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PREPARED BY SIANZOLO RODWELL.

MA (ZAOU), BAED (RU), DIP (UNZA)

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HISTORY OF EDUCATION

UNIT 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION:

This unit introduces you to the concept of education and meaning of education in general. A
number of scholars are mentioned without many details about them. It will be your personal
interest to investigate further about them.

2.0. LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Define the term education.

 Discuss the concepts in used in education

 Illustrate different types of education.

2.1. DEFINITION OF EDUCATION

The word education has its origin in a Latin word ‘educatio’ of which in turn has been
derived from the verb ‘educare’, which means, ‘to bring up’, bringing up or rearing of
children or animals. It may also mean educe re that means to lead out of ignorance. Education
has been defined in different ways by different scholars:

Farrant (1964) defines education as ‘total process of human learning by which knowledge is
imparted, faculties trained and skill developer. R. S Peters defines education as ‘something
worthwhile is being or has been internationally transmitted in morally accepted manner.’ He
goes on to say education is a ‘process, which provides man and woman with skills necessary
for them to take place in society and seek further knowledge, R. S Peters further defines
education as ‘initiative because it prepares children for social life.

Schuffler defines education as: ‘a process of developing and transmission of knowledge.

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Education is society’s cultural reproductive system. It helps society reproduce itself by
passing its main characteristics to the next generation. Education keeps society alive.

You will find that in each society the education system is influenced by political, economic
and social belief of that particular society.

As we have discussed the definition of education, it will be necessary at this point to look at
different educational definitions.

Pestalozzi- ‘Education is a natural harmonious and progressive development of man’s innate

powers

David White head- ‘Education is life in all its manifestations.’

John Dewey- ‘Education is a process of living though a continuous reconstruction of

experience.

Ross James- ‘the influence of a person who holds a vital belief brought to bear on another
person with the object of making him also to hold that belief.

2.2 EDUCATION

Education may also be looked as concept that might mean;

i. A system or institution for example a school

ii. It could also refer to the curriculum or content (Approved body of knowledge for
teaching).

iii. Another meaning of education could be that of an activity by the adults upon the
young to make them ready for social life (socialization).

iv. Another school of thought describes education as a process of providing people with
information about an important spectrum/ topic/ body of knowledge or themes.

v. Education can be described as a universal practice engaged by societies at all levels of

development. It is leading out in new knowledge and experience.

vi. Other scholars like Farrant describe education as a tool used to explain the total
process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted, faculties trained, skills
and competences developed.

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2.3 AIMS OF EDUCATION

You will realize that education in any society had its own objectives and generally to produce
an individual who would fit in a society in which one lived. The relationship between an
individual and the society has been utmost value and concern for social scientists. For this
reason, we may be tasked to questions such as education for what/whom?

Aims of education can be social or individual;

Individual aims include:

a) Career prospects-to develop a vocation skill.

b) Self-development- though education individual develop their full potential.

c) Development of language skills- education helps individuals to develop their

imaginative expressive powers.

d) Education helps individuals to develop spiritually, emotionally, morally etc.

e) Education for self-expression- e.g in art, music, literature, drama etc.

f) To make one fit in society- to help a child to be adaptive to changing society, to

understand a world outside his own environment.

Social aims of education include:

a) Patriotism- appreciates one cultural heritage, to appreciate ones role as a citizen.

b) Education for social service- helping the society though different careers e.g Doctors,
teachers, engineers etc.

c) Education for economic development- to develop creative and innovative skills, to

appreciate the dignity of labour.

From the above aims, you will understand that education was multi-dimension in such a way
that whatever form it might be, it required certain aspects in order for one to benefit from the
education.

a) Explain the benefits of each aim to both the individual and the society.

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 b) Which aim explains well the aims of education and explain your answer.

2.4 CONCEPTS USED IN EDUCATION

Education involves a lot of processes and methods and some of them are as follows:

a) Teaching- This involves imparting of knowledge or skills to a person. There is

instruction, discussion and explanation. The learner participates in the discussion as
the teacher guides.

b) Learning- A conscious activity involving the acquisition of new knowledge, skills,

attitudes, behaviour, manners etc.

c) Instructing- This involves imparting knowledge of facts or giving orders, rules, modes
of operating and instructions. The learner follows these orders.

d) Drilling- This is a situation where a piece of learning is repeated over and over until a
person can do the skill without making a mistake.

e) Training- It is a process that helps to produce particular skills for example an

electrician, a carpenter and a footballer among others.

f) Conditioning- This is where the learner performs actions against his wishes usually
through the use of force or threats.

g) Brainwashing- This is making someone change the way of believing without much
reasoning. For example an advertisement for MTN Everywhere You Go

h) Indoctrination-This is where one accepts the beliefs without questioning usually

achieved through propaganda. Once one is indoctrinated, the recipient holds on such
views dogmatically and unshaken in spite of reason.

2.5 TYPES OF EDUCATION

There are three types of education and these include: formal, non-formal and informal
education

1. Formal Education- this is usually organized and structured learning which is found in
schools, colleges and universities.

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2. Non-formal- this is an organized learning activity outside formal education and aimed at
meeting the specific needs of a particular group of people and

3. Informal Education- this is unorganized and unplanned

Type of Education Characteristic Features Agents

a) Formal Education -Learning done in specially -Governments, companies,

built institutions such as individuals and churches
schools, colleges, and
universities.

-Programmes are structured

in form of syllabus,
curriculum, schemes,
timetables

-Learning is supervised by
internal administrative body

-Certificates awarded to
those who are successful

-People are trained and

employed to do the job and
are paid.

b) Non formal Education -Loosely structured

programmes

-Certificate of attendance
maybe awarded

-No special buildings may be

required

-Loosely supervised at times

not supervised by an internal

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 administrative body

c) Informal Education -Learning is unplanned

-Learning is not structured

-No awards of certificates

-Long life process

In this chapter, we have looked at the meaning of education and how various scholars have
defined it. The chapter has further discussed the aims and types of education, including the
common concepts found in education.

1) List down and give examples of the types of education that are found in Zambia
2) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the types of education in question.

UNIT 2.6 INDIGENOUS AFRICAN/TRADITIONAL EDUCATION

Introduction:

This unit looks at the education systems that existed before the coming of the
Missionary/modern education in Africa. Different themes have been explored to help
understanding the nature of the education that was there.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Education is part of every society, whether simple or sophisticated. Each community has
evolved its own forms of education based on the religious, social, political, economic and
cultural values of that community (Tiberondwa: 1989). In this unit, we are analysing;

a) the aims of indigenous education

b) components of indigenous education

c) the curriculum of Indigenous African education

d) methods of indigenous African Education

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 e) methods of testing in indigenous education

f) characteristics of indigenous education

g) the merits and demerits of Indigenous African education

During the pre-colonial period, Africans had already developed their own systems of
education. The first Europeans, who came to Africa, viewed Africa as a savage, a pagan with
no history and culture to perpetuate that he was primitive, that he knew nothing and that
Africans never taught their young. This was a mistaken belief which reflected the ignorance
of the Europeans about African education systems. It also help to explain why the first
Europeans educationists never considered that the formal schools they were introducing had
any relationship to the largely informal education, the African children were receiving in their
communities. The basic assumption was that they were introducing something totally new. In
this, there was no social interaction or rather socialization. This meant that adults never made
a deliberate attempt to bring up children to be the kind of men required by the society.

Secondly, since Africans had neither reading nor writing skills, some scholars tended to
assume that they had no system of education. Hence, the conclusion that they had no content
and no methods to pass on to the young. To such scholars then, education in Africa would
mean nothing else but western civilization. Therefore, without western education there would
be no education. The scholars neglected anything traditional because of their restricted view
of the nature of the education. It is definitely fallacious to define education in terms of school
or reading and writing, because schooling and education are not synonymous in any way at
all. Education is defined as the whole process by which one generation transmits its culture to
the succeeding generation, or a process by which people are prepared to live effectively and
efficiently in their environment. On the basis of this definition then, it is quite easy to see that
before the coming of the Europeans, there was an effective education system in each African
clan, chiefdom or kingdom. African traditional education was effective ever since the
evolution of the African race. It was tangible, definite and clearly intelligible.

There have been no single indigenous form of education In Africa. Societies differing from
each other, developed different systems of education to transmit their own particular
knowledge and skills. The differences were not necessarily great, but it as quite clear that
indigenous forms of education were sometimes remarkably similar but differed in methods
and content. One form could be seen to have influence over another. This was due to the fact

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that certain specialists were extremely mobile, just like in the case of western type and
Islamic systems. The mobility of specialists such as the Dyula dyers and Numu blacksmiths
of Ivory Coast and Ghana was in large measure responsible for this.

Another misconception is that within one particular society, all young people learned the
same skills. This may have been so in ethnic groups, where all families followed roughly the
same economic pursuits and where political and social roles were relatively undifferentiated.
Some traditional societies like Yoruba, had marked specialization in occupation as well as
pronounced political and hierarchies. Although they shared general knowledge, a child at the
royal court of Ife had a different orientation and training in skills from that of a blacksmith’s
son in the war camp of Ibadan.

2.7 AIMS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

 To socialize and initiate an individual into the tribal or ethnic group in a communal
perspective.

 To help people conform to cultural norms and roles.

 It exposed the young to checks and balances.

