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Rig mud hydraulics and other factors affecting bit

performance during drilling a well and give in brief
casing and cementing program for this well

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Abstract

Rig mud hydraulic calculations such as pressure losses in the circulation system
are very important for many reasons such as: optimize drilling performance (ROP),
improve hole cleaning, provide cooling and lubrication, provide wellbore stability, etc. Bit
which provides the highest rate of penetration and the lowest cost is preferred. So, the
study of the factors that affect the bit performance is very important. Casing off and
cementing the wellbore after being drilled is very important for many reasons, so the
design of them is very important.

The purpose of this study is to discuss in brief the rig mud hydraulics focusing on
pressure losses in the circulation system and then discuss the factors that affect the bit
performance during drilling then discuss the casing and cement design.

Introduction

Rig mud hydraulics is very important for many reasons such as: improve hole
cleaning, provide cooling and lubrication, provide wellbore stability, etc. So, Rig mud
hydraulic calculation should such as pressure losses through the surface connections,
drill string parts, annulus, and drill bit should be calculated to optimize the bit hydraulics.

The bit performance is characterized by the rate of penetration and the metrage
drilled. There are several factors which affect the bit performance. Some of these factors
remain constant for the same well being drilled by the same crew.

After drilling each hole section it should be cased off and cemented for many reasons
such as: provide an impermeable seal between the casing and the borehole walls to protect
the casing from the corrosive fluids, provide a support for the wellhead and the BOP, provide
zonal isolation, etc.

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1. Rig Mud Hydraulics

The objective of the rig mud hydraulics is to make the maximum usage of the pump's
power to help the bit to drill at maximum efficiency, provide good hole cleaning, provide
cooling and lubrication for the bit and the drill string, provide wellbore stability, provide
primary well control by ensuring that the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud is
greater than the formation pressure, etc. This is achieved by minimizing pressure losses
due to friction in the circulating system and use the saved pressure to improve bit
hydraulics. Rig mud hydraulics includes pressure losses calculations in every part of the
circulating system and then find the total system losses and then calculate the optimum
size and flow rate for optimized bit hydraulics. This will then determine the pumping
requirements from the rig pumps and in turn the horsepower requirements (1).

1.1. Pressure Losses Through the Circulation System

There is pressure loss in the circulation system due

to friction between flowing fluid and the walls of the
pipe (Figure 1). These losses can be divided into 4
types as following (1):

1. Pressure losses through the surface

connections (P1).
2. Pressure losses during pipe flow (P2 + P3).
3. Pressure losses during annular flow (P4 + P5).
4. Pressure losses as the mud flow through the
drill bit nozzles (Pbit).
Figure 1: Circulation system

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1.2. Procedure Used for Calculating Pressure Losses (Practical) (1)

1. Step 1: Calculate surface pressure losses (P1):

Surface pressure losses are those taking place in the standpipe, rotary hose, swivel,
and kelly. Surface pressure loss calculations are complicated because they depend
on the dimensions and geometries of surface connections which may vary with time.
Equation P1 = E ∗ ρ0.8 ∗ Q1.8 ∗ PV 0.2 is used to calculate surface pressure losses.
There are four systems for surface connection as presented in table 1.

Surf. Standpipe Rotary hose Swivel Kelly Value of

equip. Length ID Length ID Length ID Length ID E
type ft in ft in ft in ft in constant
1 40 3 40 2 4 2 40 2.25 2.5 * 10-4
2 40 3.5 55 2.5 5 2.5 40 3.25 9.6 * 10-5
3 45 4 55 3 5 3.5 40 3.25 5.3 * 10-5
4 45 4 55 3 6 3 40 4 4.2 * 10-5
Table 1: values of constant (E) depending on the type of surface connections

2. Step 2: Select the model suitable for your fluid:

3. Step 3: Calculate pressure losses inside the drill pipe section (P2) then inside the drill
collars section (P3) (Pipe flow):

Steps Bingham plastic model Power low model

Calculate the 24.5 Q
v′ =
average velocity D2
1 n
( )
Calculate the critical 97 ∗ PV + 97√PV 2 + 8.2 ∗ ρD2 YP 5.82 ∗ 104 ∗ K 2−n 1.6 ∗ (3n + 1) (2−n)
Vc = Vc = [ ] ∗ [ ]
velocity ρ∗D ρ D ∗ 4n

n
If V' < Vc, flow is L PV ∗ V ′ K∗L 1.6 ∗ V ′ ∗ (3n + 1)
P= [YP + ] P= ∗ [ ]
laminar 300 ∗ D 5∗ D 300 ∗ D D ∗ 4n

If V' > Vc, flow is 8.91 ∗ 10−5 ∗ ρ0.8 ∗ Q1.8 ∗ PV 0.2 ∗ L

P=
turbulent D4.8

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4. Step 4: Calculate annular pressure losses between the open hole section and the
drill collar (P4) then calculate annular pressure losses between the open hole section
and the drill pipe (Pb) then calculate annular pressure losses between the cased hole
section and the drill pipe (Pa) (Annular flow).

