Work Measurement

Historical Development

Industrial
Revolution

2
 Historical Development

Frank (1868-1924) F.W Taylor

Lilian Gilbreth (1878-1972) (1856-1915)

Known as a father of
Known as a parents of
scientific management, IE,
motion study
and Time Study 3
Historical Development : Present…

4
Work Measurements
 Work Study
• Work Study is a generic term for management services
and system engineering techniques, used to investigate:

– Methods of performing work (Method Study).

– The time taken to do it (Work Measurement).

6
Work Study

7
 System Relationships
Process Engineer workflows
analysis
Design work station &
information arrangements

Method Plant
Jobs study layout

Work Time
breakdowns study

standard Incentive
rewards
times
8
 Method Study
• Method study is a technique to reduce the work content
mainly by eliminating unnecessary movements by
workers, materials, or equipments.

• Already Discuss in Lecture

9
 Work Measurement
Work measurements (WM) are techniques used to
establish the time for a qualified, motivated worker to
carry out a task at a defined rate of working.
Qualified worker – A person who has the necessary
physical and mental attributes and at the same time has
the appropriate skills and tools to perform the job.
Time – the length of time taken to complete the job; usually
expressed as labor standard or standard time.
Normal working condition – the acceptable working
environment in term of temperature, humidity, lighting,
noise, etc needed to perform the job.
10
 Work Measurement

• Work measurement is concerned with investigating,

reducing and eliminating ineffective time, whatever may
be the cause.
 Work Design Productivity

Motion Study Work Measurement

Direct Indirect

Scheme of the study

12
 Techniques for WM
• Two alternative method:
– Direct work measurement:
• Time study: “the most widely used”
• Work sampling: Determines the proportion of time a
worker spends on activities
– Indirect work measurement (indirect method not on
the task) with standard times are measured by
standard data and formulation.
• Synthesis from standard data.
• PMTS
• Analytical estimating.

13
 Direct Work Measurement

Stop watch Time Study Work Sampling

Indirect Work Measurement

Predetermined
Regression Analysis Standard Data/Formula
Motion Time System

General Approach Functional Approach

(for specific purpose)

14
 Purpose of WM
• Work Measurement Purposes may be:
− To reveal the nature and extent of ineffective time,
from whatever cause.
− So that action can be taken to eliminate it; and then,
− To set standards of performance that are attainable
only if all avoidable ineffective time is eliminated and
work is performed by the best method available

15
 Work Measurement:
Improve Productivity, Reduce Costs, Improve
Profits

16
 Applications of WM
• To compare the efficiency of alternative methods. Other
conditions being equal, the method which takes the least
time will be the best method.
• To balance the work of members of teams, in
association with the multiple activity charts, so that, as
far as possible, each member has tasks taking an equal
time.
• To determine, in association with man and machine
multiple activity charts, the number of machines a worker
can run.

17
 Uses of Time Standards

• To provide information on which the planning and

scheduling of production can be based, including the
plant and labor requirements for carrying out the
program of work and utilization of resources.
• To provide information on which estimates for tenders,
selling prices and delivery promises can be based.
• To set standards of machine utilization and labor
performance which can be used for incentive scheme.
• To provide information for labor-cost control and to
enable standard costs to be fixed and maintained.

18
 Areas of Controversy
• Conflict between management and workers
– Workers think standards too high
– Management think standards too low
• Conflicts expensive
• Need achievable standards for costing, scheduling etc.
• Time studies dehumanising
• Industrial Engineering departments expensive
• Using work standards for piecework incentives reduces incentive to
improve work methods
• Trade off with quality
 Time Study
• Time Study: is the development of a standard time by
observing a task and analyzing it with the use of a
stopwatch
• Developed by FW Taylor
• It is the most versatile and the most widely used.
• Time study is a technique to estimate the time to be
allowed to a qualified and well-trained worker working at
a normal pace to complete a specified task.
• This technique is based on measuring the work content
of the task when performed by the prescribed method,
with the allowance for fatigue and for personal and
unavoidable delays.
20
 Stopwatch Time Study Basic Steps
The various steps are
• Select the job to be time studied and operations to be
timed.
• Obtain the improved procedure of doing the job from
method study department.
• Select the worker of the study.
• Take the worker & supervisor into confidence & explain
the objective of study to them.
• Arrange the equipments and machinery to conduct time
study and insure their accuracy
• Explain to workers the improved working procedure and
use of tools and other attachments to do the job.
• Breakdown the operation into elements. 21
 Stopwatch Time Study Basic Steps