2.3 COMPONENTS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

The education in Africa before the coming of the European was an education that prepared
one for the responsibilities as an adult in the home, the village and within the tribe. The
education varied from the simple instruction given by the father or mother to the youths to
complex educational system of highly organized and sophisticated such as the one among the
Poro in West Africa which had myriad of ceremonies and countless degrees. Most societies
fell between the simple and sophisticated with respect to the educational arrangements they
provided for their youth, offering rituals to mark the end of puberty and relying heavily upon
the custom and example as the principal educational agents.

1. History of Ethnic group. The education looked at what happened and why
things happened the way they did. For example, where did we come from,
when, why did we settle here? Why are we having the drought this year? Why
floods along the Zambezi river for example. The questions which were asked
made the society develop a sense of security consciousness, religious beliefs
and sense of belonging. The history was reflected much in the songs, dances

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 myths. The young were taught and reminded about their names, surnames,
clans, totems and cousin relationships. There were also stories in the evenings
around the fire places about heroic deeds of ancestors, how they developed
loyalty and pride in membership of the tribe.

2. Apprenticeship in Practical Skills. The African Indigenous education stressed

the skills according to sex roles. For example boys were taught by men such
as fathers, uncles, and grandfathers about the uses of herbs, flowers and fruits,
farming and raising cattle. They also learnt how to set traps, hunting and other
skills in line with men. On the other hand girls learnt through close contact
with mothers, aunties and grandmothers in the kitchen. They learnt how to
cook, wash calabashes, pots and how to brew beer. They further learnt the art
of being good wives and mothers.

3. Social Obligations and Inculcation of Good Manners. Children learnt the

correct way of greeting different ages, how to sit, how to address other
members of the tribe and elders among them. They were to respect the old
and to extend hospitality to all.

4. Religious Teaching. Their religious teaching centred on the Supreme Being

who controlled all the tribal fortunes. The young learnt the influence of the
spirits in the society and how to appease the spirit of the departed. They also
learnt about different spirits (bad and good spirits) and the mysteries of
religion.

5. Initiation Ceremonies. This was done after one had reached the puberty stage
and it marked an epoch in one’s life as the child was being introduced by
elders to the legends surrounding previous exploits of ones tribe and
community responsibilities. It was an intensive course of instruction which
was done in seclusion and the initiates were exposed to tests of physical
endurance. For example Nyau among the Chewa people in Zambia were
exposed to harsh environment and taught survival skills such as swimming.
They were also exposed to hot pots as a way of training them endurance. Of
course there were clever women who could only put the pot on the fire when
they were about to come and pick it. They were given instructions in hygiene,

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 sexual behaviour, expectations in marriage among other areas. In some
societies secrecy surrounded the event.

2.8 THE CURRICULUM OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION

In traditional African society people learnt what they lived and lived what they learnt.
Education was a lifelong process; it began at birth and ended at death. Education enabled
people to adapt to their environment in which they lived. For instance, those who lived in the
equatorial rain forest and those who lived in the plain areas each had the curriculum to
follow. At society, level education was planned or unplanned (incidental), formal (e.g
initiation ceremonies) or informal. Education transmitted skills, modes of behaviour, essential
for society’s survival. Learning was by imitation, repetition and observation. Society’s
education was determined by its ideologies, dominant value or moral order. Education
ensured national unity and ensured cultural survival. Alfred North White Head summed up
the contents of any education as “life in all its manifestations.”

2.9 METHODS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

In practical terms, the method of indigenous African education was humanization of man in
society. Learning was expected to yield:

a) Cognition- knowledge in general, understanding.

b) Skills- which had relevance to their survival.

c) Volition- attitudes, values, feelings, appreciation etc.

d) Practice, not theory- what was learnt was put to use- pragmatism/functionalism,
practicality/utilitarianism was at the centre of learning.

e) Involvement- active participation in everyday life.

UNIT 2

3.0 PROCESSES OF LEARNING

a) IMITATION

Imitating others such as mothers, fathers, peers and grandparents was part of the learning
process.

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2.5.2 TYPES OF IMITATION

a) Conditioning Imitation- through which learners acquired attitudes, values, and forms
of reasoning by virtue of being member of a group, or because of social pressure e.g.
sisters wanting to live like mother Theresa.

b) Reinforcement Imitation- voluntarily participating in order to win social praise e.g

mum, I can cook like you, sing, jump like you.

c) Insightful Imitation- Deliberate copying of other people’s acts or methods of doing

things in order to solve specific problems.

3.1 STIMULATED LEARNING

Initiative to learn comes from elders who want an individual to acquire a particular skill e.g
grooming someone to be a king, to marry a king’s daughter etc.

Many techniques were used to induce or stimulate learning:

-praise an incentive

-Rewards e.g cattle

-Story telling on heroic deeds

-Ridicules etc.

3.2 INFORMAL LEARNING

a) Most widespread

b) Reflected in doing, working, participation, playing, attending funerals and

observation, in every activity.

3.3FORMAL LEARNING

This is organized, planned and structured learning e.g. initiation ceremonies.

3.4 METHODS OF TESTING IN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

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The education in an African set up required that the individual had to change in order to
adjust for a living. Though very few people failed, testing was one of the ways to confirm if
there was education going on. It involved both diagnostic and prescriptive that made rise to
the remedial lessons or for further perfection of skills, manners, attitudes, perceptions and
behaviour among other areas of interest. The testing was in form of:

i. Assigning work to an individual and monitoring of the results closely.

ii. Sometimes girls were sent to take care of the elderly relatives to see how they
could manage. This was in view of the other elderly people that one might live
with in future especially after marriage as African societies lived in
communities.

iii. A boy could be given an opportunity to express his personality as a man. For
example how to protect ones siblings.

iv. Some customs required bridegrooms to take care of their in laws for some
years until when the in laws were satisfied that one could take care of their
daughter.

v. The cultures that were pastoralists, boys were asked to identify their cattle or
goats from the rest of the herds of the community.

vi. Some societies asked the children to name the relatives both the maternal and
the paternal.

3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

i. Multiple learning (Wholesticism). The education system had no much room

for specialization but equipped boys and girls with a number of occupations
with related skills. This meant that a boy could be taught how to fish,
geography of an area, interpretation of the seasons, building and farming
among them. On the other hand girls were taught gardening, cooking, laundry,
and simple skills of nursing. The education was centered on the whole life of
the society.

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 ii. Integration. The education depended on what was available without fixing of
time for learning. Children learnt how to welcome visitors when there were
visitors (situational learning). Teaching for sex roles was done during
initiation.

iii. Utilitarian/Functionalism. Whatever was taught had to be useful as the

education produced the skills which were used in practice.

iv. Perenialism. There were skills which were only taught during specific seasons
such rain season (planting and ploughing).

v. Communalism. Most of the lessons were done in communal manner.

Education was a responsibility for the whole community. For example
working in fields, construction of houses, child discipline etc.

3.6 DEMERITS OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION

a) It relied on memory and oral tradition. It had no device for recording acquired
knowledge for future use.

b) Punishment was too harsh and non-reformatory.

c) It was tribal and so skills of one tribe could not be transmitted to the other. There was
no common language for different tribes.

d) It stressed gender roles.

e) It was conservative because society changes were not as rapid as they are today. But
measured against the people it had to serve. Traditional education was very
successful. Snelson (1974) contends that this form of education was conservative and
not progressive, some teachers were incompetent, so were some learners. Kelly
(2006) adds that it was orally based with no written records, it could not fully cope
with scientific concepts, it was static and did not embrace aspects of innovation
inquiry and change.

In the final analysis, the onus is on the modern student to critically analyse and subject the
aforesaid to reason and take a position out of an academic and informed decision.

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3.7 MERITS OF INDIGENOUS ARICAN EDUCATION

In any case, traditional education is believed to have been meaningful, unifying, holistic,
effective, practical, and relevant and community based. There was no separation between
education and the world of work. Graduates were readily absorbed in society upon
completion of their induction or socialization (Kelly, 2006; Farrant, 1980).

African traditional education developed and educated the whole person. This type of
education involved the entire society or community. Because it was human centred, it
promoted and developed very good and strong bonds among the people. This education had
clear values, attitudes and morals for its curriculum. This was to exploit the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains.

SUMMARY

The chapter has apart from defining what indigenous or traditional education means, also
discussed the components, curriculum, methods, merits and demerits of Indigenous
Education.

ACTIVITY

1. There are some elements in traditional education which are relevant to an individual’s
life in a community. Discuss this assertion in relation to modern way of life.

2. Discuss the weaknesses of indigenous education.

3. African Indigenous education was very primitive. Discuss the assertion.

UNIT 3

EDUCATION BETWEEN 1890 TO 1924

4.0 MISSIONARY EDUCATION

Introduction:

The unit looks at the education that prevailed during the time of the Missionaries and the
British South African Company (BSAC).

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

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  To define missionary education.

 Explain for coming of missionaries in Africa.

 Compare between the indigenous education and missionary education

 Trace the first schools in Zambia

 Explain the characteristics of missionary education

 Discuss the involvement of the BSACo in Education.

Missionary education refers to Western education as opposed to the African indigenous

education. It was based on literacy (ability to read and write) and numeracy (ability to work
with numbers) There are differences between the two types of education mentioned above in
many aspects.