Steps Bingham plastic model Power low model

Calculate the
annulus De = Dh − OD
thickness

Calculate the 24.5 Q

average v′ =
velocity Dh 2 − OD2

1 n
( )
Calculate the 97 ∗ PV + 97√PV 2 + 6.2 ∗ ρDe 2 YP 3.878 ∗ 104 ∗ K 2−n 2.4 ∗ (2n + 1) (1−n)
Vc = Vc = [ ] ∗ [ ]
critical velocity ρ ∗ De ρ De ∗ 3n

n
If V'< Vc, flow is L ∗ PV ∗ V′ L ∗ YP K∗L 2.4 ∗ V ′ ∗ (2n + 1)
P= 2 + 200 ∗ D P= ∗
laminar 60 000 ∗ De e 300 ∗ De De ∗ 3n

If V'> Vc, flow is 8.91 ∗ 10−5 ∗ ρ0.8 ∗ Q1.8 ∗ PV 0.2 ∗ L

P=
turbulent (Dh − OD)3 (Dh + OD)1.8

5. Step 5: Determine pressure drop across and the requires specifications

Calculate pressure drop available for the bit (psi) Pbit = Pstandpipe − (P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 )

Pbit
Calculate the nozzle velocity (ft/s) Vn = 33.36 √
ρ
Q
Determine the area of nozzles (in2) A = 0.32 ∗
Vn
4∗A
Nozzle size (in multiples of (1/32 in)) dn = 32 ∗ √
3∗ π

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1.3. Optimized Bit Hydraulics

This means making the maximum benefit from the pump power to achieve good hole
cleaning. Two methods can be used to calculate the optimum pressure loss through the
bit nozzles (2). The first method is called the maximum bit hydraulic horsepower (BHHP).
The second method is called the maximum impact force (IF).

1. Method 1: Maximum bit hydraulic horsepower (2):

The concept of this method is that, the best condition to achieve good hole cleaning is
when the hydraulic horsepower at the bit is the maximum. This condition is achieved
when the pressure drop across the bit equals 65% of the available surface pump
pressure. To achieve this condition, bit nozzles and circulation rate are properly selected
to create pressure drop across the bit which equals to 65% of the surface pump pressure.

1 Pbit = Ps − Pc --------------------------- (1) 2 BHHP = HHPs − HHPc ---------------- (2)

Pc = K ∗ Qn ----------------------------- (3)

Where PQ
3 K = Constant 4 HHP = 1714
------------------------------(4)
N = Index represents the degree of
turbulence in the circulating system

From (3) in (1) and put the result in (4) Differentiating equation (5) with respect to
Q
5 Ps ∗ Q−K∗ Qn + 1
6
BHHP = ----------------- (5)
1714 Ps = (n + 1) ∗ K ∗ Qn ----------------- (6)
From equation (1), we notice that
From equation (3) in equation (6)
6 8 Pc = Ps − Pbit ------------------------ (8)
Ps = (n + 1) ∗ Pc ------------------------ (7)

From equation (8) in equation (7) n take values from 1.8:1.86, at n

equals 1.86, we notice that
9 n 10 Pbit = 0.65 ∗ Ps
Pbit = n+1
∗ Ps

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2. Method 2: Maximum impact force method (2):

The concept of this method is that, the best condition to achieve good hole cleaning is
when the force provided by the jets is the maximum. This condition is achieved when the
pressure drop across the bit equals 48% of the available surface pump pressure. To
achieve this condition, bit nozzles and circulation rate are properly selected to create
pressure drop across the bit which equals to 48% of the surface pump pressure.