• Determine the number of observations to be timed for

each element.
• Conduct the observations and record them in time study
form
• Also rate the performance of the working while
conducting the observation .
• After repeating above two steps Compute observe time.
• For each element calculate the representative watch
time. Multiply it by the rating factory to get normal time.
• Normal time = Observed time * Rating factor

22
 Stopwatch Time Study Basic Steps

• Add the normal time of various elements to

obtain the normal time for the whole operation.
• Determine allowances for various delays from
the company's policy book or by conducting an
independent study.
• Determine standard time by adding allowances
to the normal time of operation.
• Standard time = Normal time + allowances

23
 Time Study

Before Time Studies After Time Studies

24
APPLICATIONS OF TIME STUDY

• Checking time standards obtained by other

methods
• Timing repetitive operations employed in
manufacturing different jobs
• Determine scheduling and planning work
• Determining standard cost and as an aid in
preparing budgets
• Determining machine effectiveness

25
 Reasons for Element Breakdown

• Data is more readily reusable when each

element is described separately, esp. beginning
and ending points.
• Standard (estimated) time values may be
determined.
• Individual elements may be excessively short
(e.g., inspection), or too long. These can be
picked out more easily in element form.
• This allows for separate performance ratings for
each.
26
TIME STUDY EQUIPMENTS

• Time measuring devices

Motion Picture Camera
Stop Watch
Time Recording Machine
Electronic data collector and computer
• Time study board
• Time study form
• Auxiliary Equipment
27
 Stop watch
•Stop watch is the one of the principle time measuring device.

•It measure the time taken by an operator to complete the job

•
•A stop watch can run continuously for one hour or half an hour
normally and records time by short hand. One compete revolution
of big hand of watch records one minute .

•A stop watch may be of following three types:

1. Non fly back
2. Fly back and
3. Split hand a split second type
28
 MOTION PICTURE CAMERA
• The time for the elements of an operation can be obtained from
the motion pictures of the operation made with the synchronous
motor driven motion picture camera.

• This camera operates at fixed speeds . The speeds most

frequently used is thousand frames per minute, which permits
the measurement of time in thousands of a minute.

• the film may be projected at the exact speed at which the picture
was made and check may be made of the operators
performance.

29
ELECTRONIC DATA COLLECTOR AND COMPUTER

Electronic data collector and computer

make the time study more easy and
systematic.

computer performs the clinical work of

computation, analysis, summarizes the
data and computer the time standard.

30
 TIME RECORDING MACHINES
• Considerable training is required to be able to read the stop watch,
record the reading on the time study form

• to relieve he time study man of some these simultaneous function,

time study machines have been developed

• these machines permit precision timing elements or movement as

small as 0.01 minutes in duration to the nearest 0.001 minutes in
sequence.
• These are built to drive a graduated tape at a constant speed past a
key or indenter this indenter when presses with mark tape indicating
the termination of an elements are identified by depressing another
key arranged on the machine .

• A permanent record of time study is represented by such a tape and

elemental values can be calculated easily by making successive
subtractions 31
 TIME STUDY BOARD

•When making a time study with the help of a stop

watch , it always necessary to provide a suitable
board to hold the time study form and stop watch

• the time study board is simply a flat board , usually

of plywood or suitable plastic sheet .

•stop watch is kept at upper right hand corner of the

board observations sheets held at the top of the
board
32
 TIME STUDY FORM

•Time study form is also called observation

sheet .

•It contains the detailed information about the

details of operations, name of operator , name
of time study operator , data , place etc.