Compare and comprehend the two types of education in order to comprehend them.

Missionary education derives its name from the group of people who first brought it to Africa
from Europe-the church people or the missionaries. Between 1890 and 1924, many mission
groups came to Africa and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in particular. They settled in
different parts of the country and opened many stations (Missions) as well as schools to offer
what became known as missionary education.

4.1 AIMS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION

Missionaries built schools with specific aims or goals. Some of these were:

a) To enable Africans read and write so that they could help in the evangelization
process: ability to read and interpret the Bible in a local and English Languages.

b) To harness or tame Africans for them to co-operate with missionaries in their

work (Trying to create some common working ground entice them to European
culture).

c) To de-culture Africans and make Europeans out of Africans e.g French policy of
Assimilation.

d) To give Africans some technical schools in carpentry, agriculture, brick laying etc.

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4.2 WHY COMING TO AFRICA?

Different missionary groups came to Africa as a follow up to David Livingstone’s

exploration works and reports he sent back to Europe(United Kingdom in particular).

Secondly, early exploration works by different explorers such as Bartholomew Diaz, Mungo
Park, and Henry Morton Stanley etc. also helped to stimulate missionaries to come to Africa
and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). What were their aims?

Missionary groups and their stations

Many missionary groups came to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in the period under review.
Each group claimed areas of influence and built schools and clinics there.

i) Draw the map of Zambia. On it show mission stations and years when established.

ii) Below the map, make a list of these church groups indicating who their leaders
were at that time. For instance

1. Brethren in Christ Church-Macha mission in Choma (1906)-Leader was Francis

Davidson.

2. Catholics-Society of Jesus (Jesuits)-Chikuni Mission in Chisekesi, Monze (1905),

Leader was Fr. Moreau.

4.3 MISSION SCHOOLS BEFORE 1890

There are many missionary groups that had already established their mission settlements and
schools before 1890. Indicators are that the under listed were in Northern Rhodesia before
1890:

a) Paris Evangelical Mission-1885

b) United Free Church of Scotland-1895

c) The Largest Society-the White Fathers-1895

d) The Dutch Reformed church Mission-1895

e) The London Mission Society-1883

f) The Primitive Methodist-1893

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 g) Christian Missions in Many Lands-the Open Brethren-1897

4.4 THE FIRST SCHOOL

Missionary education in Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) owes its establishment to David Living
stone’s exploration works which exposed the interior of Africa to the European people. As a
follow up to Livingston reports on events in Africa and Northern Rhodesia in particular,
many missionary groups came to Northern Rhodesia.

In March 1883, the first school was opened in Limulunga by Arnot of the Paris Evangelical
Missionary society with three pupils all male.

It situated at Kanyonyo whose name it adopted. Later it became National Barotse School.

4.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION

1. It is foreign or alien to Africans and is based on reading and writing

2. It carries with it European/Western culture and norms

3. It does alienate (separate the learner from the society-village set up/family) to some
place of employment. It also alienates the learner in a host of cultural aspects as the
two cultures clash.

4. It is believed that it has the capacity to explain scientific concepts. That it is dynamic
helps to make people adaptive and universal in nature.

5. Perceived as a tool for national development.

6. From the African perspective, it may be seen as a lazy man’s chain. It promotes
“white collar job syndrome” as opposed to manual work that demands physique.

7. It is more practical in problem solving than other types: through medicines, industries,
technology and various disciplines of education itself like social sciences etc.

8. It is seen as a tool or means to acquire prestigious status in society. It is said that it

enhances social position and status for the elite.

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4.6 BENEFITS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION

Depending on one’s view point it can be said that there are many benefits.

a) Western education through missionaries helped to replace slave trade with modern
trade.

b) It helped Africans to open up and started fighting for independence until it was
achieved.

c) It changed the status of Africans as a continent as well as the status of Africans

themselves.

d) A lot of what was perceived as bad cultural practice was phased out or moderated e.g.
using skin clothing, polygamy, worshipping ancestral spirits etc.

e) It brought modern social services, schools, hospitals, industries and modern way of
life supported by technology.

4.7 THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY AND EDUCATION-1890-1924

According to Manchishi and Chondoka (1999), the pioneers of Western education in colonial
Zambia were the European Christian Missionaries who started their work in the country from
1883.(ERIP report:5). This was adequately shown in earlier lesson on missionary education
1883-1889.

COMPANY RULE (1890-1924)

Cecil Rhodes is a key player in the formation and administration of the British South African
Company. He founded the company in 1889 after making a fortune in diamond mining at
Kimberley, in South Africa.

He got authority from the Crown (British Monarchy) to administer what was then known as
North Eastern and North Western Rhodesia. In turn, he got support from the mother country,
Britain. His entry point was North-Western Rhodesia (1897) after signing concessions with
Lewanika in 1890, 17th October. The treaty of the BSA company mineral rights in all areas
under King Lewanika in turn the BSA company protected the Lewanika’s Kingdom and gave
him an annual grant of 850 pounds. The prime aim of the BSA Company was to:

a) Exploit minerals and make profits

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 b) Use North Western and North Eastern Rhodesia sources of cheap mineral and
human resources for the development of South Africa.

Although when signing concessions, Cecil Rhodes accepted responsibility to provide social
services to the Africans in practice it was a non-starter. He was a first class capitalist
Snelson(1974) spells out the position of the BSA regarding the provision of education to the
Africans as well as the development of colonial Zambia: the BSA records in regard to
African education was one of the consistent neglect.

It is further noted that for three decades BSA co. consistently refused to give financial
assistance to missionary education in the country. It failed lamentably and shamefully to
implement clear promises regarding education which had been part of the treaties with
Lewanika. Three treaties were signed which the BSA never fulfilled: the Lochner treaty
(1890, 1898, and 1900).

One clause found in these treaties read: The BSA co. further agrees that it will aid and assist
in the education and civilization of the native subjects of the king by the establishment,
maintenance and endowment of schools and industrial establishment(vocational trade
schools), Sneson:122).

Find out why things happened like way.

4.8 BAROTSE NATIONAL SCHOOL

Due to pressure from the Chewa chiefs in Nyasaland,(Malawi), the BSA opened Livingstonia
mission school and funded it in a little way. This was facilitated by Rhobert Codrington, the
administrator. In colonial Zambia, the same was done in 1907 by the BSA co. at Kanyonyo
village-Mongu. This school was only one partly funded by the BSA-co. And came to be
known as Barotse National School. It opened in March 1907 with Austin R William as head
teacher. African teachers were drawn from Basutoland (Lesotho). Curriculum: carpentry,
bricklaying, thatching, forestry other than reading, writing and arithmetic. This school was
under the Paris evangelical Mission led by Francis Coillard.

By 1911/12, a few Africans from this school had become teachers or were employed as
clerks, shopkeepers, office orderlies etc. While company rule did not support African
education, missionary groups continued expanding in this area. They called on the company

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to give grants to mission schools, the move which the BSA co. rejected. In 1911, the BSA co.
formerly amalgamated N.E and N.W. Rhodesia into one territory called Northern Rhodesia.

4.9 REACTIONS TO THE BSA COMPANY’S NON PROVISION OF EDUCATION

a) Lost opportunity:

The B.S.A. co. lost a golden chance to change its African education stance in 1906. In this
year, Alfred Beit died and donated money-200,000 pounds for education and other public
social services in his will. B.S.A. through Codrington and Wallace indicated that Northern
Rhodesia had no financial need.

Missionary groups at that time through Native Affairs department placed for governments
funding of missionary education.

Both mission schools and government officials saw the need to have a coordinated
curriculum or common curriculum in addition to financial grants. The B.S.A. as government
had a duty to provide such a policy.

First General Missionary Conference-1924

In July 1914, what one may call as the first General Missionary conference was held under
the auspices of the Primitive Methodists. This group was used to work with other churches.
They did so when they translated the New Testament in Ila.

These church groups did take part in this conference held in Livingstone in Coillard memorial
hall.

a) Primitive Methodists

b) Paris Evangelical Mission

c) Brethren in Christ Church

d) U.M.C.A and Wesleyan Methodists

Its terms of reference were:

i) To foster cooperation between and among all church groups

ii) To evangelize North Western Rhodesia

21
 iii) To give civic education/awareness to local people about missionary work as well
as to care for the locals.

Reverend Edwin Smith was elected chairperson of the conference. Rev. John Fell presented a
paper on Ideas and Methods in Native Education-it was the main agenda item.

Resolutions of the conference:

a) Encouraging government to take a keen interest in the education for local people.

b) Government to fund education in Northern Rhodesia

c) Urgent need to provide well trained local teachers by government

d) Government must subsidize approved elementary schools as was in Southern

Rhodesia.

By about 1915/16, the B.S.A. co. had this concern with the government as well; the quality of
teachers and their reliability. A form of control was needed. This led to the Native schools
Proclamation of 1918. Its contents were:

a) To define a school and a teacher

i) School meant a school or class for teaching or instruction of local people whether held in a
building of not.

ii) Teacher meant any local person teaching in a school

b) No opening of new schools without consent of government (administration) or any

other authorized officer.

c) All existing schools were to be registered within 90 days of issue of 1918

proclamation.

d) Administration could close any school seen detrimental to national peace and security
through the behaviour of its pupils and teachers.

e) Administration could close school that was contrary to wishes of the society.

