The students will be able to

 Define Research design

 Find out the Purposes of Research design

 Identify the elements of design construction

 Elaborate the Concepts to consider when designing a Research design

 enlist the Principles of Research design

 enumerate the Types of Research design

 explain the true-experimental research design in detail

 discuss the quasi experimental research design in detail

 Describe the quasi experimental research design in detail

DEFINITION
A blue print for the conduct of a study that
maximizes control over factors that could interfere
with the study’s desired outcomes .
Nancy .B
The arrangement of conditions for the collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.
Kothari
Research design always gives the answers
of following questions: (Purpose of study)

 What is the study about ?

 Why is the study being made ?

 Where will the study be carried out ?

 What type of data is required ?

 Where can the required data be found ?

 What periods of time will the study include ?

 What will be the sample design ?

 How will the data be analyzed ?

 Purposes of the research design

 It is established at the point of transition from asking the

question to attempting to find an answer to that question.

 It is the platform from which the researcher explores new

knowledge in an effort to better describe and understand
phenomena, clarify plausible explanations, and sometimes
identify potential causative factors.

 It provides the back bone structure of a study.

 Purposes of the research design contd
 It determines how the study will be organized, when
data will be collected, and when interventions if any
are to be implemented.

 It maximizes objectivity in study protocol

implementation and data collection.

 It facilitates use of generally accepted methods of

inquiry that safeguard researchers from drawing
incorrect inferences and conclusions.
Purposes of the research design contd

 Minimizes time and money

 Helps in advance planning

 Helps in selection of appropriate tools

 It eliminates bias and marginal error

 Design Construction
Basic Design Elements(4)
1.Time: From left to right in notation (reading Across time).
Elements that are listed on the left occur before elements that are
listed on the right.
2.Program(s) or Treatment (s)
The presumed cause, represented with symbol X. When multiple
programs are being studied using the same samples we can keep
the programs as X1, or X2 For comparison group which does not
receive the program under study no X is used.
 Design Construction
 3. Observation (s) or Measures (s)
 The symbol used is “o”. If the same measurement or
observation is taken at every point in time in a design, then 0
is sufficient.
 4. Groups or Individuals: The final design elements consists
of the in act groups or the individuals who participate in
various conditions. In design notation each group is indicated
in a separate line
 Design Constructions
(I) The Manner is which groups are assigned to the
conditions can be indicated by an appropriate symbols at
the beginning of each line.
“R” – Random Assignment
“N” – Non-Random Assignment
“C” –Assigned using a cut off score on a measurement.
 Features of a good research design

 It should be flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical.

 It should give a smallest experimental error and high
reliability and validity.
 Good research design includes following five important
elements.
 Subjects

 Variables

 Time

 Setting

 Investigator’s role
 Concepts to consider when Designing a
Research study
1. Manipulation
 Within the specification of given research design, the
researcher actively initiates, implements and terminates
procedures.

 It is linked to the independent variable.

 The researcher decides what is to be manipulated, to whom

the manipulation applies, when the manipulation is to occur
and how the manipulation is to be implemented.
 Concepts to consider when Designing a
Research study
2. Control
 It must be exerted over extraneous sources that
might affect a study.

 It also adds precision, the ability to detect true

effects of smaller magnitude.

 Researcher must have control over processes to

determine who gets what at what time.
 Concepts to consider when Designing a
Research study
 Methods of exerting Control
 Use of random methods to assign subjects to
treatments.

 Structuring the assignment process in such a way

that major, known extraneous forces are controlled.

 Blocking: Within each treatment group, there is

approximately even representation of these
extraneous variables in each of the treatment groups.
 Methods of exerting Control
 Matching:

 The researcher identifies one or more

extraneous variables to be controlled. As soon
as the subject is recruited for one of the
treatment group, the researcher tries to find a
subject for other group identical to the first
subject on the specific matching variables.
 Methods of exerting Control

Counterbalancing:
It is used in studies in which the researcher is
concerned that the order in which the treatments are
administered influence the results. Here, all subjects
receive all treatments, however the order of
administration of treatment is varied.
 Concepts to consider when Designing a Research study

3.Randomization
 It provides a way to ensure that characteristics of
subjects are dispersed across samples in a non-
systematic fashion.

