WORK DESIGN

Dr. Salwa Mahmood

Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology

Faculty of Engineering Technology

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

OUTLINES

 Work Study

 Job Design

 Principles of Motion Study

 Work Measurement

 Time Study
 Work Study

A discipline that concerned with:

1. Better ways of performing jobs/tasks

(Method Study, Job Design, Work Design, or
Methods Improvement)

2. Exercising control over the output by setting

standards for output/work with respect to
time (Time Study)
Job Design

Job design involves specifying the

content and methods of job

• What will be done

• Who will do the job

• How the job will be done

• Where the job will be done

• Ergonomics
Design of Work Systems

• Specialization
• Behavioral Approaches to
Job Design
• Teams
• Methods Analysis
• Motions Study
• Working conditions
Job Design Success

Successful Job Design must be:

Carried out by Understood
experienced Consistent and agree by
personnel with with the goals both
In written form
necessary of the management
training and organization and
background employees
Specialization in business: Advantages

For Management: For Labor:

1. Simplifies training 1. Low education and
skill requirements
2. High productivity
2. Minimum
3. Low wage costs
responsibilities
3. Little mental effort
needed
Specialization in business: Disdvantages

For Management: For Labor:

1. Difficult to motivate 1. Monotonous work
quality 2. Limited opportunities
2. Worker dissatisfaction, for advancement
possibly resulting in 3. Little control over work
absenteeism, high
4. Little opportunity for
turnover, disruptive
self-fulfillment
tactics, poor attention
to quality
Behavioral Approaches to Job Design

Job
Job rotation Job Enrichment
enlargement
Increasing
Giving a worker
responsibility for
a larger portion Workers
planning and
of the total task periodically
coordination
by horizontal exchange jobs
tasks, by vertical
loading
loading
 Enriched job
Planning
(participating in a cross-
function quality-
improvement team)

Enlarged job
Task #3 Present job Task #2
(lock printed circuit (manually insert and (adhere labels
board into fixture for solder six resistors) to printed
next operation) circuit board)

Control
(Test circuits after
assembly)
Job Design Continuum

Self-directed
teams
Increasing
Empowerment reliance on
employee’s
Enrichment contribution
and
Enlargement
increasing
responsibility
Specialization accepted by
employee

Job expansion
Self-Directed Teams

 Group of empowered individuals working together to reach

a common goal
 May be organized for long-term or
short-term objectives
 Effective because
 Provide employee empowerment
 Ensure core job characteristics
 Meet individual psychological needs
Self-Directed Teams

To maximize effectiveness, managers

should

 Ensure those who have acceptable

contributions are on the team

 Provide management support

 Ensure the necessary training

 Endorse clear objectives and goals

 Financial and non-financial rewards

Methods Analysis

•Analyzing how a job gets done

•Begins with overall analysis

•Moves to specific details

Methods Analysis

The need for methods analysis can come from a

number of different sources:

• Changes in tools and equipment

• Changes in product design

or new products

• Changes in materials or procedures

• Other factors (e.g. accidents, quality problems)

Methods Analysis Procedure
1. Identify the operation to be studied

2. Get employee input

3. Study and document current method

4. Analyze the job

5. Propose new methods

6. Install new methods

7. Follow-up to ensure improvements have been achieved

Analyzing the Job

FLOW PROCESS CHART

• Chart used to examine the overall sequence of an
operation by focusing on movements of the operator
or flow of materials

WORKER-MACHINE CHART
• Chart used to determine portions of a work cycle
during which an operator and equipment are busy or
idle
 Flow Process Chart
FLOW PROCESS CHART ANALYST PAGE
Job Requisition of petty cash D. Kolb 1 of 2
Details of Method
Requisition made by department head
Put in “pick-up” basket
To accounting department
Account and signature verified
Amount approved by treasurer
Amount counted by cashier
Amount recorded by bookkeeper
Petty cash sealed in envelope
Petty cash carried to department
Petty cash checked against requisition
Receipt signed
Petty cash stored in safety box
Flow Process Chart

Process
Flow
Chart
 Flow Diagram
IMPROVEMENT OF FLOW
DIAGRAM

Welding
Machine 4 Welding
From
Machine 3
Storage bins
press
mach. Paint Paint
shop Machine 2 shop
Mach. 3 Mach. 4
Machine 1
Machine 1 From
press Storage
mach. bins

Mach. 2
Principles Of Motion Economy (Study)
1. Use Of The Human Body

• The two hands should begin as well as complete at the same time.

• The two hands should not be idle at the same time.

• Motions of the arms should be made in opposite and symmetrical

directions simultaneously.

• Momentum should be employed to assist the worker wherever possible.

• Work should be arranged to permit easy and natural rhythm wherever

possible.
Principles Of Motion Economy (Study)
2. Arrangement Of The Work Place
• There should be a definite and fixed place for all tools and materials.
• Tools, materials, and controls should be located close and directly in
front of the operator.
• Gravity feed bins and containers should be used to deliver material close
to the point of use.
• Drop deliveries should be used wherever possible.
• The work place and chair should be arranged so that alternate sitting
and standing at work are easily possible.
• Chairs that permit good posture should be provided.
Principles Of Motion Economy (Study)
3. Design Of Tools And Equipment

• The hands should be relieved of all work that can be done more
advantageously by a jig, fixture, or foot operated device.