22
 UNIT 4

5.0 NATIVE SCHOOLS PROCLAMATION OF 1918: IT’S CONTROVERSIAL

PART

This was the first educational legislation (law) in Northern Rhodesia. It seems its first part
was user friendly but the other part was seen to be anti-development in the area of education
provision.

a) No person shall be a teacher in any school unless duly qualified

b) To be considered duly qualified, one needed to be given a certification of efficiency

and competence by the administrator.

c) In schools not headed by Europeans, to be a teacher there one needed to be married

and lived with a wife.

d) Breach of the above would lead to a fine not more than twenty five pounds or to be
jailed for not more than three months or both.

e) Any teacher guilty/suspected for interference in the works of the administrator, chief,
headman and other government officers would be black listed.

f) The native schools Proclamation of 1918 gave powers to magistrates and Native
Commissioners to inspect schools.

g) This law (Proclamation) gave power to the administrator to prescribe qualifications of

teachers to provide competence certificates to teachers as well as reports of good
conduct, locating of building new schools.

The law gave sweeping powers to control education system and provision without any
financial part. Missionary groups, who were the main providers of education in Northern
Rhodesia at this time, became disappointed and bitter.

5.0 1 2nd General Missionary Conference of 1919

The general dissatisfaction and disapproval of the 1918 Proclamation by all the missionary
groups in Northern Rhodesia led to the 1919 conference. It was held in Livingstone from 18-
22 July 1919. Rev. Adolph Jalla of Paris Evangelical Missionary Society was elected
chairperson and Rev. John Fell of Primitive Methodists was elected Secretary. The

23
Conference proposed amendments to: Clause that referred to churches as schools and the
marriage clause.

Resolutions passed:

a) The Government should give grants to schools

b) Accepted school code drawn by Rev. Fell

c) Agreed to invite missionary societies in Northern Rhodesia to next conference.

In response to the missionary conference, resolutions of 1919, the government repeated the
1918 Native Schools Proclamation. It was replaced by the January 1922 New Native Schools
Proclamation. In this law:

a) The controversial marriage-teacher clause was dropped.

b) Teachers were to be certified by the missionary in charge

c) Definition of a school now excluded holding of a religious service

d) Missionaries in charge to inspect schools at least twice a year.

5.1 Third General Missionary Conference of 1922

The conference was held in Kafue from 17-23 July 1922 and was attended by eleven
missionary societies. The Conference discussed different items, key among them were three
papers. Coxhead presented the first paper which advised/suggested recruitment of agriculture
expert to advise mission groups on agricultural education. The Government was to pay 1/3 of
experts salary. Coxhead was searching for Native affairs.

Loram presented a second paper that advocated for retention of primary education in the
hands of missionaries and that Government should support missionaries financially. He urged
the Government to be responsible for secondary education. Loram also suggested the
establishment of a college/university as was the case in South Africa’s Fort Hare. Loram had
come from Natal and was outstanding educationists.

Latham G.C. presented the 3rd paper. He was part-time inspector of schools for the country.
He advised missionary groups to be well-coordinated and respect each other. He advised that

24
denominational differences be buried and that a first class normal school like Sefula be made
in central area for teacher training.

His paper indicated that missionary education should include: spiritual, moral, social and
economic progress of the local people. He proposed for a good balance between religious,
academic and individual components.

Provisional agreement was made to use Kafue institute for teacher training to be offered by
the Primitive Methodists. But later the idea was abandoned to differences that arose.

1. Primitive Methodists did not support John Fell

2. U.M.C.A. did not support Bishop May idea to fund the program-five hundred
pound per annum. The B.S.A co. director did not support the idea. But the
major success of the conference was that the Government was clearly made to
understand it needed to fund education sooner than later. Lathan was regarded
as a radical: He said, “We cannot educate the natives without allowing them
some share in their government, sooner than later.”

Very few people-whites then accepted the eventual self-government rule coming to pass. For
the future, Lathan recommended Industrial training for learners at least 2 hours per day in
addition to other subjects (Literacy and numeracy).

In 1923, there was a General Missionary Council Executive Committee attended by Lathan.
In that meeting, he recommended to the council that the Government should not run away
from funding education and that the Government needed a policy on Native education.

SUMMARY

The Chapter looked at the coming of the missionaries and what was referred to as Missionary
Education. It also looked at the BSA Company and what it had to offer in terms of education

ACTIVITY:

1. Missionary education and teachers have been criticized as having facilitated

colonialism and imperialism in Africa. Discuss this assertion citing six countries.
2. Compare and contrast Indigenous type of education with the Western type of
education. Examine how education has influenced development in Zambia.

25
 3. Trace the way in which the “White Collar Worker” syndrome developed and
manifested itself in Zambia’s education system during the 1960s. How did the new
Republic of Zambia attempt to address the “White Collar Worker?”

UNIT 4
5.2 EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA 1931-1953

INTRODUCTION:

This unit will introduce you to the activities that followed after the two groups involvement
in education as observed in unit 3.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Discuss the Phelps Stoke Commission

 Illustrate the recommendations by the Phelps Stoke Commission.

 Explain the challenges faced by the Phelps Stoke Commission.

 Analyse the British policy in Tropical Africa.

A lot of educational events took place between the time of Lathan left Northern Rhodesia in
July 1931 and the time when the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland started in 1953.

In order to capture as many events as possible in this period of time (era), the time chart
method will be applied. This is to capture events that happened as early as when Northern
Rhodesia became a British Protectorate or British Crown in 1924.

1928 First departmental exams for teachers was held based on government standard 4
syllabus.

There was a paper on teaching theory and school management, as well as practical
test on First-Aid.

In the same year, government’s Jeanes Agricultural, Normal and Primary schools
were being built.

1931 Lathan left Northern Rhodesia as director of African Education.

26
1938 Jeanes school close due to the change in Native Reserve boundary

1939 A new Jeanes and Teacher Training Centre was opened at Chalimbana (NISTICOL)

Munali Secondary School opened in Lusaka.

1946 Chipembi Girls School opened by the Methodist Mission

1947 Nursing school for African nurses started at Chikankata Mission

1951 New Munali Secondary School was opened

Hodgson Training Centre expanded

12 Trades school operational.

One major characteristic of education in the era under review was an attempt to implement
mass education. An attempt was also made to phase out racial school.

4.1 BRITISH COLONIAL POLICY IN TROPICAL AFRICA/NORTHERN

RHODESIA-1925

It is believed that the above policy came about as a result of the Phelps-Stokes Commission
Report. This report influenced the Advisory Committee on Native education to come up with
the first ever policy memorandum in March, 1925. Its title was Education Policy in British
Tropical Africa.

Through this policy, the influence and impact of the commission’s chairperson became vivid.
This was Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones. The policy’s entry point was that: The Controlling Power
is responsible as Trustee for the Moral advancement of the Native Population.

The main principles of the 1925 education policy were:

a) To govern the direction of educational development in Northern Rhodesia

and elsewhere in British African dependencies or colonies.

b) Government welcomed partnership with other stakeholders in provision of

education to local people.

c) Government reserved the right to have total control of education through

inspections, monitoring and giving the general direction.

27
 d) Advisory Boards of education were to be set up in all dependencies upon
which agencies and others who have experience in social welfare should
be accorded representation.

e) Education for adaptation was stressed as a principle in the policy.

Education should be adapted to the mentality, aptitudes, occupations and
traditions of the various peoples, conserving as far as possible all sound
and healthy elements in the fabric of their social life.

The content and method of teaching in all subjects should be adapted to the local conditions.

i. Relevant text books and the use of vernacular language was

stressed and was to be observed.

ii. The aim of education was to be spelt out- to render the individual
more efficient in his/her condition of life and promote the
advancement of the community as a whole through the
improvement of agriculture, the development of native industries,
the improvement of health, the training of the people in the
management of their own affairs and the inculcation of true ideals
of citizenship and service.

iii. The teaching of higher education as well as Religious and moral

instruction was to be observed. Character training was to be
founded on the formation of habits of industry, of truthfulness,
manliness, readiness for social service and of disciplined
cooperation.

iv. Improved conditions of service were to be implemented to attract

the best available men both British and African.

v. Grants in aid were to be paid to approved non-government schools,

who met the required standards.

vi. Teacher education/training and gender balances was another

principle in the 1925 policy. The native teaching staff should be
adequate in numbers, qualifications, in character and should
include women. The key to a sound system of education lies in the

28
 training of teachers and this matter was to receive primary
consideration.

The policy went on to state that other than initial training, teachers were to receive further
education from time to time (in service) or continuing professional development (CPD). One
way this could be done for rural school concept of visiting teachers.

a) The policy included the need to provide technical and vocational training to
counteract the white collar jobs syndrome and the tendency to look down on manual
labour/practical jobs.

b) Girl education re-emphasised within the policy. The education of girls and women
was a challenge at that time, but more needed to be done at once.

The memorandum stressed that it was important to provide educated mates for clever boys. It
was viewed as cardinal for girls to have lessons in hygiene and public health, child welfare,
domestic economy and home management.

The policy advised that adult education be given once the experimented stage/version was
confirmed. In contrast to the 30 years of BSA rule which had no education policy in Northern
Rhodesia, Colonial rule at least introduced one. What remained to be seen was its
implementation for the benefit of the territory and its people.