 Entails two separate processes:

 Random selection of subjects from the
population
 Random assignment of subjects to treatment
and control conditions.
 Random selection

 Randomly drawing research subjects from the target

population about which the researcher wants to gain
knowledge and to whom the findings are to be generalized.

 It is the representativeness of the sample relative to the

characteristics of the population it is intended to exemplify.
 Random Assignment

 Entails allocating sampling units to treatment and control

conditions in a nonsystematic way, using a decision method
that is known to be random (Eg: Coin toss, random drawing)

 It is intended to ensure that subjects in in one condition are

similar to those in other conditions.

Concepts to consider when Designing a Research study

4.Probability
 It is the language of certainty and uncertainty, accuracy and
error, trust and distrust, belief and disbelief in research data.

 In research, the aim is to pursue findings with a high

probability of certainty, accuracy, trust and belief.

 Because research is most often conducted under sub optimal

conditions there is a degree of uncertainty and thus error about
any findings that may come from it.
Concepts to consider when Designing a Research study
 This uncertainty and error are translated into likelihood or
probabilities.

 The likelihood that findings are unjustified and incorrect,

expressed as a probability between 1.00 (Completely
erroneous) and 0.00 (Completely exact finding)

 Nursing has taken a 5% error margin (0.05) as the maximum

error margin. However, often a 1%(0.01)or 0.1% (0.001) margin
might be more appropriate.
 Concepts to consider when Designing a Research study

5.Bias
 It refers to the difference between what we observe about a
phenomenon and the phenomenon itself as it exists.

 Unfortunately the true is never known; research can only

give us the observations.

 All bias cannot be eliminated, but it can be minimized.

 Concepts to consider when Designing a
Research study
Strategies to minimize bias:
 Adequately conceptualizing constructs of interest and
appropriately turning them into variables.

 Selecting designs with minimal threats to validity.

 Using valid, reliable, and sensitive measurement methods.

 Applying statistical methods that maximize quantitative yield.

Concepts to consider when Designing a Research study

Strategies to minimize bias:

 Blinding is one common technique that can minimize
bias. Here subjects are unaware of the study
hypothesis or the details of the treatment they receive
until the completion of the study.

 Double blinding is used when both the subject as well

as the person collecting the data are blind to the study
hypothesis.
The Double Blind Method
Concepts to consider when Designing a Research study
6.Causality
 Causes lead to effects.

 Three conditions must be met to establish causality

 There must be a strong correlation between

the proposed cause and effect.
 The proposed cause must precede the effect in
time.
 The cause has to be present whenever the effect
occurs.
 Concepts to consider when Designing a Research study

7.Selection factors
 It is reviewed with four types of validity.

 Statistical conclusion validity addresses the extent to

which at the statistical level, covariation is present
between independent and dependent variables ie, the
extent to which a relationship exists between the
independent and dependent variables.
 Internal validity refers to whether an observed
relationship between variables is indeed causal or in the
absence of a relationship there is no real causal link.
Concepts to consider when Designing a Research study
7.Selection factors
 Constructive validity asks whether the causal
relationship between the two variables is indeed “the
one” and tries to refute the possibility that a
confounding variable may explain the presumed causal
relationship.

 External validity refers to the generalizability of an

observed causal relationship across different persons,
settings and times.
PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Professor Fisher has enumerated three important

principles of research design.

 Principle of Replication

 Principle of randomization

 Principle of Local Control

PRINCIPLE OF REPLICATION
 According to this principle, the experiment
should be repeated more than once. Thus,
each treatment is applied in many
experimental units instead of one.

 By doing this method, the accuracy and

precision of the study are increased
significantly.
PRINCIPLE OF RANDOMIZATION
 This principle provides protection

 This principle indicates that the researcher

should design or plan the experiment in such
a way that the variations caused by
extraneous factors can all be combined
under the general heading of “Chance”.
PRINCIPLE OF LOCAL CONTROL

 The extraneous factors, the known source of

variability, is made to vary deliberately over
as wide a range as necessary and this needs
to be done in such a way that the variability
it causes can be measured and hence
eliminated from the experimental error.
 CLASSIFICATION

Non Experimental
Experimental
Non experimental
experimental

TRUE QUASI PRE

Pretest –post test One group

Descriptive
with control Non equivalent post test
Post test only with control group
Comparative control group Static group
Solomon four Time series comparison
Ex-post facto group
Multiple time
Factorial design series One group
Correlational Cross over design pretest-
Randomized block posttest
design
 Characteristics of experimental research design
•
Randomization: Refers to random assignment of number to the
group. Participant has equal chance to be in control or
experimental group.

