in
determining the chronology. 487 BC) and Badli (Badli) Ajmer
inscription (about 443 BC) King Kharavela After reading the
Hathigumpha inscription of AD, it became clear that Kharavela ruled
in Kalinga from about 185-172 BC. The events of Apch Kharavela's
rule have been presented chronologically. In this inscription,
Kharavela is called 'Gandharvavedabudh'. The principles of
Gandharvaveda must have been reflected in the Natyaveda. Huh . On
this basis, scholars are of the opinion that around the second century
BC, the place of inscriptions was important in the chronology of poets
of Natyashastra Sanskrit literature. In the Aihole inscription of
Pulakeshin II (556 Saka Samvat 634 AD), the names of the great poet
Kalidas and Bharavi are mentioned as Yenayoji Nave Um
Sthirmarthavidhi Vivekina Jinvesham Sah Vijaytam Ravikirti:
KavitabhitKalidasBharavikirti: On the basis of the time mentioned in
the inscription, scholars have determined the time of Bharavi as sixth.

The beginning of the century has been fixed. With this mention, the
inferior limit of the great poet Kalidas also becomes known.
Influenced by the composed Ritusanhar and Meghdoot, the poetic
style of poet Vatsabhatti is reflected in the Mandsaur inscription
Kalidas Chalatpatakanyabala - Sanathanyatyartha
Shuklanyadhikontani Tadilata - Chitra - Sitabbhara - Koot -
Tulyopamanani Grihaani Yatra. 1 Mandsaur inscription, verse, 10
Vidyutavantam Lalitavanita: Sendrachhapam Sachitra: Sangeetaya
Prahatmurja: Sthigdhagambhir Ghosham. Antastoyam
manimayabhuvah tungambhranlihagrah prasadastva tulayitumalam
yatra taistai specialaih. The time of Meghdoot, Uttarmegh, 1st
inscription is Malwa Samvat 529 (472 AD). On this basis, scholars
have accepted the time of the great poet Kalidas in the first half of
the fourth century. In Gupta Samvat 214, the Khoh copper plate
inscription of Sharvnath has called Mahabharata as 'Satasahastri
Samhita'. From this it is known that by Guptasamvat 214 (533-534
AD), the present color of Mahabharata had been formed. Sometimes
foreign records have also proved useful in time determination.
Archaeologist Hugo Wintiller, who discovered the Bogaz Kai (Asia
Minor) inscription, mentioned this inscription in the Vedic period
judgment in 1907 AD. Like inscriptions, coins also guide in chronology.
Signs or symbols engraved on coins made of gold, silver, copper and
dated coins - give information about a particular period of history.
The purity and impurity of the metal also reveals the economic
condition of that particular period. As the coins issued by
Samudragupta give knowledge of his prosperity. Dr. Vasudev Sharan
Agrawal has named the coins (Suvarna, Shan, Shatman) of the coins
received in the chapters, not on the basis of economics, Panini has
been preceded by Krautilya. According to his opinion, the chapters
would have been received. The scholars have determined the king
named 'Chandra' engraved in the Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription on
the basis of the script. Out of the five kings named Chandra, the
equality of Chandragupta II with the name 'Chandra' has been
established. The script of the inscription is Brahmi and the language
of the Gupta period is Sanskrit. The following table explains the
different forms of Brahmi script. (See page 53) The use of Samvats
is also important in determining the chronology of many events
mentioned in history. Scholars have determined on the basis of
authentic calculations that the calculation of Vikram Samvat was
started on 57 BC, the calculation of Shaka Samvat was 78 AD, the
calculation of Gupta era was 319 AD and the calculation of Harsh
Samvat was 606 AD.

NOTES OF KALI SAVAT.