4.2 ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON NATIVE EDUCATION 1923

This was set up to advice the secretary of state on matters of Native Education in British
colonies and protectorate in Tropical Africa. The work of this committee was made easy by
the Phelps-Stokes Commission which had recent records or reports on south and Western
Africa in of educational activities (1920-1921).

4.3 THE PHELPS STOKES COMMISSION

The commission was set using the funds under the will of Miss Calorine Phelps-Stokes. The
aim of the fund was to enhance the education of Negroes in Africa and United States of
America.

The members were: Dr. James Aggrey distinguished educationist from Gold Coast, Dr. J H.
Dillard (USA), president of the Jeanes Fund, Dr. H.L Shantz agriculturalist and botanist
(USA), Rev: Garfield Williams, Educational secretary, Colonial Office Advisory Committee

29
on Native Education in Tropical Africa, C.T Loram (South Africa), Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones-
Chairperson (USA) and James Dougall (Scotland)

4.3.1 Terms of reference for the Phelps Stokes Commission were:

i. To investigate educational needs of the people in the light of their religions, social,
hygiene and economic conditions.

ii. To ascertain the extent to which people’s needs were being met in rural areas.

iii. To assist in the formulation of plans to meet educational needs of local people (ethnic
group)

The commission set out to do its work by sending an education commission to west, south
and Equatorial Africa in 1920-1921. The report of the first tour encouraged the Phelps Stokes
Commission to send another group to survey educational needs of local people in east and
Central Africa. This decision was made in 1923, and implemented between January and July
1924. The countries visited were: French Somali land, Abyssinia (Ethiopia), Kenya, Uganda,
Tanganyika, Zanzibar, Portuguese East Africa, Nyasaland Southern Rhodesia, Northern
Rhodesia (8-13 June 1924). Much of the information from Northern Rhodesia was provided
by Lathan and representatives of Missionary societies.

4.3.2 PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION RECOMMENDATIONS

i. Appointing a director of native Education whose task would be to co-ordinate and

unite educational activities of the missionary societies and orders

ii. To appoint an advisory committee on education with representatives from the

government, missions and settlers. The important thing was that the native opinion
was to be sought as soon as possible.

iii. Establishing teacher training institutions at selected mission stations.

iv. Providing funds for the training and employment of visiting teachers based on the
Jeanes School operating in USA.

4.3.3 TERMS OF POLICY (1925) BRITISH MEMORANDUM OF EDUCATION

This memorandum governed the direction of Education development in Northern Rhodesia

and elsewhere. It contained the following principles:

30
a) The government was going to encourage all voluntary effort which conformed to the
general policy but the government was to reserve the right to intervene over the
general direction of educational policy and the supervision of all educational
institutions by inspecting and other means.

b) Cooperation between government and other educational agencies was to be

encouraged which led to the formation of advisory boards of education in British
dependencies in each province there was a committee.

c) Adoption of education to the African environment was to be one of the aims of

education. This implied that the system was going to be adapted to the mentality,
aptitudes, occupations and traditions of the various people.

d) The need for higher education was also acknowledged. This education was going to
be given to those who by character, ability of temperament, showed themselves fitted
to profit by such education.

e) The importance of religion was also emphasized.

f) Financial assistance was also to be given to voluntary schools.

g) The memorandum also recommended that the status and conditions of service in the
education department should be such as to attract the best available staff. Both the
British and the African

h) The memorandum also urged that the native teaching staff should be adequate in
numbers, qualifications and character which should include women.

i) Supervision of the education system was also encouraged. Government inspectorate

was to be established and each mission was encouraged to inspect its own schools.

j) It also encouraged the establishment of technical and vocational training schools.

k) Girls were to be trained in hygiene and public health, child welfare and domestic
economy. Adult education for women was to be encouraged. Soon after the
presentation of the above document. The first director of native education was
appointed. This was Geoffrey Chitty Laterin.

31
 l) The first survey of the state of education in British Tropical Africa was done in a
period of eighteen months. The Phelps-Stokes Commission which had made a rapid
tour of West Africa in 1919, completed a similar tour of East Africa in 1924 and
produced detailed reports which provided the Advisory Committee of Education in
the colonies with clear picture of educational needs.

The trustee of the Phelps-stokes Fund, in November 1919, adopted the following: that a
survey of educational conditions and opportunities among the Negros of Africa, with a
special view of finding the type or types of education best adapted to meet the needs of the
Natives, is undertaken by the Phelp-Stokes Commission.

In 1925, the principles on which the educational systems of the dependencies were to be
based were set out. In summary the points were:

a) Governments themselves control educational policy but they should cooperate with
other educational agencies. Each territory should have an advisory board on which all
educational interests should be represented.

b) Education must adapt the mentality, aptitude occupations, and traditions of various
peoples, conserving as much as possible all sound and healthy elements in the fabric
of their social life, adapting them where necessary to changed circumstances and
progressive ideas as an agent of natural growth and evolution. This meant
maximizing the use of African arts and culture and hoped that it would narrow the
gap between the educated class and the rest of the community.

c) Religious training and moral instruction should be regarded as fundamental to the

development of a sound education and should be accorded complete equality with
secular subjects.

d) Educational services must be made to attract the best men from Britain, whether for
permanent careers of for short service appointments.

e) Grants should be given to aid voluntary schools which fulfilled requirements.

f) African languages, as well as English, should be used in education; content and

method of teaching in all subjects should be adapted to the conditions of Africa,
special text books should be prepared.

32
 g) African teaching staff had to be adequate in numbers, qualifications and character
which required the inclusion of women. The training was essential.

4.3.4 4th General Missionary Conference 1924

It is important to note by this time the BSA rule had ended on April 1st 1924. Colonial office
was now in charge of affairs in Northern Rhodesia.

The conference was called in June 1924 at Kafue Institute. The purpose for the conference
was to:

i. Get members of missionary societies meet Phelps-Stokes Commission

ii. Make recommendation to the government (colonial office) on the educational

policy for Northern Rhodesia.

4.3.5 THE RESOLUTIONS

a) Primary and secondary education be given in mission schools with the help from the
government.

b) Higher education (tertiary) be done at government schools with the help of missionary
societies.

c) It re-activated the 1914 resolutions for implementation.

d) Out of direct native tax money which was 100,000 pounds P.a. Most of it was to go to
the education expenses for Africans.

4.4 GOVERNMENT ENTERS EDUCATION FIELD: PHASE 1-1925-1931

Colonial office took over reins of government from BSA Co. in April 1924. Among the
immediate tasks for the new government were to:

a) Act on the Phelps-Stokes reports and recommendations

b) Take over the supervision and financing of education from missionaries.

c) Encourage technical and agricultural skills in education.

d) Set up Native education department.

33
 e) Come up with an education policy in British Tropical African.

f) Appoint a director of Native affairs (G.C. Lathan was appointed).

4.4.1 INITIAL STAGES: 1924-1925

The colonial office spent the first one year to put in place logistics for administering
education in Northern Rhodesia. This was enhanced by the Advisory Board set in 1924,
which had its first meeting in July 1925. Until 1943, the Advisory Board only comprised
Missionaries, government and settlers without the local people.

One key resolution of the Board was the issuing of the Native School Code. In line with the
one passed out by the missionaries earlier on. The difference here was the emphasis put on
Agriculture for the first time. Lathan on behalf of the colonial office spelt out the Education
Policy in British Tropical Africa in the White Paper No. Command 2374. This meant that the
new government had a framework to use in running education affairs in Northern Rhodesia.
Also those structures for educational administration were put in place for instance the
Advisory Board. Additionally, these were made clear:

i. Conditions for paying grants to schools.

ii. The curriculum for village (rural) and station (urban) schools were put in place.

iii. The curriculum for agricultural training was agreed upon.

iv. Teachers’ conditions of service and qualifications were agreed upon and made known.

v. Challenges of language teaching and proposed methodologies were made known.

Lathan drew up a transformation programme in the provision of education in Northern

Rhodesia which tried to address these areas: teacher training, salary, grants, normal school
syllabus, the Jeanes School concept/mode in Mazabuka, village schools, Native schools
(Amendment ) Ordinance 1927, the school syllabus, girls’ education, urban education,
practical work, Finance and Financial support from oversees. According to Nelson (1974)
Lathan did a lot in the above sector of Native education with a view of improving the quality
of education provided in Northern Rhodesia by both government and missionaries

34
ACTIVITIY

a) Lathan came to be known as father of African Education in Northern

Rhodesia. What were his achievements as director of Native Education from
1924-1931?

4.5 THE JEANES SCHOOL MODEL/CONCEPT

The name was derived from Miss Anna T. Jeanes an American Quarker Philantropist. She
believed in the value of little schools for Negroes in the Southern States of USA. She gave
her fortune to their improvement. Part of the money was to be used to train: travelling or
visiting teachers. Travelling (visiting) teachers were supposed to be best trained teachers who
would demonstrate new methods and techniques of teaching various subjects. These teachers
were expected to discuss challenges visited teachers were facing so as to encourage and
inspire them to forge ahead. These visiting teachers were supposed to be role models and
demonstrators academically and professionally.