Manipulation: It is the process of manipulating I.V., so that its

effect on the D.V. can be observed or measured. In
experimental designs, the causative variable must be amenable
to manipulation by the researcher that is “does something”, to
subjects in the experimental condition.
Characteristics of experiment research design

Control:
•
Experimenter introduces one or more controls
over the experimental situation including the
use of a control group. It means introduction of
one or more constraints into experimental
situation.
Essential Elements of Experimental Research

Random assignment of subjects to groups

Precisely defined independent variable
Manipulation of the independent variable
Researcher’s control of the experimental situation
and setting, including a control or comparison
group
Clearly identified sample criteria
Carefully measured dependent variables
Controlled environment for conduct of study
 TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

A. Pre test – post test with control group

design
Experiment Pre test Experimental Post
group
(O1) treatment test
(X) (O2)
Random
Assignment
(R)

Control Post
group Pre test test
(O1)
(O2)
 Pre test – post test with control group design
Treatment : Under control of researcher
Approach to Analysis:
Comparison
• pretest of pretest
and post test and post test scores
 Comparison of Control and Experimental group
scores
 Comparison of pretest and post test difference
between samples
Uncontrolled threats to validity:
Testing
 Instrumentation
 Mortality
 Restricted generalizability as control increases
PRE TEST – POST TEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN

 In this design, subjects have been designed randomly to the

experimental or control group.

 The experimental treatment is given only to those in the

experimental group, and the pre tests and post tests are those
measurements of the dependent variables that are made before
and after the experimental treatment is performed.

 All true experimental designs have subjects randomly assigned

groups, have an experimental treatment introduced to some of
the subjects and have the effects of the treatment observed.
ADVANTAGES
 The investigator is able to account for events
occurring between time 1 and time 2 through
observation of control group

 It also enables the investigator to control for

changes in the instrumentation, since
changes or drifts in measurement should
affect both groups equally

 Randomization decreases selection bias and

maturation.
 B. Solomon four group design

Experiment Pre test Experiment Post

group I treatment test

Random control Post

Group I Pretest
Pre test
assignment test

Experiment Experiment Post

group II treatment test

Control
Group II Post
test
SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
 This design employs two experimental
groups and two control groups. Initially, the
investigator randomly assigns subjects to
the four groups. Those in the first
experimental treatment, and observed again
on occasion 2.
 Those in the experimental group 2 also
receive the treatment but are observed only
after the treatment, nor before.
Solomon four group design contd

Those in control group 1 are observed, on

occasion 1 and 2, but they are not given the
experimental treatment.

Those in control group 2 are observed only on

the second occasion without previous
observation or treatment.
 ADVANTAGES

 It has great potential for generating information

about differential sources of effect on the
dependent variable, because all four groups are
studied at the same time, both the effects of
events occurring between time 1 and time 2 and
the maturation of subjects are controlled.
Advantages contd.

One can examine the score of the 2 control groups

for a measure of maturation without the influence of
treatment.

The investigator also can compare the difference in

the groups.
 C. After/Post test only control group
design

Experiment Experiment Post test

group treatment

Random
assignment

control
group Post test
 C. After/Post test only control group design
Treatment : Under control of researcher
• pretest and post test
Approach to Analysis:
 Comparison of Control and Experimental group
scores

Uncontrolled threats to validity:

 Instrumentation
 Mortality
 Restricted generalizability as control increases
C. After/Post test only control group design

 This design, which is sometimes called after

only control group design.

 This is composed of two randomly assigned

groups, but neither of which is pre-tested.

 The independent variable is introduced into

experimental group and with held from the
control group.
 ADVANTAGE

 This design can be useful in situation where it is

not possible to pretest the subjects or pretest is
not essential.
 D. Randomized Block Design (RBD)

Uses the two group pretest-posttest pattern or

the two group post test pattern with one
addition: a blocking variable.