Sarvat' Kaliyuga Samvat is known as Bharat Yudh Samvat, Pur Abhang

Lisamvat, whose special use is in astrology texts and almanacs. Even
in the inscriptions, the initial years given in it are found here. Its
Kasari is believed to be from -3102 AD. In the Panchang of 78
Chaitradi Vikram Samvat 1975 (191888) and Shaka Samvat 1840 1762
AD, Pa Kal Samvat 5019 is written, according to this, in Vikram C 5019
- 1975 = 3044, if you add 3044 yi in 1975 Samvat, then Kalsambad
comes. Similarly, 5019-1840 = 3179) Leave Shaka Samvat, Kalisamvat
goes to 3179 in 1840. And in this way, adding 3/02 in the year AD,
the Kaliyuga Samvat goes.

Note 5-157 Gita Japati was celebrated 5157 and recently the birth
anniversary of Shri Mahjagavad Gita has been celebrated in Tisava (
15 ) 215 201 81 A 1 Kaalavat Kaal then 3102's Sa 2021 + 3102 will be
Kalisamvat year 09 S M 4 After subtracting 34 from the year Gatha
5157, ie Kalisamvat year 35 Kurukshetra Arjuna H was given. Fort
Pahle K = 5123 Years Now Gita Jayanti lived on 15123

Pulkashan of Chalumavoni time period of South which is mentioned on

the hill of II of Aihole that such India pages 3735 and 556 years in
the inscription of 4 Jainamander (556+ Shaka Samvat $ 8 = 634 AD
0 The said temple was built 42. According to India's war 9 and 3
Added I Saka era between 556 - 3179 3735 comes $ 1.5 in Savat
difference = King

3. Study of Balyuga: Samvat and Goby inscriptions Leprosy (P739

This was the foundation of the Mahabharata HEY Hall 4 Savat Shu
Mahabharat ka S / But Kaliyuga crisis 7 3179- 2526 ) , Varshi has to
be obeyed 146 11h with to 11012 h 6 60 Chi C Sarvat Re Date , Fope
Bharatyug is one of the era. From 2-508, the king reformed the
reason that Im Samvat is said to be 7th beginning of Shri Krishna,
but some vida 30 € (961-2 kingdom se and 2526 6 7 600 Madha
nakshatra on 3 Kakals and 9 Boligin Fo Adhikar has gone. 17012 D K 2
+ 60

MATERIAL OF C8

"Archaeology is the means of studying the past of man. This

knowledge of the past is meaningful only when its time can be
determined. Its importance and place becomes important only when
the date of the remains is known. The amount of evidence obtained
for date-fixation" Excavated - material is obtained from different
levels. Different levels indicate the number of civilizations and their
precedence. But they are not sufficiently helpful in time-
determination. Efforts are made to do this. All these types of
methods are included in two methods. These methods are relative
time-determination method and absolute-time-determination method.
With both these methods, people related to archeology can determine
the time. Relative time-determination method In the relative-time-
determination method, by making a comparative study of two available
objects, they determine their time. By this method any object, place,
civilization etc. are related to ancient or new form. can be done .
With this method, the time estimate is not always correct. The
following methods have been used for the relative method of dating
of different materials 1. Stratification: Stratification is an important
method of dating. The different sequences of the earth are called
strata. Man and nature help in creating these levels. Human efforts
are the main in these. These levels are contemporaneous as well as
being made up of a sequence of time intervals. The order of the
different materials obtained from the levels can be determined in
advance. The object of the upper level is less ancient and the object
obtained from the lower level is more ancient than that. If Helps to
be done. If one level is determined, then the date of the remaining
levels is estimated. The continuity of time can be reduced if the signs
of definite change or development or decline are visible. Being similar
in construction-technique and shape-type cannot prove them to be
mutually contemporary. But the value of his time can certainly be
known. On the basis of external similarities, the excavated material
can be classified into Paleolithic, Bronze Age or Iron Age.
Illustrations, decorations, etc. of the received characters can also
help in determining the time. Efforts can also be made to determine
the time of ocher pottery, painted gray pot, black-margined pottery
etc. by the typical method.