Impressed by the Jeanes school model, Lathan planned to have a Jeanes Training school in
Northern Rhodesia. The Advisory Board approved that plan and idea. In 1928, the Beit
Railway Bequest (Trust) made available a grant of 12,000 Pounds for the building of a Jeanes
and agricultural school in Mazabuka. This was accompanied by a maintenance fund of 1,000
Pounds P.a for subsequent four years.

John Fell became the Principal in January, 1929. Fell with the help of Frederick Hodgson
supervised the building of the Jeanes school, which opened on 3rd February, 1930.

These institutions –Jeanes school (now Mazabuka Basic School) and Agricultural schools
(now Zambia Institute for Animal Sciences-ZIAS), became the first government educational
institutions to open since 1906. Jeanes School enrolled 21 while Agricultural school had 14
pioneer students.

Carmody (2004:12) states that the main purpose of the Jeanes School was to train African
teachers to supervise village (rural) schools.

SUMMARY

This chapter looked at the Phelps-Stokes Commission, its recommendations and the British
Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa or Northern Rhodesia.

35
 1) What was the Phelps Stokes Commission? Discuss the main recommendations
of this commission

UNIT 5

5.0 FEDERAL EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA BETWEEN 1953-1963

INTRODUCTION:

In this unit you will be introduced to education system that existed during the federal period.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain the evolution of secondary education in Zambia

 Discuss the Addis Ababa Conference

 Discuss the search for human resource strategy

 Illustrate the difficulties of the Addis Ababa Conference

The ten year era is known as the Federation Period. The federation was an act of bringing
together Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Nyasa land
(Malawi). The major attraction point for this merger by Colonial Office was copper in
Northern Rhodesia.

Massive resources were taken from here to Salisbury (Harare) which was the Headquarters
for the Federation. Southern Rhodesia greatly developed from copper resources from here
including United Kingdom herself.

Capital projects built during this era included: Central African Airways, Central African
Power Corporation, a university and Kariba dam among them. Only mining in Northern
Rhodesia seem to have developed during 1953-1963 period. Agriculture at the same time was
the most affected in that prices fell due to preferences given to whites in Southern Rhodesia.

5.1EDUCATION

Education was racially structured. Northern Rhodesian government was responsible for
Africans while Federal government was responsible for whites and other races. Most of the

36
resources went to fund education for non-Africans. However, from 1956, the number of
secondary schools and trade institutes increased. One institute at that time that became a
major one was Hodgson Institute of Lusaka. Between 1952-1953, ideas to build a university
in Northern Rhodesia were turned down but preferred to open one in Southern Rhodesia
(University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland) in March 1957. This is the current
University of Zimbabwe.

The university through qualifications based on A-Levels did not help many Africans. No
teacher training college was built in Northern Rhodesia except for a few run by missionaries.
Unified African Teaching Service was put in place to look into the conditions of service for
the teachers. The few Africans who were exposed to education led to the development of the
African Elite. This group made nationalists movements. African National Congress (ANC),
Zambia African National Congress (ZANC) AND United National Independence Party
(UNIP).

After Ghana’s independence in 1957, the wind of change across Africa Nationalism became
the main stay especially in schools and places of work (industries) or urban centres.
Continued passive resistance against Federation by Africans led to its break up on 31st
December 1963.

5.2 THE ADDIS ABABA CONFERENCE 1961

The sponsors for this conference were UNESCO and Economic Commission for Africa. It
was held in Ethiopia Addis Ababa from 15th -25th May, 1961. The conference was for African
Ministers of education, as for resolution of the 11th Session of UNESCO General Assembly.

The purpose and aim of the 1961 Addis Ababa conference was to establish an inventory of
educational needs and make a programme to meet those needs in the coming years.

By the time of the conference, it was appreciated that many African countries had shown
good efforts in the provision of education to their citizens, and that many were in the process
of gaining their independence. The conference was significant in that it provided the first
occasion when the education progress, needs and problems of Middle Africa (Zambia
inclusive) were dealt with as a whole, with the drawing up of a regional plan of educational
development for the attainment of the objectives agreed on by the conference.

37
5.2.1 NEEDS IDENTIFIED

African countries were careful in aligning needs to educational progress and economic
development. They also recognized the role of skilled human resource. They maintained the
intra balance in education to reduce costs and to seek external aid.

Prominent needs included: finances, infrastructure, equipment, Learning and teaching

materials, text books, trained teachers, curriculum that would embrace technical, vocational
and girl education. Other areas included; expansion of higher and adult education
components.

Due to economic challenges the conference gave priority to:

b) Secondary education

c) Curriculum reform and

d) Teacher Training.

5.2.2 TARGETS SET

The Addis Ababa conference set targets for a long term plan as 1960-1980. While short term
plan was set as 1960-1965. Features of the long term plan included:

a) Primary education to be universal compulsory and free.

b) Education at the secondary level to be provided for 30% of the children completing
primary education course.

c) Higher education to be provided mostly in Africa itself, to 20% of those completing

secondary education.

5.2.3 SUCCESS OF THE CONFERENCE

a) It provided a Platform for regional approach to the educational challenges in Africa

b) Pooled ideas, visions, experiences, success and challenges became available for
sharing in the administration of the entire education sector.

c) The conference served as a bridge for cultural and academic work between French
and English speaking people (nations).

38
 d) It attracted attention from the developed world, to decide to give aid to African
nations to help them develop their education systems.

From this conference, African countries went to draw up their domestic educational plans to
meet the agreed upon regional plan or framework.

5.2.4 SHORT TERM PLANS

Primary education:

a) There was to be an annual increase of 5% of age groups entering primary school.

There should be an increase in enrolment from 40% -51%.

b) There was to be only 10% wastage each year during primary cycle and accumulative
wastage target of 41% for 6 years.

c) Distribution of teachers on the basis of qualifications was to be:

 Highly qualified secondary education and 3 years of professional learning.

 Adequately qualified (primary education and 4 years training)

It was noted that by the time of the conference most of the term of reference in short term
plans were already met by most countries.

5.3 THE SEARCH FOR A HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT (HRD)

STRATEGY

It is believed that people or human resource is the most important asset a country has. All
other resources such as financial, industrial, natural and other are secondary. This view is
backed by one of the development theories called Human Capital Theory. The theory
contends that educating and training people is productive investment with immeasurable
returns in terms of national development.

Therefore, the topic title under review mean that Zambia and other newly independent
nations needed good formulae to develop people’s potential to bring out needed varied skills
and competences. Developing nations generally had no adequate skilled people by the 1960s.
This was caused by inadequate schools for tertiary education such as colleges and
universities.

39
Other factors included: imbalance in status and payment between white collar and practical
jobs, no role models in self-employment (entrepreneurs) and self-made people.

Another theory that supports Human Resource Development is Modernization Theory. This
theory stresses the need to have educated people in order to upgrade or modernize the process
of national development. However, other people felt that development theories and their
strategies such as Human Resource Development were narrow in approach for they seem to
only look at economic development.

Areas over looked included: lifelong education, health, cultural, traditions, religions and
moral values, leisure and elimination of poverty. Critics argue that the Human Resource
Development was too much aligned to employment aspects. Education was seen as a tool of
development.

Arising from the aforesaid, Zambia like other developing countries embarked on an
ambitious human resource development programme. To do this Zambia had planning
sessions called Matero and Mulungushi Reforms. These reforms advocated for a speedy
Zambianisation programme, to replace whites with Zambians.

To this end the government was compelled to give Massive education which was free from
primary to University level. Additionally, the curriculum was tailored to producing workers
for all the emerging industries although white collar jobs seem to have been the major output
as opposed to practical oriented vocations such as farming, building and technical ones.

SUMMARY

This chapter looked at education between 1924-1953; in particular, it looked at the

development of Secondary Education in Zambia, the 1961 Addis Ababa Conference and the
search for human resource strategy.

ACTIVITY

1. Identify and discuss both the long term and short term recommendations of the 1961
Addis Ababa Conference on Education.

2. Discuss the provision of School education in Zambia during the Federal period of
1953-1963.

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 3. Critically discuss reasons that triggered the need for a search for human resource
strategies in Africa and Zambia in the 1960s.

UNIT 6

6.0 POST-INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION

INTRODUCTION:

The unit looks at the happenings in the education provision in the independent Zambia.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain the post-independence education provision

 Discuss the education system at different levels

 Analyze the education system in Zambia.

Post-independence refers to the period after 1964, when Zambia got her independence.
Therefore the topic makes an attempt to review the approach used to provide education to
citizens in Zambia, more so in the first ten years 964 – 1974.

The review will cover these levels: Primary, Secondary, Technical and Vocational and
University.

6.1 POLICY

At Independence in 1964, government policy was the accelerated facilities. Universal

Primary Education was to be compulsory, free and given to all citizens regardless of their
creed, colour and sex. Zambia advocated for multi-racial education system.

The government used the 1966 Education Act and the First National Development Plan to
execute its initial policy on education, during the republican formative years.

National Policy on education: through the First National Development Plan was very precise
on both Primary and Secondary levels. For instance, at Primary level, it set to:

(a) Provide sufficient places for primary education for every child aged seven in Zambia.

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 (b) Provide opportunities for all upper primary school children in urban schools.

(c) 75% of children in rural areas to complete a 7year primary course.

At Secondary School level, the projections were related to the economic needs of the country:

(a) To expand secondary schooling to provide the manpower in the numbers and with the
skills required for national development.

