Introduction to Work Study and

Ergonomics
"To manage, we first must measure"
Frederick W. Taylor

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3.1 Fundamentals of the work measurements.
Introduction
■ Definition: Work measurement is the application of
techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified
worker to carry out specified jobs at a defined level of
performance (defined rate of working).

■ We have seen how total time to manufacture a product is

increased by:
✓ adding undesirable features to product,
✓ bad operation of the processes, and
✓ ineffective time added because of worker and
management.

■ All this leads to decreased productivity.

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3.1 Fundamentals of the work measurements.
Introduction
■ Work measurement (WM) is concerned with investigating,
reducing and eliminating ineffective time, whatever may be
the cause.

■ WM is the means of measuring the time taken in the

performance of an operation or series of operations in such a
way that the ineffective time is shown up and can be
separated out.

■ In practice, proving existence of the ineffective time is the

most difficult task.

■ After existence is proved, nature and extent is easy to see!

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3.1 Fundamentals of the work measurements.
Introduction
■ WM is also used to set standard times to carry out the work, so that any ineffective time is
not included later.

■ Any addition the standard time would show up as excess time and thus can be brought to
attention.

■ Since, standard times are set for all the activities through WM, it has earned bad
reputation amongst workers.

■ Major reason for that has been the initial focus of the WM methods, which essentially
targeted only the worker controllable ineffective times.

■ Management controllable ineffective times were ignored traditionally.

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3.1 Fundamentals of the work measurements.
Introduction
Two critical issues in work study:

1. Method study should precede the work

measurement, always. WHY?

2. Elimination of management controllable

ineffective time should precede the
elimination of the ineffective time within
the control of the workers.

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3.1 Fundamentals of the work measurements.
objectives of WM
■ The objectives of work measurement are to provide a sound basis for:
– Comparing alternative methods.
– Assessing the correct initial manning (manpower requirement planning).
– Planning and control.
– Realistic costing.
– Financial incentive schemes.
– Delivery date of goods.
– Cost reduction and cost control.
– Identifying substandard workers.
– Training new employees.

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 Uses of WM

■ To compare the efficiency of alternative methods. Other conditions being equal, the
method which takes the least time will be the best method.

■ To balance the work of members of teams, in association with the multiple activity
charts, so that, as far as possible, each member has tasks taking an equal time.

■ To determine, in association with man and machine multiple activity charts, the
number of machines an operator can run.

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 Uses of time standards
■ To provide information on which the planning and scheduling of production can be
based, including the plant and labor requirements for carrying out the program of work
and utilization of resources.

■ To provide information on which estimates for tenders, selling prices and delivery
promises can be based.

■ To set standards of machine utilization and labor performance which can be used for
incentive scheme.

■ To provide information for labor-cost control and to enable standard costs to be fixed
and maintained.
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 When Are Time Standards Beneficial?
How does an organization know whether it needs time standards for its operations?

The following characteristics are typical of industrial situations in which time standards would be
beneficial:

■ Low productivity. If the current level of productivity is low.

■ Repeat orders. Once the time standard is set during the first order, the same standard can be used
for successive orders.
■ Long production runs. Means that the time invested to set the standard is assigned over more
parts.

■ Repetitive work cycles. When the work cycle is highly repetitive.

■ Short cycle times. Short work cycles require less time to set standards.
 Techniques for WM

■ Time study:

■ Activity sampling; and rated activity sampling

■ Synthesis from standard data

■ Pre-determined motion time system

■ Analytical estimating

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 Methods to Determine Time Standards

The following methods can be used to determine time standards.

■ Estimation

The department foreman or other person familiar with the jobs performed in the department is asked
to judge how much time should be allowed for the given task.

■ Historical records of previous production runs

In this method, the actual times and production quantities from records of previous identical or similar
job orders are used to determine the time standards.

■ Work measurement techniques

Direct Time Study, Predetermined Motion Time Systems, Standard Data Systems, and Work Sampling.
The work measurement techniques are more time consuming to implement but they are more
accurate than estimation or historical records.
Methods to Determine Time Standards
 Methods to Determine Time Standards
■ Among the four work measurement techniques, work sampling should be differentiated
from the other three.

■ The primary purpose of work sampling is to determine proportions of time spent in various
categories of work activity using randomized observations of the subjects of interest.

■ On the other hand, the principal purpose of direct time study, predetermined motion time
systems, and standard data systems is to establish time standards. Standards set by these
three techniques are sometimes referred to as engineered standards, because

1. they are based on measured time values that have been adjusted for worker
performance, and

2. some effort has been made to determine the best method to accomplish the task.
 Direct time study (DTS)

■ Direct time study (DTS) involves direct observation of a task using a stopwatch or other
chronometric device to record the time taken to accomplish the task.

■ The task is usually divided into work elements and each work element is timed separately.

■ While observing the worker, the time study analyst evaluates the worker’s performance (pace), and
a record of this pace is attached to each work element time. This evaluation of the worker’s pace is
called performance rating.