Interdependent time-determination- When the time of one

excavated object is known, the method of determining the time by
comparing the excavated material of another unknown period with
each other is called interdependent time-determination method. The
date is usually available on the coins. With the help of the form of
the script received on them, there is a facility of time determination
of other written object. Great care is required in determining the
time by this method. Because there is a possibility of flood, rain, soil
erosion, population. Error in time due to migration, mutual invasion
and cultural contact. Due to the change of nature, huge animals move
to other places to mold themselves. Similarly, in search of vegetation,
they also migrate to other places. Therefore, their study is not easy.
Their life, like human life, is mainly based on plants. Therefore, the
relocation of large animals and non-translocation of small animals
helps in determining the relative dates of paleobiology animals and
plants. 5. Fluorine analysis - After the death of animals, the chemical
called fluorine keeps increasing in their remains. Study of the amount
of fluorine obtained The method of determining the time is called
fluorine analysis. This analysis is related to the available bones.
After death, the flesh and marrow of the body get destroyed soon
after. After some time the hair also gets destroyed. Only teeth and
bones and horns remain. When buried in the soil, its moisture
accumulates fluorine by mixing with calcium, phosphorus, magnesium
and carbonate etc. found in bones and teeth. The time-determination
done on the basis of the amount of this accumulated fluorine is called
fluorine analysis. 6. Palaeo-pollination - Method - Determination of
time by collecting the pollen grains of flowers and examining them is
called Pura-flower-pollination method. The pollen grains (stamens) of
flowers are the main source for plant reproduction. Fruits and seeds
are produced from the pollen grains present in the anther. These
pollen grains remain safe for a long time in humid environment, lake
bottom, swamps etc. They get destroyed in alkaline soil, sand, burnt
condition. The study of fluorine analysis and paleo-pollen grain-
methods requires great care. Careful omissions in collecting pollen
grain samples with varying fluorine content of teeth, bones, horns
make the timing doubtful.

Absolute time-fixing method In different modes of time-

determination, the method of determining the time by the auxiliary
elements like fixed Panchang is called absolute-time-fixing method.
In this method, no other methods or basis are required for scheduling.
This method is based on definite and determined degradation or
addition of natural substances. Absolute time-determination method
is studied by the following methods. This method can be used only in
the area with snow-streams. Snow - The water of rivers flowing after
melting ie falls in lake, bay and sea. Both heavy and light particles fall
from this flowing water. These

Heavy particles are deposited below and light particles are deposited
above. Each year the accumulation of these two becomes on a level
above each other. This level is helpful in determining their date. By
this method, help can be obtained in determining the period from pre-
stone period to iron period up to about 15000 years. 2. Time-
determination from tree-ring- Every year a ring is formed in the
trunks of trees. By counting these rings, their time can be known.
The time-determination of the material made from the wood of those
trees can be done. But by method the time of the tree can be known.
Not made of material. Due to dry environment the rings are very
narrow whereas in areas with humid climate the distance between the
rings of trees is more. By this method, the age of antiquities can be
determined for about 3000 years. 3. Heat - Brilliance based time -
Determination is done in the form of heat energy generated by
heating a substance, it is called heat - light. The time-determining
method based on this is called the time-determination method based
on heat-glow. Earthen pots, bricks, glass etc. are cooked in a
temperature ranging from 400 ° to 1200 ° centigrade. Due to this
there is an effect of various radio-active elements on them. To know
the timing of these items, they are again cooked to their temperature.
The energy generated by this is measured and their time is
determined. With this method, there is a possible inaccuracy of 10%
in the time-determination, the basis of which depends on the effort
and guesswork to remove it.