(b) To expand secondary school building programme already started to cater for most of
the pupils in this sector form 1-5, (now grade 8-12).

In short, Zambia’s educational policy at independence hinged on three principles:

(a) Provision of equal educational opportunities to all citizens.

(b) Development of an education system that must foster a sense of nationalism or

nationhood and promote national unity.

(c) Supply the much needed human resource in all sectors of the Zambian economy, by
developing relevant training programmes.

6.2 PRIMARY EDUCATION- 1964

At independence, government worked to provide non-racial as opposed to racially structured

education. The policy stressed quality, while practice stressed quantity to accommodate most
children. By 1970, many primary schools had been built, many 7 year old children had places
in schools, many teachers (primary) were re-trained and teacher training facilities were
expanded to produce more needed primary school teachers. Government made sure that by
1970, there were no racial schools in Zambia. Within the first ten (10) years, government also
spelt out the policy of universal primary education. This was meant to expand enrolments and
free compulsory education from grade 1-7.

By 1974, government had achieved a lot regarding the provision of education at Primary
level.

6.3 CHALLENGES

In spite of successes recorded there were also notable challenges which included the
following: Poor infrastructure (buildings), shortage of teachers’ accommodation. Poor

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conditions of service that led to major strikes e.g.: 1968, 1970, large classes, triple sessions,
made grade 7 repetition a visible gap in training between the old and young teachers as well
as high drop-out rates more so with girls at grades 4 and 7. This phenomenon seem to have
been more in rural than urban areas.

Other challenges for the primary sector within the first decade i.e. 1964-1974 included:

How to convince all stakeholders that primary education is terminal, medium of instruction in
terms of English versus local languages, how to enrich primary education to help those who
drop out at grade 7, what to do with the increasing number of grade 7 drop outs as well as the
widening gap between the number of Primary and Secondary schools. At the same time, from
1975 to date, Primary sector has continued to expand and scoring a lot of successes in spite of
persistent challenges of varied nature.

6.4 TRANSFORMATIONS

A lot of innovations have taken place in the Primary School sector since mid-1970’s. Many
primary schools have been built, many teachers trained as well, courses for both pupils and
teachers have been revised and changed from time to time e.g: Zambia Primary Course
(ZPC), to Zambia Basic Course (ZBEC), to Zambia Teacher Education Course (ZATEC)
which is being phased out for another course to be announced by MOE.

The term Primary is replaced with Basic. Basic education runs from grade1-9. Grade 1-4 is
lower basic, grade 5-7 is middle basic, and grade 8-9 is upper basic.

Government with partners such as churches, N.G.O, IMF, World Bank and many others have
continued to put their financial and human resources together to develop primary now basic
education.

6.5 TYPES OF SCHOOLS

In the Primary (basic) school sector, we have government, grant aided or (mission), Private
and Community Schools. All these types are coordinated through the MOE for: Uniformity of
the curriculum, quality control, monitoring and evaluation.

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6.6 TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

This is a specialized form of education where learners get practical skills and competences in
such areas as: Engineering, Mechanics, Building, Woodwork etc. This is done at technical
institutions such as Kabwe Trades, CBU and many other.

6.7 BEFORE INDEPENDENCE

In the quest to increase the supply of skilled African workers and to raise their quality of
labour, Northern Rhodesia decided in 1948 to put up many junior trade schools to give 3 year
practical courses in bricklaying and carpentry to supply labour to the construction industry.
The target group at that time was the post- standard 4 candidates.

This three year course was strenuous and practical. In a week, only one day was for
technology and academic subjects. Most of the time in a week was for practicals at sites.

The project to establish trade schools started in1950, with three schools built and ended in
1957 with a total of 21 schools built. Of this number, 10 were government while 11 were
mission-run. By this time (1957), entry qualifications to these schools were being upgraded
from standard 4 to 6.

What is important to note is that missionaries pioneered this form of education before
government came on board. For instance, in early 1920 five schools were set up at Kawimbe,
Sefula and Mbereshi. At this time, government efforts in this area seem to have been
concentrated at Munali Centre. Later on, government built Mwekera, Luanshya, Mufulira and
Kitwe trades training Centres. Later on only low performers joined these schools, the rest of
the graduates opted for white collar jobs, especially after independence.

6.8 AFTER INDEPENDENCE

At Independence, Technical and Vocational Training was grossly undervalued. This was due
to its low status coupled with racial discrimination.

To redress the situation, government responded to Saunders report of 1967 by implementing

key resolutions in the report: Abolish apprenticeship scheme, make full time pre-service
programmes, establish commission for Technical Education and Vocational Training 1968
which changed to TEVT in 1973.

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Secondary curriculum was reformed to cater for practical and science subjects. This led to
establishment of David Kaunda Secondary in 1969. Aim was for these schools to prepare
pupils for applied science jobs.

Within the first ten years after independence, racial barriers were cleared, NORTEC,ZIT,
Evelyn Hone College, Zambia Air Service Training Institute and many trades institutes per
district developed. In spite of these successes, there were challenges too. For instance,
shortage of trained instructors, low number of female students, inability to keep-up with rapid
changing technology, financial constraints to run these institutions etc.

It is important to note that the 1967 report by Mr W.A.B Saunders who was the principal of
Northern Alberta Institute of Technology- Canada, helped Zambian government in Policy
formulation, called: 1969 Statement of Policy and Intent. From the above policy, many
changes to improve technical and vocational education were done both in terms of the
curriculum and school infrastructure. It is hoped that current students will take keen interest
to find out subsequent developments in this area from the 1980s to date.

6.9 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

Idea to establish a University in Northern Rhodesia started as early as 1952 helped by the
Carr-Saunders Commission. But ideas not progress because Southern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland. However, the Tananarive UNESCO Conference of 1962 influence NR to conduct
a survey in March 1963 on the establishment of a University in Rhodesia, now Zambia.

In September, 1963 Sir Lockwood was tasked to lead the commission submitted its report in
December, 1963 and government adopt it in January 1964 for implementation.

6.9.1 LOCKWOOD RECOMMENDATIONS

The University was to operate on the philosophy that: The new University (UNZA) must be
responsive to the real needs of the country and must be an institution which will merit respect
and recognition throughout the academic world.

(a) The University was to be autonomous from the onset

(b) It was to admit students based on ‘O’ levels and not ‘A’ levels

45
 (c) The University should strive to merit the respect of the academic world both through
the intrinsic excellence of its course and through the evident quality and subsequent
performance of its graduates. Hence its motto: ‘Service and Excellence’

6.9.2 PROGRESSION

By mid-1964, Provincial University Committee was in place and University Act was enacted
in March 1966 at Ridgeway Campus, while lecturers started at current campus in March
1968.

Aim to give higher education that would facilitate national development by providing needed
skilled human resource in all facets of the Zambian economy. Government provided
university education free of charge but based on quality candidates. From inception to date
university education has gone through several fundamental developments, changes that are
well documented in many available sources such as national archives, books written by Kelly
and Carmody, MOE and many others.

By 1987/88 Coppebelt University was established at former ZIT Campus in Kitwe while a
third one came into being in 2005 as Mulungushi University in Kabwe. In addition, from
about 2000, many private universities have mushroomed.

6.9.3 CHALLENGES

Many challenges are associated with provision of university education. They include:
shortage of lecturers, adequate infrastructure, LTM, finances and support services: transport,
equipment, communication and changing technology. At implementation level, classroom or
teaching: a host of them exist too

SUMMARY

This chapter tried to look at Post Independence Education Provision at Primary, Secondary,
Technical and Vocational Training and University levels.

1. Outline and discuss the developments in tertiary education following the 1968
Saunders commission of inquiry.

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UNIT 7

7.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION

7.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION UPTO 1974 (FIRST TEN YEARS)

Introduction:

This unit further explores the provision between 1974 and 1986.

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain the development of education up to 1974

 Discuss the evolution of policies

 Analyze the concepts of each of the major policies

 Illustrate the recommendations of the policies.

7.1.1 BACKGROUND:

There was what was called the educational reform movement of the 1970, worldwide. These
were large scale innovations and reforms which aimed at reorganizing existing educational
structures and to modernize teaching content and methods.

The reform movement is believed to have been precipitated by external events. For instance
in the United Kingdom new society had been introduced by the second world war (1939-
1945), In USA, there was a shock in the 19505 at Russian ability to launch a spacecraft and in
Africa and in Asia there was felt impact at the end of colonialism.

Apart from the above the general causes, there were specific factors to the 19705 Education
Reform Movement in newly independent countries.

Among these factors were:

(i) In the 1960s stress was put on expansion of the education system and quantity.

(ii) National desires to come up with their own new and different programs and
institution.

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 (iii) The need for economic self-sufficiency: perceived to be tenable thrush massive
changes in school curriculum and out of school education/training network.

(iv) The need to give expression in schools to new national ideologies.

(v) Not citified without comes of the 19605 development decade – (disillusions)-
hence the need for something better.

(vi) Misgiving about education system, which was perceived to be: highly selective,
promoting individualism and elitism, credentialism, paper qualifications appearing
more important than knowledge/skills, too academic and irrelevant to the needs of
many promoting inequalities and alienation and undermining self-reliance.