■ The observed time is multiplied by the performance rating to obtain the normal time for the
element or the task:
 Predetermined Motion Time System (PMTS)

■ A predetermined motion time system (PMTS) relies on a database of basic motion elements such as reach,
grasp, and move that are common to nearly all manual industrial tasks.

■ To use a predetermined motion time system to set a standard time for a given task the analyst lists all of the
basic motion elements that comprise the task, noting their respective conditions, and recovers the normal time
for each element from the database.

■ The normal times for the motion elements are then summed to obtain the normal time for the task.

■ Two advantages related to predetermined motion time systems:

(1) performance rating is not required and

(2) they can be applied to determine the time standard for a task before production.
 Standard Data Systems (SDS)

■ A standard data system (SDS) is a compilation of normal time values for work elements used in tasks that are performed in a
given facility.

■ These normal times are used to establish time standards for tasks that are composed of work elements.

■ An advantage of a standard data system is that a time standard can be set before the job is in production.

■ The normal time values in a standard data system are usually compiled from previous direct time studies, but they may be
based on predetermined motion time data, work sampling data, or even historical time records.

■ To use a standard data system, the analyst first identifies the work elements that make up the task together with the values
of the work variables respectively for each element.

■ He then accesses the database to find the normal time for each element. The work element values are summed to
determine the normal time for the task.
■ As in the other work measurement techniques, an allowance is added to the normal time to compute the standard time.
 Work Sampling

■ Work sampling uses random sampling techniques to study work situations so that the proportions of time spent in
different activities can be estimated with a defined degree of statistical accuracy.

■ Examples of the activities in a work sampling study might include setting up for production, producing parts,
machine idle, and so on.

■ A large number of observations over an extended period of time are usually made in order to achieve the desired
level of statistical accuracy.

■ The period of the study must be representative of the activities normally performed by the subjects (e.g., workers,
machines), and the observations must be made at random times in order to minimize unfairness: for example, if the
workers knew when the observations would be made, it might influence their behavior.

■ The objectives in a work sampling study may be to measure machine utilization in a plant or to determine an
appropriate allowance factor for use in setting standards in direct time study.
Relative Application Speed
3.2 THE ELEMENTS &
APPLICATION OF THE
WORK SAMPLING
METHOD.
Work sampling is a method of finding the percentage occurrence of a certain activity by statistical sampling
and random observations.

■ Work sampling is the process of making sufficient random observations of an operator’s activities to
determine the relative amount of time the operator spends on the various activities associated with the
job.

The major goal of work sampling is to determine how long, or how much of the work day, is spent on specific
types of work.

■ Work sampling may identify the fact that certain operators spend a large portion of their time waiting for
work, or performing paperwork tasks, or even performing activities that are not included in their job
descriptions.

■ One of the basic foundations of statistical sampling theory is the concept that the larger the sample
size, the results will be more accurate.

■ In work sampling, a sufficient number of observations must be made to be sure that the results
accurately summarize the work performed. There are statistical formulas to help determine how many
observations should be made.
 CONDUCTING A STUDY

■ It is recommended that a uniform procedure should be followed to perform a

work sampling study is to

1. Establish the Purpose

■ First, the objective of the study should be established. Work sampling can be
used to determine an overall perspective on the work done.

2. Identify the Subjects

■ Second, the people performing the task must be identified, i.e. general office
work is being studied with the objective of determining overall productivity.
3. Identify the Measure of Output
■ The third step in making the study is the identification of the measure of the output
produced or the types of activities performed on the jobs being studied. This step is
especially important if the objective of the study is to measure productivity with the intent
of setting a standard.

4. Establish a Time Period

■ Fourth, the time period during which the study will be conducted must be established.
Starting and stopping points for the study must be defined as well.

5. Define the Activities

■ This step involves defining the activities that are performed by the people under study. For
example, the definition used in a machine utilization study, including only the categories of
working, idle, and idle-mechanical breakdown.
6. Determine the Number of Observations Needed
■ After the work elements are defined, the number of observations for the desired accuracy at the
desired confidence level must be determined. If a reasonable guess cannot be made, then a trial
study of perhaps 20 to 40 observations should be made to get an estimate.

7. Schedule the Observations

■ Once the number of required observations has been determined, either from appropriate
statistical calculations or from tables, and the actual observations must be scheduled. Typically,
the analyst will assign an equal number of observations each day during the course of the study.
For example, if 800 observations are required and 20 work days are established as an
appropriate observation time, 40 observations should be recorded each day.

■ A random number table can be used to establish the random times for each observation.
8. Inform the Personnel Involved

■ Before the study is actually performed, the personnel involved should be

informed about the objective of the study and the methodology that will be
employed.

9. Record the Raw Data

■ The next is the actual recording of the raw data. Although this recording can be
performed by anyone, it is desirable that a trained analyst be employed.
■ It is also very important that the observations be made at exactly the same
location every time.

10. Summarize the Data

■ After the data have been collected, they must be summarized.
A few words about sampling

■ Sampling is mainly based on probability. Probability has been defined as “the degree to which an event
is likely to occur”.

■ A simple and often-mentioned example that illustrates the point is that of tossing a coin.