Time-determination from radio-carbon - The creation and

dissolution of carbon goes on in different organisms and plants due to
the influence of the atmosphere. On the basis of its effect, the time-
calculation is called radiocarbon based scheduling or C14 date counting
method. The rays of space come in contact with different atoms
located in the atmosphere. This leads to nuclear reactions. As a
result of this reaction, the atoms of nitrogen and oxygen are split into
small blocks to form neutrons. Neutrons react with nitrogen to
produce carbon. The carbon already present in the atmosphere is
called "carbon". Carbon 12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. Carbon 4 has
6 protons 14.

And there are 8 neutrons. By absorption of carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere by food and plants by light, carbon and carbon materials
enter. Of these, carbon continues to decompose slowly at a fixed
rate. This dissolution continues even after the lifetime. It gets
compensated during life time but after the end of life it stops being
compensated. In this process there is no change in carbon but change
starts in carbon 4. This causes a difference in the ratio of the two
carbons. The period of any object is determined by the difference in
the ratio of its erosion. According to this method, the half-life of
carbon 4 is halved from 5568 (± 30) years to 5730 (± 40) years. year
is determined. i.e. 14 of carbon 4 in about 5568 to 5730 years.

Literary point - All the methods of determining the above time are
based on scientific knowledge. But human life is more closely related
to traditions and culture. For this man expects the help of literary
works and popular folk tales. Such a known point, which is helpful in
determining the chronology of the descriptions related to the
unknown time, is called literary point. As the time of Panini is known,
the examples of partially or fully following the rules given by him can
determine their precedence. Similarly, less or complete adherence to
the rules prescribed by Natyashastra also helps in preparatory
determination of compositions. In both these examples the Natya-
shastra of Panini and Bharata is a point which can be helpful in
determining the time of other compositions. When there is a mention
of any other compositions or author in one of the works, in that
situation also it helps in their pre-determination. Sometimes the same
description is available in two different works. If the time of one of
these compositions is known and it is a creation of a period of time,
even then the time-determination of the second composition can be
done. The inclusion of Sakalya etc. by Panini in his grammar proves
him to be preceded by Panini. Similarly, the mention of Kautsa by
Yasak in his Nirukta proves Kautsa to be preceded by Yasak. Some
grammarians are mentioned by both Panini and Yaska, in which case
the Acharya mentioned by Panini must have been situated before both
the grammar and Nirukta before Yaska.

The mention of Kalidas and Bharavi in Pulakeshin's Aihole inscription

proves that by the time of the inscription received from Aihole (634
AD), the fame of both the poets had reached its peak and both are
related to the time before that. The impressions of Kalidasa's
compositions are clearly visible in the inscriptions received from
Mandsaur and Nalanda of the 6th century AD. This description also
proves the existence of Kalidas before him. The style of Bhasa's
plays is not as mature as that of Kalidas. This indicates that Bhasa
must have preceded Kalidas. Therefore, Kalidas is the later poet of
Bhasa and the predecessor of Mandsaur's writings. The writing style
and script are the same at a particular time. When different articles
written in the same script are received, the timing of one of them is
clear, then there is a facility to establish the relation of the other.
If the writing of a king is available but his script is similar to the
examples of the later script, in that case there is a suspicion of that
article being fake. The subject matter of Chandra's article received
from Mehrauli proves him to be later than Samudragupta. The kings
left independent after being conquered by Samudragupta attacked
the Gupta Empire after the death of Samudragupta. The moon
destroyed them all. Hence Chandragupta (II) is the successor of
Samudragupta.
Language continues to show influence in various forms over time in
literary works. It consists of interpolated parts. The variation of
texts shows a different nature influenced by time and place. But the
records being inscribed cannot be changed under any circumstances.
Their language and writing style becomes stable. Therefore, the
nature of the language used in the inscriptions is a reflection of the
language of its time. It is the standard of the language used at that
time. Ashoka's inscriptions are written in Prakrit. From this the
linguists inferred that Sanskrit language is not used in his time. After
some time, the use of Prakrit in the writings of Ashoka started
decreasing and the Sanskrit language came to dominate. But the
achievement of some examples shows that both Prakrit and Sanskrit
were used in abundance in the 2nd-3rd century AD. It is clear from
the use of 'Karma' for 'Karma', 'Arya' for 'Arya' etc.