2. Factors Affecting Bit Performance During Drilling

The bit performance is characterized by how fast the hole is being drilled by this bit, how
much footage drilled by this bit before it becomes worn out, or how much cost per foot
(2)
. Bit performance depends on many factors such as: personnel efficiency, rig
efficiency, formation properties, drilling fluid properties, hydraulic factors, and
mechanical factors. During drilling a well in a particular oil field by a particular crew with
a particular drilling rig the first three factors remain constant.

• Drilling Fluid Properties

1. Drilling fluid viscosity
Drilling fluids should achieve turbulent flow on the bottom hole to achieve good
hole cleaning. The ability of the drilling fluids to achieve turbulent flow decreases
as the mud viscosity increases. So, increasing the mud viscosity will reduce the
rate of penetration and hence the bit performance (Figure 2).
2. Drilling fluid solids content
As the solids content in the drilling fluid decreases, the equivalent circulating
density decreases, and the overbalance decreases resulting in an increase in the
rate of penetration (Figure 3).

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Figure 2: Relation between ROP and mud Figure 3: Relation between ROP and mud
viscosity solids content

3. Drilling fluid density

The density of the drilling fluid should be sufficiently high to control the well and
prevent any influx flow into the well from high-pressure formations. At the same
time as the mud density increases, the degree of overbalance increases, and the
rate of penetration decreases (Figure 4). The application of air drilling fluids results
in the highest bit performance.
4. Drilling fluid composition (2)
Using oil-based muds increases the bit performance (Figure 5) due to many
reasons such as oil-based muds provide good lubricating and reduce friction
between the drill string and the walls of the hole which result in increasing the rate
of penetration.
5. Drilling fluid water loss
The bit performance decreases as the filtration rate into the bottom hole formation
increases. This occurs due to the formation of a filter cake on the bottom hole

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which interferes the rock disintegration and forms a past mixture in which the
cuttings are trapped.

Figure 4: Relation between ROP and mud density Figure 5: Relation between ROP and oil
percent in the mud

• Hydraulic Factors
1. Circulation rate
To increase the bit performance the hole should be always clean to avoid
regrinding the cuttings reducing the bit efficiency. To achieve good cleaning the
circulation rate should increase (Figure 6).
2. Bit hydraulic horsepower (2)
As the bit hydraulic horsepower increases, the hole cleaning improves, the cuttings
in the hole are reduced, the ECD is reduced, the degree of overbalance is reduced
and as a result for the previous the rate of penetration increases (Figure 7).

Figure 6: Relation between ROP and Figure 7: Relation between ROP and bit
circulation rate hydraulic horsepower

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• Mechanical Factors
1. Bit type
The bit used should be suitable for the formation being drilled considering the
formation hardness and abrasive properties.
2. Weight on bit (WOB) (2)
A certain minimum WOB is required to overcome the compressibility of the
formation. It has been found experimentally that once this threshold is exceeded,
the penetration rate increases linearly with WOB (Figure 8) (2).
3. Rotary speed (2)
T rate of penetration (ROP) is influenced by the rotary speed (RPM) because the
teeth must have time to penetrate and sweep the cuttings into the hole. RPM
values depend on the type of formation and the type of the bit. For hard formations,
low RPM is preferred because high RPM may cause damage to the bit and the drill
string. (Figure 9) shows how ROP varies with RPM for different formations. The
non-linearity in hard formations is due to the time required to break down rocks of
higher compressive strength (2).

Figure 9: Relation between ROP and RPM

Figure 8: Relation between ROP and WOB

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3. Casing Design
There are many reasons for casing off the formations such as: protect the unstable
formations from caving in, protect the previous hole section from the heavy mud required
to drill the next hole section, isolate abnormal high-pressure zones, seal off lost
circulation zones, provide structural support for the wellhead and BOP, etc. Casing costs
nearly from 30:40% of the total well cost so it must be properly designed. Casing design
consists of many steps as following (1):

Step 1: Determine each casing string setting depth

Step 2: Determine each casing string size (Inside diameter, Outside diameter, drift
diameter)
Step 3: Determine the required casing grade

3.1. Casing Design Process

1. Step 1: Determine the casing setting depth (CSD) (2)

On the same graph, plot the pore pressure gradient, the mud pressure gradient and
the fracture gradient against depth. Start at the highest mud weight at TD. draw a
vertical line from this point until it intersects the fracture gradient line then draw a
horizontal line from this intersection point until it intersects the mud weight gradient
and then draw a vertical line and repeat the entire process until reaching the surface
as shown in the figure (Figure 10) (2).
2. Step 2: Determine the casing sizes (ID, OD, Drift diameter) (2)
At first, the proper size of the tubing is selected based on the inflow performance
analysis then the completion equipment is planned. Based on the completion
equipment of the largest OD the size of the production casing is selected. Then the
bit required for drilling the production casing is selected and then the previous casing
is selected using figure 11 (2).