• Two or more tools should be combined wherever possible.

• Tools and materials should be pre-positioned wherever possible.

• Levers, crossbars, and hand wheels should be located in positions that

operator can manipulate them with the least change in body position
and the greatest mechanical advantage.
How to make a Burger?
BigMac VS Ramly
Developing Work Methods
1. Eliminate unnecessary motions. (Is this activity necessary, or can it
be eliminated?)

2. Combine activities. (Can this activity be combined with others?)

3. Reduce fatigue. (Can this activity be improved?)

4. Improve the arrangement of the workplace. (Is this the proper

sequence of activities?)

5. Improve the design of tools and equipment.

6. Is this the proper person to be doing this activity?

Method Improvement (example)
Method Improvement (recommendation)
Working Conditions To Be Considered

Temperature & Ventilation

Humidity

Illumination Color
Working Conditions To Be Considered

Noise & Vibration Work Breaks

Safety Causes of Accidents

Introduction of Work Measurement
• Work measurement refer to the estimation of standard time,
that is the time allowed for completing one piece of job
using the given method. This is the time taken by an average
experienced worker for the job with provisions for delays
beyond the workers control.

• There are several techniques used for estimation of standard

time in industry. These include time study, work sampling,
standard data, and predetermined time systems.
Work Measurement

• Standard time

• Stopwatch time study

• Historical times

• Predetermined data

• Work Sampling
Definition of Work Measurement

• Time study is a technique to estimate the time to be

allowed to a qualified and well-trained worker working at a
normal pace to complete a specified task.

• This technique is based on measuring the work content of the

task when performed by the prescribed method, with the
allowance for fatigue and for personal and unavoidable delays.
Objectives and Applications of Work Measurement
• Estimating material machinery and equipment requirements.

• Estimating the production cost per unit as an input to

o Preparation of budgets

o Determination of selling price

o Make or buy decision

• Estimating manpower requirements.

• Estimating delivery schedules and planning the work

• Balancing the work of operators working in a group.

• Estimating performance of workers and use as basis for incentive payment to those direct and in
director labor who show greater productivity.
Historical Experience

• Relatively easy, convenient, and inexpensive

• Not objective, unknown accuracy

Not recommended
Time Studies

Labor standards are based on observing worker doing task

• Observe only a sample of work

• Use average time & pace to set standard

Disadvantages

• Requires a trained & experienced analyst

• Standard cannot be set before task is performed

The Eight Steps to Conducting a Time Study

1. Define the task to be studied (after a methods analysis)

2. Break down the task into precise elements

3. Decide how many times each element of the task must be

measured

4. Record the times and ratings of performance for the task

elements

5. Compute the average observed cycle time (element times

adjusted for unusual influences)
The Eight Steps to Conducting a Time Study

6. Compute the normal time for each task element:

Normal time = (Average actual cycle time) x (Rating factor)

7. Sum the normal times for each element to develop a total normal time for the
task

8. Compute the standard time:

Total normal time

Standard time =
1- Allowance factor
Allowances
Personal time allowance - 4% - 7% of total time - use of restroom,
water fountain, etc.

Delay allowance - based upon actual delays that occur

Fatigue allowance - to compensate for physical or mental strain, noise

level, tediousness, heat and humidity, assumption of an abnormal
position, etc.

Special allowance – For special circumstances such training & reworks.

Rest Allowances (%) for Various Classes of Work
(examples)
1. Constant allowance
(a) Personal allowance 5%

(b) Basic fatigue allowance 4%

2.Variable allowances:
(a) Standing allowance
2%
(b) Abnormal position 2%
(i) Awkward (bending) 7%
(ii) Very awkward (lying, stretching) 3%
Total Allowance
Allowances are generally
applied to total cycle time as
some percentage of it, but
sometimes these are given
separately as some % for
machine time and some other %
for manual effort time. However
no allowance are given for
interruptions which maybe due
to factor which are within the
operator's control or which are
avoidable.
Direct Time Study (Example)
Work Element Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Cycle 5

Take glass 8 9 8 10 8
Place on jig and turn on the machine 10 12 10 11 12

Milling Operations 25 25 25 25 25
(fully automatic)
Lift glass and put it on conveyor 8 8 6 8 6

Time study data using snap back stop watch. Time in seconds. Total allowance is 15% of the
normal time. Workers rating is 110%.

(a) Compute the standard time.

(b) Calculate the labor cost for each product if the worker’s wage is RM 3 per-hour.
 Direct Time Study (Example)
Element Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Cycle 5 Average Normal Std
time time
1 8 9 8 10 8 8.6 9.46 11.12
9
2 10 12 10 11 12 11 12.1 14.23
5
3 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

4 8 8 6 8 6 7.2 7.92 9.318

Element 1:
Average time = (8+9+8+10+8)/5 = 8.6 sec
Normal time = Average x Rating = 8.6 x 1.1 = 9.46 sec
Std time = Normal /(1-allowance) = 9.46 / (1-0.15) = 11.129 sec
 Direct Time Study (Example)
(a) Compute the standard time.
Overall std time = 11.129+14.235+25+9.318 = 59.682 sec

(b) Calculate the labor cost for each product if the worker’s wage is RM 3
per-hour.