The sutra 'Acho Rahamyan Dwe' was used in literature for a long time.
But in the published literature, Prayas-Laghav made it disappear from
the option. In the context of Mahabharata, it is seen that in the
inscriptions, the name of Mahabharata is first available in an
inscription obtained from the cave of 'Shatasahastri Samhita' of 534
AD. From this it is clear in the Mahabharata that in the first half of
the 6th century AD, there was an accumulation of one lakh verses.
From this time onwards 'B' in place of 'V' and 'B' in place of 'B' and
'S' in place of 'S' and 'S' started to be used. Was . The dates used
in the articles are helpful in determining the time of the
contemporary kings. The names of many contemporary foreign rulers
are mentioned in the thirteenth inscription of Ashoka. Their known
dates can be determined mutually contemporaneous. King Antiochus
of Greece ruled from AD 261 to 246, Ptolemy from AD 282 to 247.
From their known dates, the time of the contemporary ruler Ashoka
can be known. Out of the 282 obtained date, the eighth year of
Ashoka's inscription, four years before his accession, i.e. 270 BC,
after subtracting the total twelve years, indicates the date of
Ashoka's reign.

Until the beginning of the AD era, prose writing was often not
available in Sanskrit literature. Poetry compositions of poets are
received; But the lack of prose writing is surprising even by saying
that the prose poets have a disadvantage. In this form of prose, the
inscription of Rudradaman, an early literary work, is found. This
indicates that the Sanskrit prose-writing of that time was in a
sufficiently prevalent and developed form. Many such experiments
are obtained from the inscriptions of the Gupta period, which are not
mentioned in the Amarakosha. This indicates that Amarakosha is an
earlier composition from the Gupta period. The place of the numbers
found in the records is the same as that of the modern decimal
system. The numbers are written from right to left. If the number
265 is to be written then 200 60 and 5 will be marked. In this, units
are written first from the right, then tens to the left, then hundreds
in sequence. It is clear from this that the place value of the modern
type of numerals was sufficiently known in India at the beginning of
the AD era. The main Samvat records are an important source in
knowing the date-sequence. On the basis of any event, victory-travel
etc., the mention of time is found in the inscriptions. In these mainly
description is received in two forms - state year and dates. In these,
the dates are later added to the Samvat or they are counted as a new
era. The earliest mention of Tithyankan is found in 'Veeray Bhagwate
Chaturasiti Vase' in a column article obtained from Badli. This is the
mention of the eighty-fourth year of the brave god. State year is a
form of remembrance of some event. Ashoka mentions from the
eighth year to the twenty-seventh year of his consecration. It is not
clear whether these years belong to the Maurya era or not. But the
description of Muriyakal (Maurya period) 165 in Kharavela's
inscription indicates that the calculation given by Ashoka would have
acquired the form of a Samvat in the course of time. Kharavela's
article describes the events from the first to the thirteenth year.
The various articles contain the insights of the years as
followsSatavahana Gautamiputra Shatkarni-18 and 24th year
Pulumavi-7th, 19th, 22nd and 24th year Yagyasreeshatakarni- seventh
year Kushan kings mark the years from 3 to 80. The use of the word
Samvat is found with their numbers. This is considered to be the
Saka era. The name of doubt is not received for a long time. Similarly,
the names of Vikram Samvat, Gupta etc. are not found in the
beginning. In the writings of North-Western India, mention of Paksha
and Var is found along with summer, rain, autumn. The number of
months and dates are found in the writings of Shakas, Kushanas and
Kshatrapas. In this way, in the early centuries of AD, it is mentioned
that the year was divided into three main divisions – rain, winter and
summer. After that time is described by the side. The names of the
months start getting mentioned from the writings of the Gupta
period. In various eras, the propagation of Vikram Samvat continued
uninterrupted in North India. It was popular in Rajputana and Central
India. Ujjain on the destruction of the Shaka kingdom.

