CHAPTER 3 - CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

3.1 Cell Membrane and Cytoplasm

Cell Membrane / Plasma Membrane

A cell membrane is one feature common to all cells. The membrane forms a barrier between the cell and
the outside environment. The cell’s surface also regulates passage of substances in and out of the cell, and
it receives and responds to external stimuli. It helps maintain homeostasis.

Cytoplasm

The area of the cell between the nucleus and the cell
membrane is the cytoplasm. The real work of the cell
occurs in the cytoplasm, the cell's "factory floor." The
cytoplasm includes the cytosol, a watery mixture of ions,
enzymes, RNA, and other dissolved substances.
Organelles (or little organs) are also part of the
cytoplasm. These structures perform several different
functions for the cell which generally fall under the
categories of production, maintenance, and energy
transformation.
3.2 Organelles Involved in Protein Production

Nucleus
The nucleus, often referred to as the headquarters of
the cell, controls all cell activity by regulating what
proteins are made.
The information for the manufacture of proteins is
encoded in a series of bases along the DNA found in the
nucleus. DNA is an informational molecule that
specifies the “recipe” for every protein a cell can make.
The cell copies the genes encoding these proteins into
another nucleic acid, messenger RNA (mRNA).
The mRNA molecules exit the nucleus through nuclear
pores, which are holes in the double-membrane
nuclear envelope that separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm.
Also inside the nucleus is the nucleolus, a dense spot that assembles the components of ribosomes. These
ribosomal subunits leave the nucleus through the nuclear pores, and they come together in the cytoplasm
to form complete ribosomes.

Ribosomes
Once in the cytoplasm, mRNA
coming from the nucleus binds to
a ribosome, the workers that
manufacture proteins. They
consist of two separate subunits:
a large, lower subunit and a small,
upper subunit.

Free-floating ribosomes produce

proteins that remain in the cell’s
cytosol. Proteins that are destined
for organelles, for the cell
membrane, or for secretion, are
produced by ribosomes attached
to the membrane of the
endoplasmic reticulum.
3.3 Organelles involved in protein localization

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of

sacs and tubules composed of membranes. This
complex organelle originates at the nuclear
envelope and winds throughout the cell
(endoplasmic means “within the cytoplasm,” and
reticulum means “network”).

Close to the nucleus, the membrane surface is

studded with ribosomes making proteins that
enter the inner compartment of the ER. This
section of the network is called the rough
endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) because the
ribosomes give these membranes a roughened
appearance. Proteins that will be secreted move
from ribosomes into the rough ER, where they are
modified and folded into their exact 3D shape.

Adjacent to the rough ER, a section of the network

called the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(smooth ER) synthesizes lipids. The smooth ER
also houses enzymes that detoxify drugs and
poisons.

The lipids and proteins travel out from the ER in bubbles of membrane called transport vesicles.

Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flat,

membrane-enclosed sacs that functions as a
processing center. Proteins from the ER pass
through the series of Golgi sacs, where they
complete their intricate folding and become
functional. Enzymes in the Golgi apparatus
also manufacture and attach carbohydrates
to proteins or lipids, forming the “name tags”
recognized by the immune system.

Proteins leaving the Golgi apparatus are

sorted and packaged into new transport
vesicles and released into the cytoplasm.
Some of these vesicles ferry proteins to the
plasma membrane for secretion or insertion
into the lipid bilayer. Others become
lysosomes.
3.4 Organelles involved in cellular digestion

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are organelles produced by the Golgi

apparatus that contain powerful protein digesting
enzymes. Lysosomes dismantle and recycle food
particles, captured bacteria, worn-out organelles, and
debris. The lysosomes fuse with transport vesicles
carrying debris from outside or from within the cell. Its
enzymes break down the large organic molecules into
smaller subunits by hydrolysis, releasing them into the
cytosol for the cell to use.

A cell injured by extreme cold, heat, or another physical

stress may initiate its own death by bursting all of its
lysosomes at once.

Vacuoles

Most plant cells lack lysosomes, but they do

have an organelle that serves a similar
function. Vacuoles are sacs that form by the
fusion of multiple vesicles. Many isolate or
break down waste, debris, toxins, or food.
Mature plant cells have a large central
vacuole, in which amino acids, sugars, ions,
wastes, and toxins accumulate. Fluid pressure
in a central vacuole keeps plant cells plump, so
stems, leaves, and other plant parts stay firm.

Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes also aid in digestion. They originate at the endoplasmic reticulum and contain enzymes that
digest and then oxidize certain toxic molecules.
3.5 Energy-related organelles

Mitochondria

Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are often

called the powerhouses or energy factories of the
cell. Their job is to make a steady supply of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main
energy-carrying molecule. The process of making
ATP using chemical energy from fuels such as
sugars is called cellular respiration, and many of
its steps happen inside the mitochondria.

A mitochondrion has two membrane layers: an

outer membrane and an intricately folded inner
membrane that encloses the mitochondrial matrix.

Within the matrix is DNA that encodes proteins

essential for mitochondrial function; ribosomes
occupy the matrix as well.

Cristae are the folds of the inner membrane; this

structure houses the enzymes that catalyze the
reactions of cellular respiration.

In most mammals, mitochondria are inherited from

the female parent only. (This is because the
mitochondria in a sperm cell degenerate after fertilization.)

Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are found only in plants and photosynthetic algae. The chloroplast's job is to carry out a
process called photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, light energy is collected and used to build sugars from
carbon dioxide.

Each chloroplast contains multiple membrane layers. Two outer membrane layers enclose an enzyme-rich
fluid called the stroma. Within the stroma is a third membrane system folded into flattened sacs called
thylakoids, which are stacked like pancakes to form structures, called grana. Photosynthetic pigments
such as chlorophyll are embedded in the thylakoid membranes.
The similarities between chloroplasts and mitochondria—both have their own DNA and ribosomes,
and both are surrounded by double membranes.

According to the endosymbiosis theory, some ancient organism engulfed bacterial cells. Rather than
digesting them as food, the host cells kept them on as partners: mitochondria and chloroplasts. The
structures and genetic sequences of today’s bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts supply powerful
evidence for this theory.

3.6 The Cytoskeleton

A cytoskeleton is an intricate network of protein “tracks” and tubules in the cytoplasm of the cell. The
cytoskeleton is a structural framework with many functions:
• it is a transportation system
• it provides the physical support necessary to maintain the cell’s characteristic three-dimensional
shape
• it aids in cell division and helps connect cells to one another
• it also enables cells—or parts of a cell—to move.

The cytoskeleton is made up of interconnected components:

• Microfilaments are composed of actin proteins. Microfilaments provide strength for cells to survive
stretching and compression, and they help to anchor one cell to another.
• Intermediate filaments have varied protein composition. They maintain a cell’s shape by forming
an internal scaffold in the cytosol and resisting mechanical stress. Intermediate filaments also help
bind some cells together.
• Microtubules are composed of tubulin proteins. They form a type of “trackway” along which
substances move within a cell. Specialized motor proteins “walk” along the tracks, toting an
organelle, a vesicle, or other cargo. In addition, microtubules also split a cell’s duplicated
chromosomes apart during cell division.
In animal cells, structures called centrosomes organize the microtubules. (Plants typically lack
centrosomes and assemble microtubules at sites scattered throughout the cell.) The centrosome contains
two centrioles.
3.7 Cell Wall

Cell walls surround the cell membranes of nearly

all bacteria, archaea, fungi, algae, and plants.

Cell walls impart shape, regulate cell volume,

prevent bursting when a cell takes in too much
water, and interact with other molecules to help
determine how a cell in a complex organism
specializes.

Many materials may make up a cell wall:

Bacteria: peptidoglycan
Fungi: chitin
Plants: cellulose
Hemicellulose, Pectin
Plant cell walls also contain glycoproteins,
enzymes, and many other proteins

How do plant cells communicate with their neighbors through the wall?

Plasmodesmata (singular: plasmodesma) are channels that connect adjacent cells. They are “tunnels” in
the cell wall, and materials can move from one cell to another via a thin strand of cytoplasm that passes
through each channel.
3.8 The Endomembrane System

The endomembrane system (endo =

“within”) is a group of interrelated
membranes and organelles in eukaryotic
cells that work together to enable cells to
produce, modify, package, and transport
lipids and proteins.
The endomembrane system consists of the
nuclear envelope, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
vacuoles, and cell membrane.
The organelles of the endomembrane
system are connected by vesicles: small,
membranous spheres that transport
materials inside the cell. These “bubbles” of
membrane, which can pinch off from one
organelle, travel within the cell, and fuse
with another, are also considered part of
the endomembrane system.
One of the most common patterns of
membrane traffic is the movement of
newly synthesized proteins from rough ER
to various destinations, for the following
purposes:
- secretion outside the cell
- creating lysosomes
- replacing proteins in the plasma membrane.

Reference:
Hoefnagels, Marië lle. (2018). Biology: Concepts and Investigations. McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY 10121.
ISBN 978-0-07-802420-7