 3RM / hr  4
Worker's wage     8.33(10) RM / sec
 3600 sec/ hr 

Labor Cost per product  59.682 sec x 8.33(10)  4 RM / sec

 RM 0.0497
Work Sampling

1. Labor standard is set using output and % of time worker spends on

tasks
2. Involves observing worker at random times over a long period

Advantages
• Less expensive than time studies
• Observer requires little training
Disadvantages
• Ineffective with short cycles
Work Sampling

Used for

• Ratio delay studies

• Setting labor standards

• Measuring worker
performance
The Five Step Work Sampling Procedure

1
• Take a preliminary sample to obtain an estimate of the parameter value

2
• Compute the sample size required

3
• Prepare a schedule for observing the worker at appropriate times

4
• Observe and record worker activities; rate worker performance

5
• Determine how workers spend their time (usually as a percent)
Work Sampling (Example)
Status Tally Sum Percentage
Productive IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII I 41 41/45 = 91%
Idle IIII 4 4/45 = 9%

Work sampling studies were conducted for 6 consecutive days at a factory. A total of 45
observations were made during the 8 hour working period for each day. The number of
units managed to be produced are 3000 units for 1 week. The factory is operating 6 days
a week. The data above are included with rating and allowance of 97% and 15%.

Compute the standard time.

Work Sampling (Example)

hr min
Total observation time  8  60  6 day  2880 min
day hr
Standard Time, ST
Total observation time 1
  Productive %  Rating 
Total output 1  allowance

2880 min 1
Standard Time, ST   0.91 0.97 
3000 unit 1  0.15
min
 0.997
unit
Work Sampling Equations
Solved Problem

Data from snap back stop watch in minutes of a manual assembly process time study. The worker is rated at 108%. The
allowances are 5% for fatigue, 6% for delay, and 6% for personal relief. The worker’s salary is RM1000 per month.

a) Compute the standard time for the assembly process.

b) If the demand is 100,000 unit per month, estimate the number of operators required for the assembly process. The company is
operating 24 days per month and a single 8 hour shift per day.

c) If the company can only manage to employ 18 workers, compute the over time cost per day for each worker for the production
of 100,000 units per month. Assume only 15 workers are available for over time and the over time pay rate is 1.5 times of the
normal wage.
 Solved Problem
Element Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Average Normal Std
Time Time
The picture can't be display ed.

1 0.22 0.26 0.25 0.23 0.24 0.259 0.312

2 0.15 0.18 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.173 0.208
3 0.90 1.10 1.04 1.00 1.01 1.091 1.314
4 0.72 0.80 0.76 0.68 0.74 0.799 0.963

(a) Element 1
0.22  0.26  0.25  0.23
Average Time   0.24 min
4

Normal Time  Average Time x Rating  0.24 x 1.08  0.259 min

1 1
Standard Time  Normal Time x  0.259   0.32 min
1 - Allowance 1  0.17

Total Assembly Standard Time  0.312  0.208  1.314  0.963  2.797 min/unit
Tutorial 1
Process Description Average Time (min)
1 Manual 23
2 Manual 32
3 Automatic machine 9
4 Manual 8
Rating : 110%
Allowance: 20%

(a) Compute the standard time for each process.

(b) If the company has no problem with the availability of

manpower, recommend the maximum capacity for the factory
for a 8 hour shift work.
Tutorial 2
Emirates Consultant conducted a work sampling studies for 5 consecutive days at an assembly factory. A total of 48 observations were
made during the 8 hour working period for each day. The data collected during the 5 day studies is illustrated in Table 1. The whole
assembly process is operating on 5 working days per week, 95% rating and the company’s allowable allowances is 20%.

(i) Compute the standard time (min/unit) for the assembly process.

(ii) At peak demand period, the factory is normally required to produce 3,100 units per week. If only 60% of the employee is willing to
work over time, compute the average overtime per day must be arranged in order to meet the peak demand.
Tutorial 3

In making a time study of a laboratory technician performing an analysis of processed food in a canning factory,
the following times were noted for a particular operation.

If the technician's performance has been rated at 120 percent, and the company policy for allowance (personal,
fatigue, etc.) stipulates 13 percent,

(i) Determine the normal time.

(ii)Determine the standard time.

Watch readings falling 50 % above and 25 % below the average may be considered as abnormal.
Answer Tutorial 3
Tutorial 4 (work sampling)

A work sampling study was made of a cargo loading operation for the purpose of developing
its standard time. The study was conducted for duration of minutes during which 3000, 1500
instantaneous observations were made at random intervals. The results of study indicated that
the worker on the job was working 80 percent of the time and loaded 360 pieces of cargo
during the study period. The work analyst rated the performance at 90 %. If the management
wishes to permit a 13 % allowance for fatigue, delays and personal time, what is the standard
time of this operation?
Answer for Tutorial 4
Work Sampling Time Studies