In this era started which spread all over North India. The ruler of
Malwa and Maharashtra, the Kshatrapa King, used to use the Shaka
era only. Due to the prominence of Shaka calculation in mathematics
and the prevalence of Vikram era in North India, both the eras have
been equally mentioned in the letters in astrology. 1. Maurya Samvat
Who started the calculation of Maurya era, it is not clear. It was
started by Chandragupta Maurya or by Bindusara or by Ashoka, it is
not completely determined. Mostly it is believed that by destroying
the Nanda-dynasty, Chandragupta established the Maurya kingdom
around 321 BC. Therefore, it is possible that the Samvat may have
started from this event. It is not entirely clear if Ashoka also started
it from the date of his consecration or by taking initiation in
Buddhism. Ashoka inscribed discipline in his various inscriptions.
Years were mentioned in many places in these. Ashoka's grandson
Dasharatha has also quoted the date in his writings. Ashoka has used
eight to twenty seven years in his writings. The years that Ashoka
mentioned do not belong to any era. Ashoka has mentioned the date-
count from his consecration. Therefore, the calculation of the years
of Ashoka cannot be related to any era established by Chandragupta.
In this calculation, the year of Abhishek is mentioned, month, season,
date, side etc. are not mentioned. After this the Maurya era is
mentioned in Kharavela's article obtained from Hathigumpha. This
article describes the 165th Maurya period. The example of this era
is not found anywhere else. There is considerable difference of
opinion among different scholars in considering the era mentioned in
Kharavela's inscription as the Maurya era. Along with the use of this
era, the independent experiment of thirteen reign-years is also found
in Kharavela's inscription. Vikram BNIH

Vikram Samvat - A Samvat was established in India in 57 BC. It is

known as Krit Samvat, Malava Samvat and Vikram Samvat. It is
believed that the chief of the ganas of the Malavas, known as
Vikramaditya, defeated the Atatiya Shakas. This ended their chaos.
There was happiness and peace in the country. As if Satya Yuga or
Krit Yuga had been established. Hence it was named as Krit Samvat.
In later times, the disturbances were pacified by the efforts of the
Malav-Raj, the residents of the north-east part of Avanti.
Therefore, From the 6th century AD it was known as the era of the
Malavas. Due to the performance of his special valor, it was named
Vikram Samvat. There is no clear knowledge of any historical
personality named Vikram, by whom the calculation of time has been
started in some form in memory of the victory achieved. Initially till
the 6th century AD, it was known as Krita-Samvat. In the Mandsaur
inscription of the 461st year of Narvarman, the description of both
the names of Malava and Krita is found together. In the Mandsaur
inscription of the year 461 of Narvarman, the names of Malava and
Krit are visible at the same place. Thereafter it gets its name only in
the Malava era. After the ninth century AD, it got its name Vikram
Samvat. In Northern India, this Samvat is celebrated from the
Shukla Paksha of Chaitra month and in Southern India the Kartik
month starts from the first day of Shukla Paksha. The modified name
can also be a form of Karthik. Which is related to Kritika Nakshatra
of the year. In the inscriptions, the mention of this era is found from
282 to 1103 years.