■ The law of probability says that we are likely to have 50 heads and 50 tails in every 100 tosses of the
coin. The greater the number of tosses, the more chance we have of arriving at a ratio of 50 heads to
50 tails.

■ The size of the sample is therefore important, and we can express our confidence in whether or not the
sample is representative by using a certain confidence level.

Establishing confidence levels

■ Let us go back to our previous example and toss five coins at a time, and then record the number of
times we have heads and the number of times we have tails for each toss of these five coins. Let us
then repeat this operation 100 times.
■ To make things easier, it is more convenient to speak of a 95 per cent confidence level than of a 95.45 per cent confidence level.

■ To achieve this we can change our calculations and obtain:

– 95 per cent confidence level or 95 per cent of the area under the curve = 1.96 σp
– 99 per cent confidence level or 99 per cent of the area under the curve = 2.58 σp
– 99.9 per cent confidence level or 99.9 per cent of the area under the curve = 3.3 σp

■ In this case we can say that if we take a large sample at random we can be confident that in 95 per cent of the cases our
observations will fall within ± 1.96 σp
Determination of sample size

■ As well as defining the confidence level for our observations we have to decide on the margin of error that
we can allow for these observations.

■ Let us look at our example about the productive time and the idle time of the machines in a factory. There
are two methods of determining the sample size that would be appropriate for this example:

■ the statistical method and the nomogram method.

Statistical method. The formula used in this method is:

■ Let us assume that some 100 observations were carried out as a preliminary study and at random, and
that these showed the machine to be idle in 25 per cent of the cases (p = 25) and to be working 75 per
cent of the time (q = 75).

■ We thus have approximate values for p and q; in order now to determine the value of n.

■ Let us choose a confidence level of 95 per cent with a 10 per cent margin of error (that is, we are confident
that in 95 per cent of the cases our estimates will be ± 10 per cent of the real value).
Nomogram method
An easier way to
determine sample size is to read off
the number of observations
needed directly
from a nomogram
such as the one reproduced
in figure 91.
Making random observations

■ To ensure that our observations are in fact made at random, we can use a random table such as the one in
table 12.

■ Various types of random table exist, and these can be used in different ways. In our case let us assume that
we shall carry out our observations during a day shift of eight hours, from 7 a.m. to 3 p.m. An eight-hour day
has 480 minutes. These may be divided into 48 ten-minute periods.

■ We can start by choosing any number at random from our table, for example by closing our eyes and placing a
pencil point somewhere on the table. Let us assume that in this case we pick, by simple chance, the number
11 which is in the second block, fourth column, fourth row (table 12).

■ We now choose any number between 1 and 10. Assume that we choose the number 2; we now go down the
column picking out every second reading and noting it down, as shown below (if we had chosen the number
3, we should pick out every third figure, and so on).

■ 11 38 45 87 68 20 11 26 49 05
■ Looking at these numbers, we find that we have to discard 87, 68 and 49 because they are too high (since we have only 48
ten-minute periods, any number above 48 has to be discarded).
■ Similarly, the second 11 will also have to be discarded since it is a number that has already been picked out. We therefore
have to continue with our readings to replace the four numbers we have discarded. Using the same method, that is
choosing every second number after the last one (05), we now have 14 15 47 22
■ These four numbers are within the desired range and have not appeared before. Our final selection may now be arranged
numerically and the times of observation throughout the eight-hour day worked out. Thus our smallest number (05)
represents the fifth ten-minute period after the work began at 7 a.m. Thus our first observation will be at 7.50 a.m., and so
on (table 13).
Example: Conducting the study
■ Determining the scope of the study. Before making our actual observations, it is important that we decide
on the objective of our work sampling.
■ The simplest objective is that of determining whether a given machine is idle or working. In such a case, our
observations aim at detecting one of two possibilities only:

■ We can, however, extend this simple model to try to find out the cause of the stoppage of the machine:
Making the observations

■ So far we have taken the first five logical steps in conducting a work sampling study.

– selecting the job to be studied and determining the objectives of the study;

– making a preliminary observation to determine the approximate values of p (idle)

and q (working);

– in terms of a chosen confidence level and accuracy range, determining n (the

number of observations needed) determining the frequency of observations, using
random tables;

– designing record sheets to meet the objectives of the study.

– There is one more step to take: that of making and recording the observations and
analyzing the results.
Work Sampling Observation Form
 Advantages of Work Sampling
■ Can be used to measure activities that are impractical to measure by direct
observation

■ Multiple subjects can be included

■ Requires less time and lower cost than continuous direct observation

■ Training requirements less than DTS or PMTS

■ Less tiresome and monotonous on observer than continuous observation

■ Being a subject in work sampling is less demanding than being watched

continuously for a long time
 Disadvantages and Limitations
■ Not as accurate for setting time standards as other work measurement
techniques

■ Usually not practical to study a single subject

■ Work sampling provides less detailed information about work elements than DTS
or PMTS

■ Since work sampling deals with multiple subjects, individual differences will be
missed

■ Workers may be suspicious because they do not understand the statistical basis
of work sampling