•some times may be provided for a sketch it

fits the standard file or finder.
33
 Taking and Recording of Data

• Continuous timing - records readings at the end of

each element as watch runs
• Repetitive timing - after recording, watch is snapped
back to zero at the end of each element
• Multiple watches - connected by a lever; one runs,
another is stopped, another set to go
• Electronic watch - may continue in “split” mode

34
BASIC PROCEDURE FOR WORK MEASUREMENT

Observed time
Applying rating factor → ↓
Normal time
Add relaxation Allowances → ↓
Work content
Add contingency and other → ↓
allowances if required

Standard time
35
 Standard time
• Standard time:
The amount of time it should take a qualified worker to

❑complete a specific task,

❑working at a sustainable rate,

❑using given methods, tools and equipment, raw

materials, and workplace arrangement.

36
 Standard Time
• Two basic approaches to defining standard time.
– Bottom-up
• Starts with a basic measurement of time, adjusts
for operator pace, and then allows for fatigue,
personal needs, and delays.
– Top-down
• used in many labor contracts, and it normally
defines standard time as that time under which a
qualified employee working under usual conditions
can make an incentive pay (specified) percent
above base pay.

37
 Standard Time (Cont.)
• Normal Time.
– The time required for an average, trained operator to perform a
task under usual working conditions and working at a normal
pace. (It does not include allowances for personal needs and
delays that would be necessary if the task were done all 8
hours.)
• Normal Pace.
– The pace of an average, trained, and conscientious operator
working over an 8-hour day.
• Actual Time.
– The observed time required for an operator to perform a task.
• Allowances.
– The amount of time added to the normal time to provide for
personal needs, unavoidable delays, and fatigue.

38
 Doing Time Study
• When making a time study several decisions are made
to assure desired results:
– # of observations to make
– Desired level of accuracy
– Desired level of confidence for the estimated standard
time

39
Performance Rating
• During the time study, time study engineer
carefully observes the performance of the
operator. This performance seldom conforms to
the exact definition of normal or standard.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to apply some
'adjustment' to the mean observed time to arrive
at the time that the normal operator would have
needed to do that job when working at an
average pace. This 'adjustment' is called
Performance Rating.
40
Performance Rating
• Determination of performance rating is an important step
in the work measurement procedures. It is based entirely
on the experience, training, and judgment of the work-
study engineer. It is the step most subjective and
therefore is subject to criticism.
• It is the procedure in which the time study engineer
compares the performance of operator(s) under
observation to the Normal Performance and determines
a factor called Rating Factor.

41
Performance Rating
• The normal time (NT) is the mean observed time
multiplied by the Performance Rating Factor (PRF)
• The PRF is a subjective estimate of a worker’s pace
relative to a normal work pace.
• The Performance Rating is usually expressed in
decimal form in these formulas. So a person working
10% faster than normal would have a Performance
Rating of 1.10 or 110% of normal time. Working 10%
slower, 0.90 or 90% of normal.
• The frequency of occurrence (F) is how often the
element must be done each cycle.

42
 System of Rating
• Pace Rating
• Westinghouse System of Rating
• Objective Rating
• Synthetic Rating

43
 Pace Rating
• In this method, which is also called the speed rating
method, the time study person judges the operators
speed of movements, i.e. the rate at which he is applying
himself, or in other words "how fast" the operator the
motions involved.
• Normal Time =
OT * Workers Speed / Speed Expected from worker

44
Westinghouse System of Rating

• This method considers four factors in evaluating

the performance of the operator: Skill, effort,
conditions and Consistency.
• Skill may be defined as proficiency at following a
given method. It is demonstrated by co
ordination of mind and hands. A person's skill in
given operation increases with his experience on
the job, because increased familiarity with work
bring speed, smoothness of motions and
freedom from hesitations.
45
Westinghouse System of Rating
• The Westinghouse system lists six classes of
skill as poor fair, average, good, excellent. The
time study person evaluates the skill displayed
by the operator and puts it in one of the six
classes. As equipment % value of each class of
skill is provided, the rating is translated into its
equivalent percentage value, which ranges from
+15 % (for super skill) to -22 % (for poor skill). In
a similar fashion, the ratings for effort,
conditions, and consistency are given for each of
the factors.
46
Objective Rating
• In this system, speed of movements and job
difficulty are rated separately and the two
estimates are combined into a single value.
Rating of speed or pace is done as described
earlier, and the rating of job difficulty is done by
selecting adjustment factors corresponding to
characteristics of operation with respect to (i)
amount of body used, (ii) foot pedals, (iii)
bimanual ness, (iv) eye-hand co ordination, (v)
handling requirements and (vi) weight handled
or resistance encountered
47
Objective Rating
• For an operation under study, the numerical
value for each of the six factors is assigned, and
the algebraic sum of the numerical values called
job difficulty adjustment factor is estimated.
• The rating factor R can be expressed as
• R=PxD
Where
P = PRF
D = Job difficulty adjustment factor.

