Phase Diagram

Q1. What do you mean Phase Diagram? What are the applications of phase diagram?
Q2. What information may be obtained from an equilibrium diagram?
Q3. Explain the importance of equilibrium diagrams in the development alloys.
Q4. Describe the development of microstructure and phases during solidification of a hypoeutectoid alloy
in Fe-C phase diagram.
Q5. Describe the development of microstructure and phases during solidification of a hyper-eutectoid
alloy in Fe-C phase diagram.
Q6. Describe the development of microstructure and phases during solidification of a eutectoid alloy in
Fe-C phase diagram.

Q7. Compute the mass fractions of α ferrite and cementite in pearlite.

Q8. What is the distinction between hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels?

Solution:
(a) A “hypoeutectoid” steel has a carbon concentration less than the eutectoid; on the other hand, a
“hypereutectoid” steel has a carbon content greater than the eutectoid.
(b) For a hypoeutectoid steel, the proeutectoid ferrite is a microconstituent that formed above the eutectoid
temperature. The eutectoid ferrite is one of the constituents of pearlite that formed at a temperature below the
eutectoid. The carbon concentration for both ferrites is 0.022 wt% C.
Q9. What is the carbon concentration of an iron–carbon alloy for which the fraction of total ferrite
is 0.94?

Q10. Briefly explain why fine pearlite is harder and stronger than coarse pearlite, which in turn is
harder and stronger than spheroidite.

Q11. Cite two reasons why martensite is so hard and brittle.

Q12. Consider 1.0 kg of austenite containing 1.15 wt% C, cooled to below 727°C (1341°F).
(a) What is the proeutectoid phase?
(b) How many kilograms each of total ferrite and cementite form?
(c) How many kilograms each of pearlite and the proeutectoid phase form?
(d) Schematically sketch and label the resulting microstructure.

Q13. The microstructure of an iron–carbon alloy consists of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite; the mass
fractions of these two microconstituents are 0.286 and 0.714, respectively. Determine the concentration
of carbon in this alloy.

Q14. Compute the mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite in an iron-carbon alloy that contains 0.43 wt%
C.

Q15. For an iron-carbon alloy of composition 5 wt% C-95 wt% Fe, make schematic sketches of the
microstructure that would be observed for conditions of very slow cooling at the following temperatures:
1175°C(2150°F), 1145°C (2095°F), and 700°C (1290°F). Label the phases and indicate their compositions
(approximate).
Q16. Briefly cite the differences between pearlite, bainite, and spheroidite relative to microstructure and
mechanical properties.

The microstructures of pearlite, bainite, and spheroidite all consist of α-ferrite and cementite phases. For
pearlite, the two phases exist as layers which alternate with one another. Bainite consists of very fine and
parallel needle-shaped particles of cementite that are surrounded an α-ferrite matrix. For spheroidite, the
matrix is ferrite, and the cementite phase is in the shape of sphere-shaped particles. Bainite is harder and
stronger than pearlite, which, in turn, is harder and stronger than spheroidite.
Q17. What is the driving force for the formation of spheroidite?

Answer: The driving force for the formation of spheroidite is the net reduction in ferrite-cementite phase
boundary area.
Q18. Write short notes on (i) Pearlite, (ii) Bainite, (iii) Spheroidite, (iv) Martensite.

Q7. Why do you study phase diagram?

 A knowledge and understanding of phase diagrams is important to the engineer relates to the design and
control of heat-treating procedures; some properties of materials are functions of their microstructures, and,
consequently, of their thermal histories.
 Even though most phase diagrams represent stable (or equilibrium) states and microstructures, they are
nevertheless useful in understanding the development and preservation of non-equilibrium structures and
their attendant properties; it is often the case that these properties are more desirable than those associated
with the equilibrium state.
 In the processing/structure/properties/performance scheme, reasons for studying phase diagrams are as
follows:

 It provide a foundation that is necessary for us to understand phase transformations that occur in steel
alloys, as well as the consequences of these transformations—that is, microstructural and property
alterations.

Q8. What is phase diagram? Write down the application of Phase diagram.

A phase diagram in physical chemistry, engineering, mineralogy, and materials science is a type of chart used
to show conditions (pressure, temperature, volume, etc.) at which thermodynamically distinct phases occur
and coexist at equilibrium.

Phase diagrams are graphical representations of the phases present in a particular alloy being held at a particular
temperature. Phase diagrams can be used to predict the phase changes that have occurred in an alloy that has been
exposed to a particular heat treatment process. This is important because the properties of a metal component depend
on the phases present in the metal.

