JASHORE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (JUST)

IPE- 2203: Engineering Materials II (3 credit hours)

Dr. Md Mahfuzur Rahman

Assistant Professor, Dept. of IPE
2nd Nov, 2020
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

 Review of previous class

 Solid solution, Semiconductor and Insulators

– ILO 1: Identify the meaning of Alloy.

– ILO 2: Describe solid solution.

– ILO 3: Compare between substitutional and interstitial solid solution.

– ILO 4: Describe Semiconductors.

– ILO 5: Describe insulators.

What is Alloy?
Alloy
 An alloy is a substance that has metallic properties and is composed of two or more
chemical elements, of which at least one is a metal.

 An alloy system contains all the alloys that can be formed by several elements
combined in all possible proportions. If the system is made up of two elements, it is
called a binary alloy system; three elements, a ternary alloy system; etc.

Classification of Alloys
Alloys may be classified according to their structure, and complete alloy systems may be
classified according to the type of their equilibrium or phase diagram.

 Alloys may be homogeneous (uniform) or mixtures.

 If the alloy is homogeneous it will consist of a single phase.

 And if it is a mixture it will be a combination of several phases.

Solid Solution

 A solid solution is simply a solution in the solid state and consists of two kinds of
atoms combined in one type of space lattice.

 A solid solution forms when, as the solute atoms are added to the host material, the
crystal structure is maintained and no new structures are formed.

 A solid solution is also compositionally homogeneous; the impurity atoms are

randomly and uniformly dispersed within the solid.

Two types of solid solutions:

 Substitutional solid solution and

 Interstitial solid solution
Solid Solution

Substitutional Solid Solutions

 In this type of solution, the atoms of the solute substitute for
atoms of the solvent in the lattice structure of the solvent.

 For example, silver atoms may substitute for gold atoms

without losing the f.c.c. (face-centered cubic) structure of gold,
and gold atoms may substitute for silver atoms in the f.c.c.
lattice structure of silver.

Interstitial Solid Solutions

 These are formed when atoms of small atomic radii fit into the spaces or interstices of the
lattice structure of the larger solvent atoms.

 Since the spaces of the lattice structure are restricted in size, only atoms with atomic radii
less than 1 angstrom are likely to form interstitial solid solutions. These are hydrogen
(0.46), boron (0.97). carbon (0.77), nitrogen (0.71), and oxygen (0.60).
Solid Solution
 When two metals are mixed together they form an alloy if one metal is soluble in the
other one in solid state. Therefore, an alloy is a solid solution of two or more metals.

 Primarily there are two types of solid solutions -

 Substitutional – Solute atoms occupy the regular lattice sites of the parent
metal (solvent). Substitutional solid solutions can be random (Cu-Ni) or ordered
(Cu-Au).

 Interstitial – Solute atoms occupy the interstitial positions (Steel – C solute

atoms in Fe) .
Substitutional Solid Solution: Factors for High
Solubility
 Atomic size factor - atoms need to “fit” ⇒solute and
solvent atomic radii should be within ~ 15%. Otherwise
the solute atoms will create substantial lattice distortions
and a new phase will form.

 Crystal structure: Crystal structures of solute and

solvent should be the same.

 Electronegativity: The more electropositive one element

and the more electronegative the other, the greater the
likelihood that they will form an intermetallic compound
instead of a substitutional solid solution.

 Valency: A metal will have more of a tendency to

dissolve another metal of higher valency than one of a
lower valency.
Semiconductors and Insulators
Semiconductors:

Materials with intermediate conductivities, generally from 10^-6 to 10^4

Ω. 𝑚−1 , are termed semiconductors.

 A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between

that of a conductor, such as metallic copper, and an insulator, such as glass.
 Its resistivity falls as its temperature rises; metals are the opposite.
 Its conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by introducing
impurities ("doping") into the crystal structure.

 Semiconductors can be classified as elemental (Si, Ge) or compound (GaN, InP,

GaAs).
 Both of these can be intrinsic or extrinsic (n- or p-type).

 Some semiconductors have direct bandgaps (e.g., GaAs), while others have
indirect bandgaps (e.g., Si).
Semiconductors and Insulators
Insulators:

 An electrical insulator is a material in which the electron does not flow freely or
the atom of the insulator have tightly bound electrons whose internal electric
charges do not flow freely; very little electric current will flow through it under
the influence of an electric field.

 The property that distinguishes an insulator is its resistivity; insulators have

higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors. The most common
examples are non-metals.

 Insulators are produced from ceramic and polymeric materials in which there is a
large energy gap between the valence and conduction bands; however, the high-
electrical resistivity of these materials is not always sufficient.

 At high voltages, a catastrophic breakdown of the insulator may occur, and

current may flow.
Band Structures

Schematic of band structures for (a) metals, (b) semiconductors, and (c) dielectrics
or insulators. (Temperature is assumed to be 0 K.)
Effect of temperature on the conductivity

 When the temperature of a metal increases,

thermal energy causes the amplitudes of
vibration of the atoms to increase.

 This increases the scattering cross section of

atoms or defects in the lattice. With the increase
in interactions, the mean free path decreases, the
mobility of electrons is reduced, and the
resistivity increases.

Movement of an electron through (a) a perfect crystal, (b) a crystal heated to a high
temperature, and (c) a crystal containing atomic level defects. Scattering of the electrons
reduces the mobility and conductivity.
Effect of temperature on the conductivity

 In a semiconductor at 0 K, the valence band is completely full and

the conduction band is completely empty; the semiconductor does
not conduct.

 As temperature increases, the supply of electrons increases

exponentially because the thermal energy frees an increasing
number of electrons from the covalent bonds, making the
electrons available for conduction, and we find that the resistivity
of a semiconductor decreases with increasing temperature
Direct and Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors
 In a direct bandgap semiconductor, an electron can be promoted from the
conduction band to the valence band without changing the momentum of the
electron.
 An example of a direct bandgap semiconductor is GaAs. When the excited
electron falls back into the valence band, electrons and holes combine to
produce light. This is known as radiative recombination.
 Thus, direct bandgap materials such as GaAs and solid solutions of these
(e.g., GaAs-AlAs, etc.) are used to make light-emitting diodes (LEDs) of
different colors.

 In an indirect bandgap semiconductor (e.g., Si, Ge, and GaP), the electrons cannot be
promoted to the valence band without a change in momentum. As a result, in
materials that have an indirect bandgap (e.g., silicon), we cannot get light emission.

 Electrons and holes combine to produce heat that is dissipated within the
material. This is known as nonradiative recombination.
Homework

 Ch-07 and Ch-18 of Materials Science and Engineering by Callister.

 Ch-03 and Ch-05 from Introduction to Physical Metallurgy by Avner.

 Solve examples and exercise problems.

 Reading materials will be uploaded at LMS.
 Strengthening Mechanism
 Crystal Slip System