Saka era - After defeating the Malavas by the Shakas, a new era was
started, this is known as the Shaka era. Fergusson Banerjee, Roy
Chowdhury and Alden Varga are of the view that Kanishka started the
Shaka era. Fleet refutes this view. According to the description
available in the Kolakacharya Katha of the Jain text
'Prabhakarcharita', 'Vikram's successor was killed in the year 135 of
Vikramaditya. From that time the counting of doubts started. After
subtracting from 135 years in 'Vikram Samvat 57 (135-57) AD Samvat
78' comes. It is also possible that Chastan, the grandfather of
Rudradaman of Junagadh, started the calculation of the Shaka era.
According to another theory, Kanishka started the calculation of
time, which later became famous as Shaka-Samvat. The calculations
of this era are found on the writings of the Kushan dynasty and on
the praises and coins of the West Indian satraps. The use of the
Shaka era is found in the writings from the fifth century AD to the
twelfth century. The Shaka satraps have been feudatories of the
Kushanas in the beginning, so on becoming independent rulers, they
started using the name of the era used by them. The mention of
'Shakabd' and 'Shaka-nrup-kal' in the writings after about five
centuries after the establishment of the Shaka era proves that there
was knowledge of the Shaka period calculation in the public. By the
Middle Ages, the feeling of foreigner associated with the Saka era
had vanished. Varahamihira in his works, Jain writers in Gujarat,
Kannada and The people of Karnataka used the Saka era in northern
Bihar and the Lichchivis of Nepal. In the fourteenth century AD, the
name Shalivahana was added to the political tradition in South India.
• Due to the use of famous Shalivahana (Satvahana) kings, 4. Gupta
era of Saka era - In ancient times, many period calculations had
become prevalent in different provinces of India. These were started
by different kings. In this tradition the Gupta kings also started
their time count. This period calculation became famous by the name
of 'Gupta-Samvat'. Which ruler started the establishment of this
era - it is not certain. The tradition is that when the government
becomes stable, the mention of the date starts. It is followed by the
later kings. It is initially used in the writings of Chandragupta (II).
It is possible that Chandragupta (II) may have started his period
from the time of Chandragupta (I) by giving the name of the founder
of the Gupta Empire, Shri Gupta. Alberuni has mentioned that the
name of the Guptas used to count a time which is known as the 'Gupta
period' or 'Gupta-Samvat'. According to his statement based on
public opinion, the Gupta era began 241 years after the Shaka era.
This fact is also corroborated by Jain texts. The time is mentioned
in the Junagadh Prashasti inscription of Skandagupta as 'Gupta
period'. Almost all the Gupta articles mention the same type of date.
In the writings of the feudal parivrajak kings of the Gupta emperors,
there is a mention of the calculation of a date called Gupta. The
Samvat of the feudal parivrajak kings of the Gupta emperors'
Guptanraprajyabhuktau was used in the name of Valbhi Samvat. In
the form of Gupta-samvat has been used. Later, the kings of Valabhi
secretly

Harsh Samvat - Emperor Harshavardhana of Thaneshwar started a

calculation related to the state. This calculation is known as 'Harsha-
Samvat'. With this calculation the name is not obtained. Similar
dates are mentioned in the articles of his copper papers. Just as
every Samvat in the early period is described without name. Harsha's
Banskheda inscription mentions the twenty-twentieth year and
Madhuban's copper leaf article mentions the twenty-fifth year.
According to Alberuni, Harshavardhana ruled 664 years after
Vikramaditya. This fact (664-57) determines the date of Harsha
Samvat from 606-07 AD. Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang Shiladitya
(Harsha) at Harsha's court in 642 AD.

Madhavgupta lived in L. From his description it is known that in 648

AD Harsha had ruled for 36 years. Harsha Samvat was used for some
time in North India and Nepal. In course of time it disappeared from
there due to the effect of Vikram Samvat. In the description of the
arrow, Harsh and Ko are described as friends. In the Afsad
inscription, the name of Adityasen's father has been described as a
friend of Madhavgupta. The name of Adityasen's father is mentioned
in the Afsad inscription as Madhavgupta who is mentioned as a friend
of Harsha. The Shahpur inscription of Adityasen is of the 66th year,
so the time of 672 AD (606 + 66) is fixed. Another ruler of the same
dynasty, Vishnu Gupta, has Mangrao inscription of 117th year, which
is definitely related to Harsha Samvat.