 The blocking variable if uncontrolled, is

expected to confound the findings of the study.
Randomized block design contd

To prevent the confusion subjects are rank

ordered in relation to the blocking variable.
 Random assignment of the samples to both the
groups based on the rank order of the variable is
done, so that both groups are equal in relation to
the confounding variable.
Ex: Effectiveness of a nursing intervention to relieve post
chemotherapy nausea among cancer patients.
IV: Nursing intervention to relieve post chemotherapy
nausea.
Confounding variable: Severity of nausea

Here subjects are ranked according to the severity of nausea. The

subjects with most severe nausea are identified and randomly
assigned with one to experimental group and one to control
group. Then the two subjects in the next rank are identified and
randomly assigned. This pattern is followed until the entire
sample are randomly assigned as matched pairs.
D. Randomized Block Design (RBD)
 F. Factorial designs
 Two or more different characteristics, treatments, or
events are independently varied within a single study.

 Two treatments or factors are involved and, within each factor,

two levels are manipulated.
 It examines multi causality.
 This is referred to as a 2x2 factorial design.
 Extension of the factorial design to more than two
levels of variables are referred to as MxN factorial
designs.
 The figure shows two independent variables which are
relaxation and distraction as means of relieving pain.
Level of Distraction
Level of
No Distraction Total
Relaxation Distraction

Relaxation A B A+B
No Relaxation C D C+D
Total A+C B+D A+B+C+D
 It produces a study with four cells.

 Each cell must contain an approximately equivalent number of

subjects.

 Cells B and C allows to examine each intervention separately.

 Cell D subjects receive no treatment and serves as control group.

 Cell A allows to examine the interaction between the two

independent variables.
CROSSOVER DESIGN

 A cross over design is a repeated measurements design such that

each experimental unit (patient) receives different treatments during
the different time periods, i.e., the patients cross over from one
treatment to another during the course of the trial.
CROSSOVER DESIGN CONTD.
CROSSOVER DESIGN CONTD.
QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

DEFINITION

It is a research design in which the researcher initiates an

experimental treatment but some characteristics of true experiment
is lacking.
 QUASI EXPERIMENTS

 It involve the Intervention but lack randomization

 Facilitate search for knowledge & examination of causality in

situations in which complete control is not possible
 Is there an intervention? (control
over the IV)

No yes

Non experimental Is there random assignment to

research treatment groups?

No Yes

Are there efforts to compensate for the lack of

random assignment Experimental
research
No Yes

Pre-experimental research Quasi experimental research

TYPES OF QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Non Equivalent control Interrupted times series

group design design
1.NON EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP PRETEST
POSTTEST DESIGN
This design is identical to the pre test- post test group design,
except there is no random assignment of the study subjects in
experimental and control groups.
PRETEST INTERVENTION POSTTEST

O1 X O2

O1 O2
CONTI…

 Which involves two or more groups of subjects

observed before and after the implementation of an intervention.
Example
 A study to identify the effect of introducing a new hospital-wide
model of care that involved having a patient care facilitator (PCF)
to be the primary point person for all patients during their stay.
 Our main outcome is patient satisfaction.
 ONE GROUP POST TEST ONLY DESIGN
 In this study inability to obtain a meaningful control group, however
does not eliminate the possibility of conducting research with
integrity.

Treatment Posttest
(Manipulation of IV) (Measurement of DV)

Example
1.Outcome of antenatal Education on Pregnancy &
Labor.
2.Children’s attitudes toward drugs.
NON EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP POSTTEST ONLY
DESIGN
In which a dependent variable is measured following a treatment
in one group and also in a non equivalent control group does not
receive the treatment

Intervention Posttest

X O

O
EXAMPLE
Introducing computer education to improve staff morale
 CONTI…
 Introduce QAM model in one hospital & study its impact on job
satisfaction of nurses
 Use job satisfaction of nurses in another similar hospital as comparison
 If two groups are similar on pretest we could be relatively confident that
the difference in posttest is a result of the intervention
 In quasi experiments the term comparison group is used in lieu of
control group
ONE GROUP PRETEST POSTTEST DESIGN
(PRE EXPERIMENTAL)