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Figure 10: Casing setting depth determination Figure 11: Casing sizes determination

3. Step 3: Determine the casing weight and grade (2)

Each casing string is exposed to various loads, these loads may be radial such as
(3)
burst and collapse pressure, and maybe axial such as compression and tension.
The different scenarios that the casing will be exposed during the entire life of the well
are listed (Table 2) and the different loads are calculated for each scenario and then
the casing grade is selected based on the worst condition (2).

Table 2: Different scenarios that the casing will be exposed

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4. Cement Design
Cement job is performed after running the casing form many reasons such as: forming
an impermeable seal between the casing and the borehole to protect the casing from
corrosive fluids, support the axial load of the casing, etc. Being a very important job, it
must be designed properly. Cement job design includes some calculations that need to
be performed such as (1):
1. Lead slurry volumes, tail slurry volumes, mix water volume, and additive volume for
each cement class.
2. Total time required to perform the job

Example (1)

Given

MW = 11.6 ppg
Fresh water Volume = 30 bbl
Densiy = 15.5 ppg
Class H cement Yield = 1.22 ft3/sk
Mix water vol = 5.49 gal/sk
Density = 15.8 ppg
Class G cement Yield = 1.15 ft3/sk
Mix water vol = 5 gal/sk
Hole D = 8.5 in
OD = 7 in
Casing
ID = 6.184 in
Mixing rate = 25 sack/min
Time Disp. rate = 300 gpm
Plug release time = 15 min

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Solution

Capacity calculations (ft2)

[0.25 π ∗ (ID2 − OD2 )]
C=
144
Between the hole and the casing (C1) C1 = 0.1268 ft2
Inside the rat hole (C2) C2 = 0.3941 ft2
Inside the casing (C3) C3 = 0.2086 ft2

Cement volume and mix water volume calculations

Volume = C3 * 80 + C2 * 9 + C1 * 656 = 103.9 ft3
Class G Number of sacks = Volume / Yield = 90 sacks
Volume of mix water = 5 * 90 = 450 gals
Volume = C1 * 5906 = 748.9 ft3
Class H Number of sacks = Volume / Yield = 614 sacks
Volume of mix water = 5.49 * 614 = 3371 gals

Job time calculation

Job time = Mixing time + Release of plugs time + Displacement time

Total number of sacks 90 + 614

Mixing time = = = 28.2 min
mixing rate 25

Casing capacity − shoe track capacity

Displacement time =
Displacment rate

0.2086 ∗ (13891 − 80) ∗ 7.48 90 + 614

Displacement time = = = 71.8 min
300 25

Job time = 28.2 + 15 + 71.8 = 115 min

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Conclusion

Rig mud hydraulic calculations such as pressure losses in the different parts of the
circulation system are very important because they help to optimize the bit hydraulics and
hence achieve good hole cleaning.
The bit performance is characterized by the rate of penetration and the metrage
drilled. There are several factors which affect the bit performance. These factors are divided
into 6 groups as following: personnel efficiency, rig efficiency, formation properties, drilling
fluid properties, hydraulic factors, and mechanical factors. Controlling these properties
will help to increase the bit performance.
After drilling each hole section, a casing string should be installed for many reasons
such as: support the borehole walls, support the wellhead and BOP, etc. These strings
should be designed properly to achieve their rules. Casing design is divided into three steps.
The first step is to determine the setting depth for each casing string. The second step is to
determine the inner and outer diameters for each casing string. The third step is to
determine the casing grade so that it will support the different loads such as collapse
pressure, burst pressure and tensile load.
After running each casing string, it should be cemented to support the casing axial
load and to perform an impermeable seal between the casing and the borehole walls. The
cement job calculations such as cement volumes, mix water volumes are required before
performing the cement job to ensure a good cement job.

References

1. Hussain Rabia, Well Engineering & Construction book, Entrac Petroleum, 2001.
2. Heriot-Watt Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Drilling Engineering book, 2013.
3. Oluwaseun Olanrewaju Alade, Relevant Information on Oil and Gas Casing Design,
Petroleum & Petrochemical Engineering Journal, ISSN: 2578-4846, 2018.

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