7.1.2 PATTERN OF REFORMS

The general pattern of the reform movements was: Pressure from citizens for massive
change-decision by government to change (reforms) - rapid planning – large scale execution.

7.1.3 RESULTS OR OUTCOMES

These include; high public expectations plus overloaded of education bureaucracy, both
leading to (b) delays, unexpected outcomes, public disillusion, resistance; all these resulting
in (c) reforms being reduced in scale or reforms being swallowed up by traditional structures,
methods etc.

7.1.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REFORMS

They were ambitions in terms of time, energy, material resources Invested. Seldom with
pilot phase, many initiations such as mob planners, teachers, parents etc did not take part in
implementation phases, frequent failures, maintenance of status quo, external advisors from
aid agencies were rarely used and there was financial, human and infrastructure demand.

7.1.5 WHY REFORMS FAILED?

In spite of few successes here and there, on the whole the education reforms are considered to
have failed due to various reasons:

(a) Inadequate public, professional consensus and participation – especially exclusion of

teachers.

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 (b) Too ambitions. Requirement for their implementation (reforms), exceeded financial,
material, human resources available at that time – (Demand out stripped supply). Did
not pay much attention to economic, demographic and logistic factors.

(c) Ministry of Education has no capacity to implement reforms- it became overstretched

all round.

(d) Wrong strategies were used for instance; management strategies suitable for daily
routine tasks in stable environments (situations) were the ones applied to these
educational reforms and innovations!

(e) Implementations relied too much on political slogans, personal commitment and
voluntary service for a few people.

(f) Unfavorable or unstable political or economic environment.

(g) Resistance/opposition by elite groups.

(h) Concentration on individual elements of the reform instead of on the total package.

(i) Planning took centre stage at the expense of implementation and evolution. This led to
piece-meal executions that stressed quantity instead of quality.

(j) Ignored important aspects such as: population growth, health and girls education.

7.1.6MAJOR TRENDS/PATTERNS IN EDUCATIONAL REFORMS

General development in education depicts a consistent pattern. All of it i.e. development

sprung from ideas, criticisms and protest movement or groups. In short, the pattern can be
grouped into four major trends: Educational Reforms, Structural Trends Formations, radical
criticism and dissent.

Educational Reforms: This refers to reforming and reorganizing existing educational policies,
structures and modernizing teaching content, materials, equipment and methods. The purpose
here is to bring about felt positive changes on the socio-economic level in the country.

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7.1.7 STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION

These are aligned to revolution, political ideology and large scale movements that advocate
for social and political upheavals. The key stakeholders in this pattern of changing education
provision are the students themselves through unions and youth movements. For instance
Cuba and China are well known for this trend. The aim is to have an integration of education
and work and blending in of society in educational reforms. This is like militant approach to
changes of educational structures and systems.

RADICAL CRITICISM: This view or approach belongs to proponents such as; IVAN
ILLICH. This movement believes in the philosophy of de-institutionalizing education and de-
schooling society. Their argument is that education constitutes an independent variable in
each society and a direct faster in social contradiction. Management of education system
make it unable to meet citizens expectation. Instead the powers that be (political leadership)
uses education as an instrument of repressing, alienating and de-humanizing societies.

Ivan Illich wanted schools changed and suppressed and all institutions to be inverted –turned
upside down or reversed. This he believed would restore man’s freedom in the society and
enable him resume control of the institution and recover his initiative in education. Illich
believed that formed education had colluded (eaten, spoilt) and needed purification.
However, these ideas remained strange for they could not be aligned to any theory or school
of thought.

DISSENT: The fourth clarification of the reform trend or pattern is what is called the dissent
– (strong opposing views, protesting, rejecting stance) against what may have been put in
place by authorities or approved systems of governance. These opposition’s views usually
would come from users of educating themselves: students, philosophies, politicians,
educationalists and parents.

In the Federal period 1953-1963, there was two tier education system in the then Northern
Rhodesia (Zambia). There was European education which was the responsibility of the
Federal Government, with its headquarters in Salisbury now Harare in Zimbabwe. There was
also African education which was the responsibility of the territorial government in Lusaka.
European education was quantitatively and qualitatively superior to African education
because it was better funded and more adequately staffed.

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In 1964, the Zambian government priorities were to unify the two systems: ensure equality of
educational opportunity for all citizens and expand the unified school system at all levels.

To realize the above objectives, there was need to have a legal framework within which to
operate. Consequently, in 1966, the Education Act was legislated into law to guide all
educational enterprises in the country, from the late 1960s and beyond.

7.2 EVOLUTION OF POLICIES

The government realized that for education to succeed there should be direction and this
direction was to be seen in the creation of policies which were to be followed. The major
education documents include:

1. Education for development 1976. This document looked at how education was
to be used for development of the economy.

2. Proposals and Recommendations 1977. The main focus of this document was
to achieve socialism through humanism; the cornerstone of this political
philosophy is state control of all commanding heights of the economy and
state provision of all goods and social services to the citizens, including
education. The 1977 education reforms aimed at doing the following:

a) Diversifying the curriculum

b) Combining school with work

c) Providing ten year basic education and

d) Giving only a limited opportunity to private involvement in the provision

of education.

3) ERIP REPORT 1986 (Educational Reforms Implementation Project) The ERIP

Report was published in the wake of Zambia’s break with the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) on 1st May, 1987. As a consequence to Zambia’s economic
break with IMF, and in the light of funding of the ERIP report, Education Policy
shifted to or it led to the next policy document

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SUMMARY

This chapter looked at the development of education up to 1974. Also, it looked at the
evolution of policies and what led to the evolution of these policies. In particular, it looked at
Education for Development 1976, Proposals and Recommendations 1977 and the ERIP report
of 1986.

1) Examine and discuss the reasons that led to the need to change or introduce
education reforms in Zambia in the 1970s.

UNIT 8

8.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION POLICIES

8.1 Focus on Learning 1992.

The general objectives of this document were as follows;

a) Ensure that the focus in all schools is on learning

b) To expand and rehabilitate existing schools and equip schools with books and
other kinds of educational materials.

c) To transform the secondary selection examination so that it could serve truly

educational objectives

d) Improve teacher education

e) Motivate teachers

f) Enhance monitoring of quality education

g) Create conditions for effective coordination of policies, plans and programmes

h) Strengthen school heads

i) Bias with Special Education Needs Education

8.2 EDUCATING OUR FUTURE

The focus in Educating Our Future was:

a) 9 years of basic education

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 b) To decentralize education

c) Increase access

d) Provide quality education

e) Resource mobilization

f) To produce a learner fully developed school system both in its theoretical

and practical areas

g) Increase access to education and life skills training.

8.3 BASIC EDUCATION SUB-SECTOR INVESTMENT PROGRAMME (BESSIP)

BESSIP was initiated by the MOE in 1999 in collaboration with its development partners to
provide a variety of funding and technical support mechanisms to basic education.

The strength of BESSIP is that it tackled the immediate issue of access and equity in basic
education from grades 1-7 and developed a model for Zambian ownership and more
effective, co-coordinated support from international development agencies.

8.4 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION STRATEGIC PLAN (2003-2007)

The main priorities were:

i. To improve access to basic education (grades 1-9) in terms of equity and gender.

ii. To improve quality and efficiency in high school and tertiary education.

iii. Effective decentralization of decision-making, procurement and financial

management to districts and schools.

iv. Management or mitigation of the impact of HIV and AIDS. The strategic plan is a
document which improves on how to administer education in Zambia.

8.5 THE VISION 2030

a) The vision 2030 is basically looking at how Zambia should move out of being a
middle class country.

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 b) In addition to this, all the National Development Plans have something to do with
education and the components are prepared by MOE. These give an analysis of the
education system; they also give proposals or suggestions for the future
developments. As they do this, they are trying to promote policies.

1) Discuss the strategic plan of the Ministry of Education (2003-2007)

SUMMARY

This chapter mainly dwelt on the Education Policies and what emphasis was made in each of
the following policies: Education for All, Jomtein Conference, Focus on Learning 1992,
Educating our Future, 1996, Millennium Development Goals, Basic Education Sub-sector
Investment Programme (BESSIP), Ministry of Education Strategic Plan 2003- 2007, Fifth
National Development Plan (FNDP) and Vision 2030.

REFERENCES

1. Carmody, B (2004), The Evolution of Education in Zambia. Lusaka. Book

world.

2. Farrant, J.S (1980), Principles and Practice of Education. London. Long-man

3. Kelly M. J. (1999), The Origins and Development of Education in Zambia:

From Pre-Colonial Times to 1996. Lusaka. Image Publishers Limited.

4. MOE (1996), Educating Our Future. Lusaka: Zambia Publishing House.

5. MOE (1992), Focus on Learning. Lusaka. Zambia Publishing House.

6. Mwanakatwe, J. (1968), The Growth and Development of Education in Zambia

Since Independence: Oxford University Press.

7. Snelson, P. (1990) Educational Development in Northern Rhodesia 1883-1945:

Lusaka. Kenneth Kaunda Foundation.

8. Scanlon D, G. (ed) (1964), Traditions of African Education. Columbia: William

Bryd Press.

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 9. Tiberondwa A, K. (1989), Missionary Teachers as Agents of Colonialism: A
Study of their Activities in Uganda, 1877-1925. Lusaka. Kenneth Kaunda Foundation

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