48
Synthetic Rating
• This method of rating has two main advantages
over other methods that (i) it does not rely on the
judgment of the time study person and (ii) it give
consistent results.
• The time study is made as usual. Some
manually controlled elements of the work cycle
are selected. Using a PMT system (Pre-
determined motion time system), the times for
these elements are determined.

49
Synthetic Rating
• The times of these elements are the
performance factor is determined for each of the
selected elements.
• Performance or Rating Factor, R = P / A
• Where P = Predetermined motion time of the
element , A = Average actual Observed time
of the element.
• The overall rating factor is the mean of rating
factors determined for the selected elements,
which is applied uniformly to all the manually
controlled elements of the work cycle.
50
 Functions/ Elements of
Management
Planning
The process of setting goals, and determining the
appropriate action to achieve the goals of the Planning
company.
Organising
The process of allocating and arranging both human
and other resources through a formal structure of
tasks and authority so that plans can be carried out Controlling Organising
successfully.
Leading
The process of guiding and motivating employees to
accomplish company’s goals.
Controlling
The process of regulating company’s activities so that Leading
actual performance conforms to the goals and
standards set at the planning stage.
Planning process
• Once managers understand the goals of the company,
they can take steps to implement the planning process
in their company.
• Implementation of planning process is important
because if the planning cannot be transformed into
action, it will not be able to generate benefits to the
company.
Planning process

2. Listing 3. Selecting best

1. Setting company
alternative ways of way to achieve the
goals
achieving the goals goals

4. Developing plans
5. Putting plans
to pursue chosen
into action
alternative
Organising
Organising is the process of allocating and arranging the
resources of the company such as employee, facilities and
equipment, finance, to achieve the goals of the company.
Organising Steps
• Restaurant manager should determine the specific area that the
restaurant requires to improve e.g. to reduce the waiting time of
Step 1 customers.

• To designate the jobs to be done within the restaurant such as

defining that serving customers includes taking orders, clearing
Step 2 tables and cooking food.

• To assign work to specific employees and provide resources

required: To determine who will take orders, who will clear the
Step 3 tables, who will cook the food.

• To coordinate the work of different groups and employees: To

determine the details of the relationship between the individual
Step 4 employees. i.e. how they work with each other.

• To evaluate the results of implemented organising strategy by

gathering the feedback from customers and see if the restaurant
Step 5 has attained its goals. If not, corrective action should be taken.
Leading

Leading involves how manager directs and

motivates employees to perform tasks in
order to achieve the company goals.
Leadership Styles
Autocratic

Laissez- Leadership
Styles Democratic
faire

Bureaucratic
Autocratic Leadership
▪ Classical style
▪ Manager retains power and decision-making authority.
▪ Make unilateral decision, dictate work methods.
▪ Orders are issued to be carried out, with no questions allowed and
no explanations given.
▪ It is best applied to situations where there is little time for
decision-making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable
person of the team.
Democratic Leadership
• Participative style
• Encourage employees to involve in decision making.
• Let employees determine the work methods and use
feedback as an opportunity for helpful coaching.
• Employees feel engaged in the process and are more
motivated and creative.
• It is best applied where staff require a great deal of flexibility
to complete the task or where the staff know the job well
and do not require too much instruction.
Bureaucratic Leadership
• Everything must be done according to procedure or
policy.
• The company operates in a rational manner rather
than relying on the feelings of the managers.
• It is best applied to situation where employees are
working in dangerous environment that requires a
definite set of procedures to operate.
Laissez-faire Leadership
• “hands-off” style
• Manager provides little direction and gives
employees freedom to make their own decision at
work.
• This style can be effective where employees are
highly qualified in an area of expertise.
Controlling
Controlling is the process of evaluating and
correcting individual performance to ensure
that outcomes conform to the standard set
before.
4. Taking 1. Setting
corrective standard
action