 In which a single group of participants are pretested given some

treatment or manipulation, then post tested.
Pretest Intervention Posttest

O1 X O2

Example
Effectiveness of pelvic floor muscles exercises in control of incontinence
of urine.
 CONTI…

 More commonly used design

 Seems Straight Forward

 Also called Pre-Experimental. It cannot control external factors

2.TIME SERIES DESIGN

 Time series design is useful when the researcher intends

to measure the effects of a treatment over a long period of
time.
 The researcher would to continue to administer the
treatment and measure the effects a number of times
during the course of the experiment.
 TIME SERIES DESIGN
INTERRUPTED TIME SERIES DESIGN

 A time series like this (the dependent variable) is interrupted (usually near
the middle) by the manipulation of the independent variable. O1 O2 O3
O4 O5 X O6 O7 O8
  multiple pretests  a treatment (i.e., an intervention to be studied) 
multiple posttests

O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
CONTI…
EXAMPLE
Effectiveness of selected nutritional interventions on growth and
development pattern of children attending under five clinic.
TIME SERIES NON EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
In a time series with nonequivalent control group design,
researchers make a series of observations before and after
treatment for both a treatment group and a comparable
comparison group.

O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8
TIME SERIES WITH MULTIPLE INSTITUTIONS OF
TREATMENT

O1 O2 X O3 O4 X O5 O6 X O7 O8
TIME SERIES WITH INTENSIFIED TREATMENT

O1 O2 X O3 O4 X+1 O5 O6 X+2 O7 O8
TIME SERIES WITH WITHDRAWN & REINSTITUTED
TREATMENT

O1 O2 X O3 O4 (-X) O5 O6 X O7 O8
3.OTHER QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Regression Discontinuity Design : a quasi-experimental

pretest-posttest design that elicits the causal effects of
interventions by assigning a cutoff or threshold above or below
which an intervention is assigned
case–control study (also known as case–referent study) is a type
of observational study in which two existing groups differing in
outcome are identified and compared on the basis of some
supposed causal attribute
EXPERIMENTAL & COMPARISON CONDITIONS

 Develop a strong intervention protocols

 Careful in documenting the counterfactual

 In time series design, the counterfactual is the condition existing

before the intervention
 STRENGTHS OF QUASI- EXPERIMENTS

 Practical

 Difficult to conduct true experiments in nursing research in real life

setting

 Introduce some research control when full experimental rigor is not

possible

 Several rival hypotheses competing with intervention as explanation

for the results

 Take the weaknesses into account in interpreting results

LIMITATIONS OF QUASI- EXPERIMENTS
 Several rival hypotheses competing with intervention as
explanation for the results

 Take the weaknesses into account in interpreting results

 Conclusion depend in part on human judgment rather than more

objective criteria, cause & effect inferences may be less
convincing
PRE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
DEFINITION
 It is a simplest type of design which does not include an adequate
control group.

TYPES
 One-shot experimental Design

 One Group Pretest-Posttest Design

 Intact group comparison

CHARACTERISTICS

 Not an authentic experimental design

 Design does not control for many extraneous factors

 Subject to many threats to validity

 Typically conducted for exploratory purposes

 Usually convenient and financially feasible

ONE-SHOT EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
ONE GROUP PRETEST-POSTTEST DESIGN
PRE –EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

ADVANTAGES
Convenient
More suitable design
Very simple
DISADVANTAGES
weak design
Very little control
Higher threat to internal validity
Selection bias

 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 ADVANTAGES

 Most powerful design to demonstrate cause and effect

relationships between the Independent and dependent variable

 DISADVANTAGES

 Some variables can’t be manipulated

 Ethical constraints for experimenting on humans

 Hawthorne effect

REFERENCE
 Denise F.Polit & Cheryl Tatano Beck (2010) “Essentials Of
Nursing Research’’ Lippincott Williams Page 232-234
 Bernadette P.Hungler & Denise F.Polit (1999)“Nursing
research principles and methods’’ Lippincott Williams

Online reference
 web.csulb.edu

 wiki/quasi experiment

 study.com/academy