Applications of Phase diagram:

Phase diagrams are useful to metallurgists for selection of alloys with a specific composition and design and control
of heat treatment procedures that will produce specific properties. They are also used to troubleshoot quality problems.

A great deal of information concerning the phase changes in many alloy systems has been accumulated, and the
best method of recording the data is in the form of phase diagrams, also known as equilibrium diagrams or
constitutional diagrams. Three independent variables which are externally controllable, temperature, pressure, and
composition are specified. With pressure assumed to be constant at atmospheric value, the equilibrium diagram
indicates the structural changes due to variation of temperature and composition. The diagram is essentially a
graphical representation of an alloy system.

 Much of the information about the control of the phase structure of a particular system is conveniently and
concisely displayed in what is called a phase diagram, also often termed an equilibrium diagram.

 There are three externally controllable parameters that will affect phase structure: temperature, pressure,
and composition—and phase diagrams are constructed when various combinations of these parameters are
plotted against one another.
Q11. Briefly explain why fine pearlite is harder and stronger than coarse pearlite, which in turn is harder and
stronger than spheroidite.

Solution
The hardness and strength of iron-carbon alloys that have microstructures consisting of -ferrite and cementite
phases depend on the boundary area between the two phases. The greater this area, the harder and stronger the alloy
inasmuch as (1) these boundaries impede the motion of dislocations, and (2) the cementite phase restricts the
deformation of the ferrite phase in regions adjacent to the phase boundaries. Fine pearlite is harder and stronger
than coarse pearlite because the alternating ferrite-cementite layers are thinner for fine, and therefore, there is more
phase boundary area. The phase boundary area between the sphere-like cementite particles and the ferrite matrix is
less in spheroidite than for the alternating layered microstructure found in coarse pearlite.

Q12. Cite two reasons why martensite is so hard and brittle.

Solution
Two reasons why martensite is so hard and brittle are: (1) there are relatively few operable slip systems for the
body-centered tetragonal crystal structure, and (2) virtually all of the carbon is in solid solution, which produces a
solid-solution hardening effect.

Q13. Compute the mass fractions of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite that form in an Fe–C alloycontaining 0.25
wt% C.
 Heat Treatment
Q1. What do you mean by heat treatment? What are the objectives of heat treatment?
Q2. Describe (i) Full Annealing, (ii) Normalizing, (iii) Case Hardening.
Q3. Write short notes on (i) nitriding, (ii) Carburizing.
Q4. Describe Tempering process.
Q5. What are the principal Heat Treatment processes.
Q6. What do you mean by Hardening process? List common hardening processes.
Q7. Briefly explain the difference between hardness and hardenability.

Solution:
Hardness is a measure of a material's resistance to localized surface deformation, whereas hardenability is a
measure of the depth to which a ferrous alloy may be hardened by the formation of martensite. Hardenability is
determined from hardness tests.

Q8. How would you expect a decrease in the austenite grain size to affect the hardenability of a steel alloy?
Why?
Solution:
A decrease of austenite grain size will decrease the hardenability. Pearlite normally nucleates at grain boundaries,
and the smaller the grain size, the greater the grain boundary area, and, consequently, the easier it is for pearlite to
form.

Q9. (a) Briefly describe the microstructural difference between spheroidite and tempered martensite.
(b) Explain why tempered martensite is much harder and stronger.
Solution:
(a) Both tempered martensite and spheroidite have sphere-like cementite particles within a ferrite matrix; however,
these particles are much larger for spheroidite.
(b) Tempered martensite is harder and stronger inasmuch as there is much more ferrite-cementite phase boundary
area for the smaller particles; thus, there is greater reinforcement of the ferrite phase, and more phase boundary
barriers to dislocation motion.

Q10. Briefly explain why the hardness of tempered martensite diminishes with tempering time (at constant
temperature) and with increasing temperature (at constant tempering time).
Solution :
This question asks for an explanation as to why the hardness of tempered martensite diminishes with tempering time
(at constant temperature) and with increasing temperature (at constant tempering time). The hardness of tempered
martensite depends on the ferrite-cementite phase boundary area; since these phase boundaries are barriers to
dislocation motion, the greater the area the harder the alloy. The microstructure of tempered martensite consists of
small sphere-like particles of cementite embedded within a ferrite matrix. As the size of the cementite particles
increases, the phase boundary area diminishes, and the alloy becomes softer.

Therefore, with increasing tempering time, the cementite particles grow, the phase boundary area decreases, and the
hardness diminishes. As the tempering temperature is increased, the rate of cementite particle growth also increases,
and the alloy softens, again, because of the decrease in phase boundary area.