3. Comparing
2. Measuring
actual
actual
performance
performance
with standard
Illustrative Example for the
Control Process
• Setting Monthly sales target set by Sales Directors. Sales managers are t
Standard sales target.
Step 1
• Measuring
At the end of each month, the sales figure of each manager is rec
actual
sales levels can be determined.
Step 2 performance

• Comparing
actual Compare monthly sales total to sales target to see if any deviatio
performance
Step 3 with standard

• Taking If monthly sales are significantly below the target, the Sales Direc
corrective if it is unrealistic for the managers to achieve or do more promot
Step 4 action If, on the other hand, monthly total are significantly high, which m
easy to achieve, then the Sales Director should increase the targe
Managerial Levels – Vertical Dimension

Top-management: e.g. Board of Directors,

CEO, President, Vice President

Middle-management: e.g. branch

manager, department head

First-line management: e.g. supervisor,

team leader
Top-management

• Managers at the level are ultimately

responsible for the following:
• Make long-term plans
• Establish policies
• Represent the company
• Referred to as executives of the company
• Oversees the overall planning for the
company
• Example: The Board of Directors of the
company sets a goal of increasing
company sales by 10% in the next year
Middle-management
• Managers at middle-level are
responsible for the following:
• Develop detailed plans and procedures to
implement goals
• Make decisions
• Direct first-level managers
• Example: Sales managers
develop a new advertising
campaign for one of the
company’s products in order to
achieve 10% sales growth in next
year.
First-line management
• First-line management is directly
responsible for the following:
• Implement plans
• Assist middle-level managers
• Oversee workers
• Oversee the day-to-day operations to
ensure the company is smoothly run
• Example: a store manager is
responsible for making sure that
there are sufficient inventories
available for sale.
Scientific Management
by
Taylor & Fayol
CONTRIBUTION OF F.W.TAYLOR TO MANAGEMENT THOUGHT
According to Taylor, scientific management in its essence consists of a
philosophy which results in a combination of four important underlying
principles of management. First, the development of a true science, second, the
scientific selection of the workers, third, their scientific education and
development, Froth, intimate co-operation between management and their
men.
Here, job analysis and standardization of tools, equipment, machinery, etc. are
required.
1. Scientific selection of workers and their development through proper
training.
2. Scientific approach by management. The management has to develop a true
science in all fields of work activity through scientific investigation and
experiments.
3. Close co-operation of managers and workers (labour management relations)
for better results and understandings.
4. Elimination of conflict between methods and men. The workers are likely to
resist to new methods. This can be avoided by providing them an opportunity
to earn more wages.
Benefits / Advantages of Scientific Management

1. Application and use of scientific methods.

2. Wide scope for specialization and accurate planning.
3. Minimum wastages of materials, time and money.
4. Cordial relations between workers and management.
5. Benefits to workers (higher wages and less burden of
work), management (cost reduction, better quality
productions) and consumers (superior goods at lower
prices).
Contribution of Henry Fayol to
Management Thought
Fayol is the first management thinker who
provided the conceptual framework of the
functions of management in his book
―General and Industrial Management. The
functions of management according to Fayol
are,
1. Planning
2. Organising
3. Staffing
4. Commanding
5. Coordinating
6. Controlling
Fayol divided general and industrial
management into following six groups:-
a. Technical activities (production,
manufacture, adaptation).
b. Commercial activities (buying, selling
and exchange).
c. Financial activities (search for and
optimum use of capital).
d. Security activities (protection of property
and persons).
e. Accounting activities (stock taking,
balance sheet, cost, and statistics).
f. Managerial activities (planning,
organising, command, coordination and
control).
Henry Fayol also suggested 14 principles
of management. These principles are:-
1. Division of work,
2. Authority and responsibility,
3. Discipline,
4. Unity of command,
5. Unity of direction,
6. Subordination of personal interest to
organizational interests,
7. Remuneration,
8. Centralization,
9. Scalar chain,
10. Order,
11. Equity,
12. Stability of tenure,
13. Span of co-operation and
14. Initiative